Chapter

7
Polygons

Contents: A Polygons
B Triangles
C Quadrilaterals
D Euler’s rule for plane figures
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128 POLYGONS (Chapter 7)

OPENING PROBLEM
125 m B
There are four posts at the corners
A
A, B, C and D of a paddock. In
110°
the middle is a raised mound, which
97 m
means we cannot measure directly
113 m
from A to C. However, the distances between the
posts are easily measured and are shown on the
figure. C
D 84 m
The angle at A is measured to be 110o . rough figure

How can we find the distance from A to C to reasonable accuracy? Explain your answer.

A POLYGONS
A polygon is a straight-sided closed figure that does not cross A closed figure
itself and can only be drawn on a plane surface. has no gaps in it.

Here are some examples of polygons:

triangle quadrilateral pentagon hexagon

3 sides 4 sides 5 sides 6 sides

heptagon octagon nonagon decagon dodecagon

7 sides 8 sides 9 sides 10 sides 12 sides

An n-sided polygon is sometimes called an n-gon.

So, an 8-sided polygon may be called an 8-gon or an octagon.

n stands for the

number of sides.
 POLYGONS (Chapter 7) 129

Equal sides are

A regular polygon is a polygon with all sides shown by using the
the same length and all angles the same size. same small markings.
Equal angles are
shown by using the
The polygons below are marked to show that they are regular: same symbols.

equilateral square regular regular

triangle pentagon hexagon
3 equal sides 4 equal sides 5 equal sides 6 equal sides
3 equal angles 4 equal angles 5 equal angles 6 equal angles

If a polygon is not regular, we say it is irregular.

EXERCISE 7A
1 Give one reason why these are not polygons:
a b c

2 Which of the following are regular polygons?

Angles marked
a b c with the same
symbol ² are
equal in size.

3 Name these polygons:

a b c d

e f g h
 130 POLYGONS (Chapter 7)

i j k l

4 Draw an example of:

a a quadrilateral b an equilateral triangle c a hexagon
d a decagon e a regular pentagon f an octagon
5 Draw and name polygons with the following descriptions:
a six equal sides and six equal angles b three equal sides
c five equal sides, but with unequal angles
6 Using a ruler and protractor, classify the following as either regular or irregular polygons:
a b c

d e f

B TRIANGLES
A triangle is a three-sided polygon.

There are 3 types of triangles which can be classified according to the number of sides which
are equal in length. These are:

² scalene where the 3 sides all have different lengths

² isosceles where 2 sides have the same length

² equilateral where all 3 sides have the same length.

Notice that an equilateral triangle is also isosceles.

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 POLYGONS (Chapter 7) 131

CONSTRUCTING A TRIANGLE VIDEO CLIP

To accurately construct a triangle, we need a ruler and

a geometric compass. The radius of a compass is
the distance from the sharp point to the tip of your
pencil. Construct a triangle with sides 4 cm, 3 cm
and 2 cm long. radius

Step 1: Draw a line segment the length of one of 4 cm

the sides. It is often best to choose the
A B
longest side. We will call the line segment
[AB] and use it as the base of the triangle.
Step 2: Open your compass to a radius equal to
the length of one of the other sides. Using 2 cm
this radius draw an arc from one end A of
the base line.
A 4 cm B

Step 3: Now open the compass to a radius equal to 3 cm

the length of the other side. Draw another
arc from B to intersect the first arc.
A 4 cm B

Step 4: The point of intersection of the two arcs

is the third vertex C of triangle ABC. C
Construct line segments [AC] and [BC] 2 cm 3 cm
to complete the triangle.

A 4 cm B

EXERCISE 7B.1
1 Accurately construct a triangle with sides:
a 4 cm, 5 cm and 6 cm b 3 cm, 6 cm and 7 cm.
2 Draw [AB] of length 5 cm.
C
Set the compass points 5 cm apart. With centre A, draw
an arc of a circle above [AB].
With centre B draw an arc to intersect the other one.
Let C be the point where these arcs meet. Join [AC] and 5 cm 5 cm
[BC].
a What type of triangle is ABC? Explain your answer.
A 5 cm B
b Measure angles ABC, BCA, CAB using a protractor.
c Copy and complete: “All angles of an equilateral triangle measure .......o ”
132 POLYGONS (Chapter 7)

3 Obtain a clean sheet of Keep the triangular piece of paper.

paper and fold it down When you unfold it, you should obtain
the middle. Draw a the triangle ABC shown.
straight line [AB] as A
shown. Then with the A
two sheets pressed
tightly together, cut
along [AB] through C B
both sheets. B fold line
a Explain why triangle ABC is isosceles.
b Explain why the angles opposite the equal sides are equal in size.
You should not have to use a ruler and protractor.

4 Accurately construct these triangles using a protractor, compass and ruler:

a b c
22 mm

55° 28 mm 115°
32 mm
53 mm
60° 45°
52 mm

TRIANGLE PROPERTIES

From Chapter 3 and Exercise 7B.1 you should have discovered that:

In any triangle the sum of All angles of an equilateral The angles opposite the
the angles is 180o : triangle measure 60o . equal sides of an isosceles
triangle are equal.

60°
b° a°

a° c° 60° 60° b°

a + b + c = 180 a=b

Example 1 Self Tutor

Find the value of the a b
unknown in each
figure: 42°

x° y°
 POLYGONS (Chapter 7) 133

a Since two sides of the triangle are equal, the triangle

is isosceles. The angles opposite the equal sides
must be equal in size.
42° So, this angle is xo as well.
But x + x + 42 = 180 fangle sum of ¢g
x°
) x + x = 138 fas 138 + 42 = 180g
) x = 69 fas 69 + 69 = 138g
b All angles of an equilateral triangle measure 60o ) y = 60.

EXERCISE 7B.2
1 Measure the length of the sides of the triangles and use these measurements to classify
each as equilateral, isosceles or scalene:
a b c d

2 Find the unknowns in the following which are not drawn to scale:
a b c
4 cm
x° 70°

y°
38° x° x cm

d e f
67° x°

x° 4 cm

48° 60° 60°

x cm
g h i
x° 4 cm 45°

40°
(x+20)° 70° p°
y cm

j k l

124° x° y° x° y° x°

40° 68°
134 POLYGONS (Chapter 7)

INVESTIGATION 1 THE ANGLES OF REGULAR POLYGONS

What to do:

1 Six equilateral triangles are cut out and laid down to

form a regular hexagon. Explain using this figure why:
² the angles of an equilateral triangle are 60o
² the angles of a regular hexagon are 120o .
4 cm
2 Make eight isosceles triangles like the one illustrated.
45°
Put them together to form a regular octagon. What is
the size of an angle of a regular octagon?

3 What size should x be so that five triangles like the one 4 cm

shown can be put together to form a regular pentagon?
x°
What is the size of an angle of a regular pentagon?

C QUADRILATERALS

A quadrilateral is a polygon with four sides.

There are six special quadrilaterals:

² A parallelogram is a quadrilateral which has opposite sides parallel.
² A rectangle is a parallelogram with four equal angles of 90o .
² A rhombus is a quadrilateral in which all sides are equal.
² A square is a rhombus with four equal angles of 90o .
² A trapezium is a quadrilateral which has a pair of opposite sides parallel.
² A kite is a quadrilateral which has two pairs of adjacent sides equal.

parallelogram rectangle rhombus

Parallel lines are
shown using
arrow heads

or

square trapezium kite

 POLYGONS (Chapter 7) 135

A diagonal of a quadrilateral is a
straight line segment which joins a
pair of opposite vertices. a diagonal

INVESTIGATION 2 PROPERTIES OF QUADRILATERALS

What to do:
PRINTABLE
1 Print the worksheets obtained by clicking on the icon. WORKSHEETS

2 For each parallelogram:

a measure the lengths of opposite sides and record them
b measure the sizes of opposite angles and record them
c draw the diagonals and measure the distances from each vertex to the point of
intersection. Record your results.
3 For each rectangle:
a measure the lengths of the opposite sides and record them
b measure the lengths of the diagonals and record them.
c Copy and complete: The rectangle is the only parallelogram with diagonals
that are: .......... .
4 For each rhombus:
a check that opposite sides are parallel
b measure the sizes of opposite angles and record them
c draw the diagonals and measure the distances from each vertex to the point of
intersection. Record your results.
d At what angle do the diagonals intersect?
e Fold each rhombus along each diagonal. What do you notice about the angles
formed?
5 For each square:
a check that opposite sides are parallel
b Fold each square along each diagonal. What do you notice about the angle
where the diagonals intersect.
c What else do you notice about the diagonals?
6 For the kite:
a measure its opposite angles and record them
b Fold each kite about its diagonals and after taking measurements record any
observations.
136 POLYGONS (Chapter 7)

From the investigation, you should have discovered these properties of special quadrilaterals:
Parallelogram
² opposite sides are equal
² opposite angles are equal
² diagonals bisect each other
(divide each other in half).
Rectangle
² opposite sides are equal in length
² diagonals are equal in length
² diagonals bisect each other.
Rhombus
² opposite sides are parallel
² opposite angles are equal in size
² diagonals bisect each other at right angles
² diagonals bisect the angles at each vertex.
Square
² opposite sides are parallel
² diagonals bisect each other at right angles
² diagonals bisect the angles at each vertex.
Kite
² one pair of opposite angles is equal in size
² diagonals cut each other at right angles
P
² diagonals bisect one pair of angles at the vertices P

PARALLEL AND PERPENDICULAR LINES

In the figure we notice that [AB] is parallel to [DC]. A B
We write this as [AB] k [DC].
[AD] is at right angles or perpendicular to [DC].
We write this as [AD] ? [DC].
D C

k reads is parallel to. ? reads is perpendicular to.

EXERCISE 7C.1
1 Draw a fully labelled sketch of:
a a parallelogram b a rhombus c a kite.

2 There are 3 special parallelograms. Name each of them.

 POLYGONS (Chapter 7) 137

3 Use a ruler to help classify the following:

a b c

d e f

4 True or false?
a A parallelogram is a quadrilateral which has opposite sides parallel.
b A rectangle is a parallelogram with four equal angles of 90o .
c A rhombus is a quadrilateral in which all sides are equal.
d A square is a rhombus with four equal angles of 90o .
e A trapezium is a quadrilateral which has a pair of opposite sides parallel.
f A kite is a quadrilateral which has two pairs of adjacent sides equal.
g A quadrilateral with one pair of opposite angles equal is a kite.
h The diagonals of a rhombus bisect each other at right angles and bisect the angles
of the rhombus.

5 Using k and ?, write statements about the following figures:

a b c
P A B H I

Q R D C K J
d e f
P Q
K L W X

N M S R Z Y

6 Draw the figures from these instructions. A freehand labelled sketch is needed in each
case.
a [AB] is 4 cm long. [BC] is 3 cm long. [AB] ? [BC].
b [PQ] is 5 cm long. [RS] is 4 cm long. [RS] k [PQ] and [RS] is 3 cm from [PQ].
c ABCD is a quadrilateral in which [BC] k [AD] and [AB] ? [AD].
d ABCD is a quadrilateral where [AB] k [DC] and [AD] k [BC] and [AB] ? [BC].
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138 POLYGONS (Chapter 7)

7 Find the values of the variables in these figures:

a b c
z cm
x°
y°
3 cm x cm 25°
y° 120°
x° 1 cm

d e f
xm
x°
5m 33°
ym
y° x°
7.2 m

CONSTRUCTING QUADRILATERALS
A set square and a ruler can be used to construct parallel lines. DEMO

To do this, we slide the set square along the ruler.

For example:
² parallel lines ² original line parallel line
through point A

ruler

Here we see how to draw a parallel line

through point A not on the original line.

Example 2 Self Tutor

[AB] is a line segment which is 4 cm long. Accurately construct a parallel line which
is 2 cm from [AB].

required line Step 1: Use a ruler to draw [AB] exactly 4

cm long.
Y
Step 2: Through a point X on [AB], use a
set square to draw a line which is
2 cm perpendicular to [AB].
Step 3: Mark point Y on the perpendicular
A
X
B 2 cm from X.
4 cm
Step 4: We replace the set square and use a ruler to slide it along to Y. We then
construct a line through Y (parallel to [AB].)
 POLYGONS (Chapter 7) 139

EXERCISE 7C.2
1 [AB] is 5 cm long. Construct [CD] parallel to [AB] and 25 mm from it.

2 C a Use a ruler and protractor to reproduce the

given figure.
b By sliding a set square, construct through A
3.5 cm a line parallel to [BC].
c Through C, construct a line parallel to [BA].
66°
d If the lines from b to c meet at D, what type
B A
3.5 cm of quadrilateral is ABCD?
e What is the length of [AC] to the nearest
mm?

3 C a Reproduce the given figure using a ruler and

protractor.
4 cm b Construct a parallelogram ABCD.
c Find the lengths of the diagonals [AC] and
80° [BD] to the nearest mm.
B A
6 cm

4 a Accurately construct a trapezium ABCD with 25 mm

C D
the dimensions shown.
b Use your protractor to find the measure of 2 cm
angle ADC to the nearest degree.
c Find the length of [AD] to the nearest mm. B 4 cm A

5 Construct these quadrilaterals:

a 45 mm b
A B 35 mm S
P
110°
30 mm 40 mm 20 mm

D 85°
40 mm C Q R
40 mm
Hence find the lengths of [DB] and [RS].

6 Construct these quadrilaterals using only a ruler and compass:

a b c
35 mm
30 mm 42 mm 25 mm
43 mm
60 mm
28 mm 45 mm
40 mm 28 mm
40 mm
42 mm
 140 POLYGONS (Chapter 7)

D EULER’S RULE FOR PLANE FIGURES

B
The figure alongside consists of 4 vertices:
A, B, C and D.
A C
It has 5 edges connecting the vertices: B
[AB], [BC], [AC], [AD], and [CD]. 3
1
The edges divide the plane into 3 regions: D A C
inside triangle ABC, inside triangle ACD, 2
and outside quadrilateral ABCD.
D

INVESTIGATION 3 VERTICES, EDGES AND REGIONS

In this investigation we seek a connection between the number of vertices,
edges, and regions of any figure drawn in a plane.
For example, this figure has 5 vertices, 3 regions, and 6 edges.
Outside the figure counts as 1 region.
What to do:
1 Consider the following figures:
a b c d

Copy and complete the following table. e to h are for four diagrams of plane figures
like those above, but of your choice.
Figure Vertices (V ) Regions (R) Edges (E) V +R¡2
Given example 5 3 6 6
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h

2 Suggest a relationship or rule between V , R and E.

EULER’S RULE
From the previous Investigation you should have discovered Euler’s Rule:

In any closed figure, the number of edges is always two less than the sum of the numbers
of vertices and regions. E = V + R ¡ 2.
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 POLYGONS (Chapter 7) 141

EXERCISE 7D
1 Using Euler’s Rule, determine the number of:
a edges for a figure with 5 vertices and 4 regions
b edges for a figure with 6 vertices and 5 regions
c vertices for a figure with 7 edges and 3 regions
d vertices for a figure with 9 edges and 4 regions
e regions for a figure with 10 edges and 8 vertices
f regions for a figure with 12 edges and 7 vertices.
2 Draw a possible figure for each of the cases in 1.
3 Draw two different figures which have 5 vertices and 7 edges.
4 Salvi has just drawn a plane figure. He says that the number of edges is 12, the number
of vertices is 9, and the number of regions is 6. Can you draw Salvi’s figure?

ACTIVITY 1 IDENTIFYING SHAPES

Look at the following photograph of a building.

What to do:
1 Make a list of all the different shapes you can see in the photograph.
2 Write sentences to describe where you see
a parallel lines b perpendicular lines.

ACTIVITY 2 ISLAMIC ART

Alongside is an example of Islamic art:

What to do:
1 Collect pictures of Islamic art from magazines,
books or from the internet.
2 List shapes used in the designs.
142 POLYGONS (Chapter 7)

KEY WORDS USED IN THIS CHAPTER

² diagonal ² edge ² equilateral triangle
² Euler’s rule ² hexagon ² irregular polygon
² isosceles triangle ² kite ² octagon
² parallel lines ² parallelogram ² pentagon
² perpendicular lines ² polygon ² quadrilateral
² rectangle ² region ² regular polygon
² rhombus ² scalene triangle ² square
² trapezium ² vertex

PROTECTING YOURSELF, THE OLD

LINKS FASHIONED WAY
click here
Areas of interaction:
Human ingenuity

REVIEW SET 7A
1 Name the following polygons:
a b c

2 Draw the following polygons:

a isosceles triangle b regular hexagon c rhombus
3 Using a ruler and protractor, classify the following shapes as regular or irregular
polygons:
a b

4 Using a compass and ruler only, construct a triangle with sides of length 3 cm, 4 cm
and 6 cm.
A
5 Using a protractor and ruler, accurately
construct a triangle with the measurements
shown:
30 mm C
What is the length of [AC]?
96°
52 mm
B
 POLYGONS (Chapter 7) 143

6 Classify the following triangles by measuring their sides:

a b

7 Draw a fully labelled sketch of a rectangle.

8 Find the values of the variables in these figures:
a b
b° 3 cm
4m xm 72° d cm
c°
50° a°
rectangle

9 Construct a rectangle PQRS where [PQ] is 5 cm, [QR] is 3 cm, and [PQ] ? [QR].
10 Using a compass, protractor and ruler, 38 mm R
Q
accurately construct a quadrilateral with
the measurements shown.
28 mm 35 mm
Now measure the length of [RT] to the
nearest mm.
80°
T S
49 mm

11 Use Euler’s rule E = V + R ¡ 2 to determine the number of:

a edges in a plane figure with 11 vertices and 5 regions
b regions in a plane figure with 9 vertices and 17 edges.

REVIEW SET 7B
1 Name the following polygons:
a b c

2 Draw and name polygons with the following descriptions:

a five equal sides and five equal angles
b four equal sides and opposite angles equal.

3 Using a compass and ruler only, construct an isosceles triangle with base length 5
cm and equal sides 4 cm.
 144 POLYGONS (Chapter 7)

4 Using a protractor, compass and ruler,

accurately construct a triangle with the 53 mm
measurements shown.
105°

46 mm

5 Classify the following triangles by measuring their sides:

a b

6 Find the variables in the following which are not drawn to scale:
a x cm b
58°

(x¡+¡10)°
3 cm
y°

7 Use a ruler to help classify the following:

a b

8 Find the values of the variables in these figures:

a b
42°
2m cm y°
x°
b°
a°

48 mm
9 Using a compass and ruler only, make
an accurately constructed quadrilateral with
32 mm 40 mm
measurements as shown: 32 mm

48 mm

10 Use Euler’s rule E = V + R ¡ 2 to determine the number of:

a vertices if there are 7 regions and 14 edges
b regions if there are 12 edges and 8 vertices.
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 Chapter
8
Fraction
operations

Contents: A Adding fractions

B Subtracting fractions
C Multiplying fractions
D Reciprocals
E Dividing fractions
F Problem solving
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