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CHAPTER 02
Atomic Structure
Short Questions
Q.1. What is the importance of Bohr’s atomic model in modern atomic structure? (Exercise Question 2
Part (i))
Answer: Importance of Bohr’s atomic model:
• It clarified the picture of the atom.
• It was the first approach to quantized energy level.
• It helps to calculate the radius of the hydrogen atom and the energy of an electron.
• It explained the hydrogen emission spectrum.
Q.2. Explain the charge and mass of fundamental sub-atomic particles. (Exercise Question 2 Part (ii))
Answer: There are three fundamental particles i.e. proton, electron and neutron. The charge and mass are
summarized below.
Sub-atomic particle Mass (in Kg) Relative Mass Charge (in C) Relative Charge
Proton 1.672 x 10-27 1 1.602 x 10-19 +1
Neutron 1.675 x 10-27 1 0 0
1
Electron 9.109 x 10-31 1.602 x 10-19 -1
1836
Q. 3. What is the behaviour of electrons, protons and neutron in an electric field?
Answer:
• Electron in an electric field:
It is negatively charged and moves in the direction of the electric
field towards the positive pole
• Proton in an electric field:
It is positively charged and moves in the direction of the electric
field towards the negative pole.
• Neutron in an electric field:

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It is neutral and continues along its path with minimal deflection in an electric field.
Q.4. What is meant by Atomic Number and Mass Number?
Atomic Number: The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom. The number of protons is equal to the
number of electrons in a neutral atom. The atomic number is represented by Z.
Mass Number or Nucleon Number: The total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus. It is represented
by A.
Simple representation of atomic mass and mass number of elements in periodic table is

Q.5. How can you calculate the Mass Number, number of electrons, protons and neutrons?
Calculation of Mass Number:
Atomic Mass (A) = Atomic Number (Z) + Number of Neutrons (N)
A=Z+N
Calculation of number of neutrons:
Number of neutrons (N) = Atomic Mass (A) - Atomic Number (Z)
Calculation of number of protons:
Number of protons = Atomic Number = Number of electrons
Calculation of number of electrons:
In neutral atoms:
Number of electrons = Number of protons = Atomic Number
In a cation:
Number of electrons = Atomic Number – Magnitude of charge on cation
In an anion:
Number of electrons = Atomic Number + Magnitude of charge on an anion

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Q.6. How many electrons are present in the following species: Mg+2, Al+3, S-2?
Mg+2 Al+3
Number of electrons in Mg+2 =? +3
Number of electrons in Al = ?
Atomic Number of Mg+2 = 12 Atomic Number of Al+3 = 13
The magnitude of charge on Mg+2 = 2 The magnitude of charge on Al+3 = 3
Formula: Formula:
Number of electrons in Mg+2 = Atomic Number Number of electrons in Al+3 = Atomic Number of
of Mg+2 - Magnitude of charge on Mg+2 Al+3 - Magnitude of charge on Al+3
Number of electrons in Mg+2 = 12 – 2 Number of electrons in Al+3 = 13 – 3
Number of electrons in Mg+2 = 10 electrons Number of electrons in Al+3 = 10 electrons

S-2
Number of electrons in S-2 =?
Atomic Number of S-2 = 16
The magnitude of the charge on S-2 = 2
Formula:
Number of electrons in S-2 = Atomic Number of S-2 + Magnitude of charge on S-2
Number of electrons in S-2 = 16 + 2
Number of electrons in S-2 = 18 electrons
Q. 7. Find the number of electrons, protons and neutrons of the atomic numbers of Mg+2.
Mg+2
Number of electrons in Mg+2 = ?
Number of protons in Mg+2 = ?
Number of neutrons in Mg+2 = ?
Atomic Number of Mg+2 = 12
Mass Number of Mg+2 = 24
Magnitude of charge on Mg+2 = 2
Number of protons in Mg+2:
Number of protons = Atomic Number = 12 protons
Number of electrons in Mg+2:
Number of electrons in Mg+2 = Atomic Number of Mg+2 - Magnitude of charge on Mg+2 Number of electrons
in Mg+2= 12 - 2
Number of electrons in Mg+2 = 10 electrons

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Number of neutrons in Mg+2:
Number of neutrons = Atomic Mass (A) - Atomic Number (Z)
Number of neutrons = 24 – 12
Number of neutrons = 12 neutrons
Q. 8. Find the number of electrons, protons and neutrons of the atomic numbers of Cl-1?
Cl-1
Number of electrons in Cl-1 = ?
Number of protons in Cl-1 = ?
Number of neutrons in Cl-1 = ?
Atomic Number of Cl-1 = 17
Mass Number of Cl-1 = 35 (Common isotope)
The magnitude of charge on Cl-1 = 1
Number of protons in Cl-1:
Number of protons = Atomic Number = 17 protons
Number of electrons in Cl-1:
Number of electrons in Cl-1 = Atomic Number of Cl-1 + Magnitude of charge on Cl-1
Number of electrons in Cl-1 = 17 + 1
Number of electrons in Cl-1 = 18 electrons
Number of neutrons in Cl-1:
Number of neutrons = Atomic Mass (A) - Atomic Number (Z)
Number of neutrons = 35 – 17
Number of neutrons = 18 neutrons
Q. 9. Find the number of electrons, protons and neutrons of the atomic numbers of Al+3?
Number of electrons in Al+3= ?
Number of protons in Al+3 = ?
Number of neutrons in Al+3 = ?
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Atomic Number of Al+3 = 13
Mass Number of Al+3 = 27
Magnitude of charge on Al+3 = 3
Number of protons in Al+3 :
Number of protons = Atomic Number = 13 protons
Number of electrons in Al+3:
Number of electrons in Al+3 = Atomic Number of Al+3 - Magnitude of charge on Al+3
Number of electrons in Al+3 = 13 - 3
Number of electrons in Al+3 = 10 electrons
Number of neutrons in Al+3:
Number of neutrons = Atomic Mass (A) - Atomic Number (Z)
Number of neutrons = 27 – 13
Number of neutrons = 14 neutrons
Q. 10. Find the number of electrons, protons and neutrons of the atomic numbers of S-2.
S-2
Number of electrons in S-2 =?
Number of protons in S-2 =?
Number of neutrons in S-2 =?
Atomic Number of S-2 = 16
Mass Number of S-2 = 32 (Common isotope)
Magnitude of charge on S-2 = 1
Number of protons in S-2:
Number of protons = Atomic Number = 16 protons
Number of electrons in S-2:
Number of electrons in S-2 = Atomic Number of S-2 + Magnitude of charge on S-2
Number of electrons in S-2 = 16 + 2
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Number of electrons in S-2 = 18 electrons
Number of neutrons in S-2:
Number of neutrons = Atomic Mass (A) - Atomic Number (Z)
Number of neutrons = 32 – 16
Number of neutrons = 16 neutrons
Q. 11. Explain the periodic trends of the atomic radius with justifications. (Exercise Question 2 Part (iii) )
Periodic Trends in Atomic Radius:
Across the periods:
In periods, from left to right in main groups the atomic and ionic radius decrease as the nuclear charge increases
and the shielding effect remains constant. However, in transition metal series as the electrons are configured in
the inner shell d-orbitals.
• Ionic Radius in Periods:
The charge on an ion changes from left to right, if the same charge is considered, then atomic size
decreases as that of atomic radii.
Along the groups:
In a group, from top to bottom, the atomic radius increases universally in the whole periodic table. This is due
to increasing number of shells, one in each period and the shielding effect increases due to intervening
electrons.
Q. 12. Why is the cation always smaller than the parent atom, and the anion is bigger than the parent
atom?
Answer: The size of the cation is smaller than its parent atom:
The size of a cation is smaller than its parent atom because when an atom loses electrons to form a cation, it
reduces the number of electrons, leading to less electron-electron repulsion. This allows the remaining electrons
to be pulled closer to the nucleus. Additionally, the same number of protons in the nucleus exerts a stronger pull
(Effective Nuclear Charge) on the fewer remaining electrons, further reducing the size of the ion compared to
the original atom.
Q. 13. Why is the cation always smaller than the parent atom, and the anion is bigger than the parent
atom?
Answer: The size of an anion is larger than its parent atom:

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The size of an anion is larger than its parent atom because when an atom gains one or more electrons to form an
anion, the addition of these extra electrons increases electron-electron repulsion. The repulsion pushes the
electrons further apart, causing the electron cloud to expand. Additionally, the added electrons do not increase
the nuclear charge, so the effective nuclear charge experienced by each electron decreases.
Q. 14. What are quantum numbers? How they tell us about the position of an electron in an atom?
Answer: Quantum Numbers:
“The sets of numerical values which give the acceptable picture of an atom”
There are four set of quantum numbers:
a) Principal Quantum Number (n) b) Azimuthal Quantum Number (l)
c) Magnetic Quantum Number (m) d) Spin Quantum Number (s)
Quantum Numbers and Electronic Configuration:
.A complete electronic configuration is the representation of quantum numbers as mentioned below

Q. 15. What is meant by spin quantum number?

Answer: Spin Quantum Number (s)
It describes the spin of an electron. Goudsmit in 1925 proved electron also spins about its axis,it maybe called
self-rotation and it causes spin magnetic field around it. To resides in one orbital two electrons must cancel spin
magnetic field of each other, so, they must have opposite spins.
➢ Clockwise spin is represented by +1/2 and symbolized by ↾.
➢ Anti-clockwise spin is represented by -1/2 and symbolized by ⇂.
Q.16. What is meant by magnetic quantum number?
Answer: Magnetic Quantum Number (m):
It is also called an orientation quantum number and is represented by m. The splitting of the fine spectral lines
under the influence of a magnetic field can be explained on the basis of magnetic quantum number. It tells us
the number of different ways in which a given s,p,d, f subshell can be arranged along x, y, and z-axes in the
presence of a magnetic field. Its possible values are m = -l to +l
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m = ……….-3, -2, -1, 0, +1, +2, +3 …………
For s-orbital, the value of l is equal to zero so it has only one value of magnetic quantum number.
Q.17. Draw the shape of d-orbitals.
Answer: The shape of the d-orbital:
The orbitals are cloverleaf shape, double dumb-bell shape or sausage shape.

Q.18. What is meant by a free radical?

Free Radical:
“An atom or molecule with an unpaired electron in its outer shell”
• It is a very short-lived, neutral, highly unstable and very reactive species.
• It has one unpaired which makes it paramagnetic in nature.
• Its electronic configuration is the same as that of atoms.
• Example,
• Stability order: 3o > 2o > 1o
Q.19. Explain the role of the principal quantum number (n) in describing the energy levels of electrons
within an atom.
Answer: The higher the value of n, the higher will be the energy of the electron and space around the nucleus.
The relationship between Energy and principal quantum number (n) is shown below
1313.35
En = - 𝑛2

The difference in the values of energy decreases from lower to higher orbits.

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E2 – E1 > E3 – E2 > E4 – E3
Q.20. When the principal quantum number (n) is 3, how many different possible values can the
azimuthal quantum number (l) take?
Answer:
Principal Quantum Azimuthal Quantum Sub Shell No. of Electrons Total
Number (n) Number (l) in l is 2(2l +1) Electrons
0 3s 2
3 (M Shell) 1 3p 6 18
2 3d 10
Q.21. Describe the significance of the magnetic quantum number (m) in relation to the arrangement of
electrons within an atom.
Answer: Magnetic Quantum Number (m) can have a total number of (2l + 1) orientations. Each orientation
takes two electrons.
For s-orbital, the value of l is equal to zero so it has only one value of magnetic quantum number. So, s orbital
takes a maximum of two electrons.
For p-orbital, the value of l is 1 so it has three values of magnetic quantum number i.e.+1, 0, and -1.
These three values show that the p orbital splits into three degenerate orbitals that are px, py, and pz taking a
maximum of six electrons.
For d-orbital, the value of l is 2 so it has five values of magnetic quantum number i.e.+2,+1, 0, and -1, -2.
These five values show that the d orbital splits into five degenerate orbitals that are dxy, dyz, dxz, dx2-y2, and dz2.
So, it takes a maximum of ten electrons.
For f-orbital, the value of l is 3 so it has seven values of the magnetic quantum number i.e.+3, +2,+1, 0,-1, -2, -
3. These seven values show that the f orbital splits into seven degenerate orbitals and takes a maximum of
fourteen electrons.
Q.22. What is meant by Auf Bau principle?
Auf Bau principle:
“Electrons are distributed in orbitals / subshells in order of increasing energy.”
Firstly, low-energy orbitals are filled then electrons are filled in high-energy orbitals. The energies of orbitals
are calculated using quantum mechanical principles. This calculation provides information about the allowed
energy levels and spatial distribution of electrons in an atom.
The increasing energy order of orbitals is

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1s < 2s < 2p < 3s < 3p < 4s < 3d.....
Q.23. In which orbital of the atom the 11th electron will be configurated?
Answer: The 11 electrons will be configurated in 3s orbitals. Considering an example of sodium Na. The
valence electron of sodium resides in 3s↾.
Q. 24. Place these orbitals in increasing energy order. 5s, 4p, 4s, 3d. OR What is (n+l) rule?
Answer: Increasing energy order is: 4s < 3d < 4p <5s.
(n + l ) rule:
The energy of orbitals is governed by the (n + l) rule where n is a principal quantum number and l is an
azimuthal quantum number. It states,
“The higher the n + l value, the higher will be the energy of the orbital”
4s < 3d :
For 4s, n + l is 4+ 0 = 4 while for 3d, n + l is 3+2 = 5 so the energy of 3d orbital is greater than 4s orbital.
Q. 25. Which of the following orbitals have greater energy?
1. 5f or 6p
For 5f, n + l = 5 + 3 = 8 while for 6p, n + l = 6 + 1 = 7 so the energy of 5f is greater than 6p.
2. 5s or 4d
For 5s, n + l = 5 + 0 = 5 while for 4d, n + l = 4 + 2 = 6 so the energy of 4d is greater than 5s.
Q.26. What is meant by the Pauli Exclusion Principle?
Answer: Pauli Exclusion Principle
“No two electrons in an atom can have the same values of all the four quantum numbers at least the spin
quantum number will be different.”
If two electrons are present in the same orbital (n, l, and m are the same) their spin will be opposite for both. For
two electrons A and B residing in 3px orbital have the following set of quantum numbers.
Electron A n = 3, l = 1 , m = -1, s = +1/2
Electron B n = 3, l = 1 , m = -1, s = -1/2
Q.27. What is meant by Hund’s Rule?
Answer: Hund’s Rule:

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“If degenerate orbitals (orbitals with equal energy) are available the electrons will tend to reside separately with
the same spin, instead of pairing up in the same orbital with opposite spin.”
For example, if two electrons are to be filled in p orbitals the configuration will be

𝑝𝑥↾ 𝑝𝑦↾ 𝑝𝑧

if three electrons are to be filled in p orbitals the configuration will be

𝑝𝑥↾ 𝑝𝑦↾ 𝑝𝑧↾

The Electron of the orbital is also related to the number of electrons present in it. Half-filled and completely
filled orbitals are more stable with less energy as it is evident in Cr and Cu.
Q.28. What is meant by semiconductor? Differentiate intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors?
Semiconductor:
“Materials that possess electrical conductivity between that of conductors (like metals) and insulators ( like non-
metals).”
Types of semiconductors:
There are two types of semiconductors:
a) Intrinsic Semiconductors
“Those semiconductors which are made up of only a single type (pure) of elements”
Germanium (Ge) and silicon (Si) are the most common types of intrinsic semiconductor elements.
b) Extrinsic Semiconductors
“Those semiconductors which have controlled impurities intentionally added.”
These impurities are called dopants and can either introduce extra electrons (n-type) or create “holes” that
behave like positive charge carriers (p-type).
Q.29. What are n-type and p-type semiconductors? OR What are the types of extrinsic semiconductors?
Answer: There are two types of extrinsic semiconductors.
1. n-type semiconductors:
When a pure semiconductor (silicon or germanium) is doped by pentavalent impurity (P, As, Sb, Bi), then
four electrons out of five valence electrons bond with the four electrons of Ge or Si.
2. p-type semiconductors:

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When a pure semiconductor is doped with a trivalent impurity (B, Al, In, Ga), then the three valence electrons
of the impurity bond with three of the four valence electrons of the semiconductor.
Q.30. Describe the importance of electronic configuration in semiconductor materials.
In silicon, the outermost energy level is the third energy level. The 3s and 3p sublevels together can hold a
maximum of 8 electrons

1𝑠 ⇃↾ 2𝑠 ⇃↾ 2𝑝𝑥⇃↾ 2𝑝𝑦⇃↾ 2𝑝𝑧⇃↾ 3𝑠 ⇃↾ 3𝑝𝑥↾ 3𝑝𝑦↾

However, in its ground state, silicon has only 4 valence electrons, which are the electrons in the outermost energy
level. This configuration gives silicon unique properties that make it a suitable material for semiconductors. The
arrangement of silicon's electrons creates a band structure. In the valence band, electrons are tightly bound to
atoms and cannot move freely. In the conduction band, there are no electrons in the ground state. However, due
to the relatively small energy gap between the valence and conduction bands (referred to as the band gap),
electrons can be promoted from the valence band to the conduction band, creating electron-hole pairs. This
process is called excitation.
Q.31. How does the shielding effect change the radius of an atom in a group from top to bottom?
Answer: From the top to the bottom of a group in the periodic table, the shielding effect increases due to the
addition of electron shells. This causes the atomic radius to increase because the outer electrons are less tightly
bound to the nucleus.
Q.32. Why do s orbital have only one value of the magnetic quantum number?
Answer: The magnetic quantum number (m) describes the orientation of an orbital in space and ranges from −l
to +l. The s orbital, having l = 0, is spherical and non-directional, leading it to have only one possible value of
the magnetic quantum number, m = 0. This reflects its unique nature as a single, non-oriented orbital.
Q.33. Why it is so that two electrons with the same spin cannot reside in an orbital?
Answer: Two electrons with the same spin cannot reside in the same orbital because doing so would violate the
Pauli Exclusion Principle. It ensures that no two electrons in an atom can have the same set of four quantum
numbers, thereby necessitating that electrons in the same orbital have opposite spins.
Q.34. Calculate the average atomic masses of Magnesium having isotopes 24Mg, 25Mg and 26Mg with
relative abundance of 79 % , 10 % and 11 %.
Answer: The formula of determination Average Atomic Masses:
Average Atomic Mass of Mg = (Mass No. 1 X Abundance 1) + (Mass No. 2 X Abundance 2) + (Mass No. 3 X
Abundance 3)
100

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Average Atomic Mass of Mg = (24 x 79) + (25 x 10) + (26 x 11)
100
Average Atomic Mass of Mg = 24.32 amu
Q.35. What is the effective nuclear charge?
Answer: The effective nuclear charge (Zeff) is the net positive charge experienced by an electron in a multi-
electron atom. The term, “effective” is used because the shielding effect of negatively charged electrons
prevents higher orbital electrons from experiencing the full nuclear charge.
Q.36. Why is there a large I.E. gap between second and third values in Mg atoms?
Answer: Magnesium 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 is in group 2 of the periodic table and has a first ionization energy of 735
kJ/mol, second 1445 kJ/mol, and third ionization energy of 7730 kJ/mol. The big jump occurs after the second
ionization energy. It means that there are 2 electrons which are relatively easy to remove the 3s2 electrons, while
the third one is much more difficult because it comes from an inner level – closer to the nucleus and with less
screening.
Q.37. What are the applications of mass spectrometry?
Answer: Mass Spectrometry has a wide range of applications including
• Relative Abundance of isotopes of an element.
• Quantifying the amounts of specific substances.
• Elucidating molecular structures.
• Studying biomolecules like proteins.

Long Questions
Q.1. What is ionization energy? Describe the factors affecting ionization energy.
Answer: Ionization Energy:
“The minimum amount of energy required to remove the outermost electron from isolated gaseous atom”.
Example:

Reason for Gaseous State in Ionization Energy:

Atom is needed to be in the gaseous state to avoid the influence of factors like

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 Heat of fusion  Bond Dissociation Energy  Heat of the Vaporization
Factors affecting the Ionization Energy:
The ionization energy depends on the following factors
1. Nuclear Charge 2. Atomic Radii 3. Shielding Effect 4. Spin Pair Repulsion
1. Nuclear Charge
I.E.  Nuclear Charge
As the nuclear charge increases moving from left to right in the periodic table the attraction on the outermost
electrons also increases which in turn will increase the ionization energy.
2. Atomic Radii
1
I.E.  Atomic Radius

Moving from left to right in the periodic table, the atomic radii decrease which increases the effective nuclear
charge which in turn will increase the ionization energy.
3. Shielding Effect
1
I.E.  Shielding Effect

Moving from top to bottom, the inner electrons increase and act as a shield, which decreases the effective
nuclear charge which in turn will decrease the ionization energy.
[Link] Pair Repulsion:
1
I.E. 
Spin pair repulsion

Moving from left to right in the periodic table, at the same energy level electrons with opposite spins experience
spin pair repulsion. This repulsion decreases the nuclear charge and makes electrons easier to remove.
Q.2. Describe the periodic trends in Ionization Energy. How does ionization energy help in finding the
position element?
Answer: Ionization Energy and Position of Elements:
The position of an element in the periodic table can be determined using periodic trends in ionization energy,
values of ionization energies, and by comparing different ionization energy values.
1. Trends in Ionization Energy:

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The periodic trends in ionization energy values are useful to determine the position of an element. If the
ionization energy is very high then the element must lie on the right side of the periodic table as from left to
right, ionization energy increases.
2. Periodic Table Organization
In the periodic table, similar values of ionization energies are grouped in the same column. The organization is
based on the electronic configuration of elements which determine their chemical properties.
3. Comparing Ionization Energies
To determine the position of an element in the periodic table, the ionization energy is compared with known
ionization energies of elements in the period table. In general, the lower values are kept on the left while high
values are on the right side of the periodic table.

Successive Ionization Energy and Electronic Configuration:

The successive ionization energy value is an index of the valence of an atom. The big gaps show that the next
electron is being removed from the lower shell. For example, in the case of sodium, there is a big gap between
the first and second ionization energy.
First ionization energy = 495 kJ/mol
Second ionization energy = 4560 kJ/mol
This indicates that there is only one electron present in the valence shell, and this element must be a part of
group number 1. Similarly, in the case of magnesium, there is a small gap between the first and second.
The values of ionization energy but in the second and third values of ionization there is a very large gap.
First ionization Energy = 735 kJ/mol
Second Ionization Energy = 1445 kJ/mol
Third Ionization Energy = 7730 kJ/mol
This indicates that the third electron is being removed from the inner shell. It indicates that there are only two
electrons in the valence shell which are removed easily so this element should be a part of group number 2.
Q.3. What is mass spectrometry? Write down its principle and
Mass Spectrometry:
“It is a powerful analytical technique used to determine the molecular composition and structure of a sample by
the mass-to-charge ratio of ions”
Principle:

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The sample is first ionized, and the ions are then separated based on their mass-to-charge ratio (m/z) and
detected to generate a mass spectrum, which provides information about the structure and abundance of the
isotopes.
Diagram:

Working:
Mass spectrometry involves three fundamental steps:

i) Ionization
The sample is ionized using different ionization techniques including
▪ High Energy Electrons (EI)
▪ High-Voltage Field
▪ Laser like Matric Assisted Laser Desorption/ Ionization (MALDI)
ii) Ion Separation/ Mass Analysis
The resulting ions are then accelerated and directed into the mass analyzer. The mass analyzer separates ions
based on their m/z ratio, allowing ions of different masses to be focused and detected at different times.
iii) Detection:
The ions hit the detector and the detector records the time it takes for each ion to react to it.
iv) Data Analysis:
The information collected from the detector is used to construct a mass spectrum to react to it.
In Mass Spectrum:

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• The x-axis of the spectrum represents the m/z ratio.
• The y-axis represents the abundance of ions at each m/z ratio.
Mass Spectrum of Chlorine:

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