Qualier Study Guide

Oce 221 Department of Physics, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL 32308

Abstract
We have listed the important equations and concepts we came across while studying for the Florida State University physics qualifying exam.

I.

MECHANICS A. Moment of Inertia

When you are dealing with the rotation of a body with mass it is important to include the moment of inertia in the calculation as well as the kinetic energy from the rotation. We can nd the moment of inertia I of any shape using the formula: (ij r2 ri rj )d3 r

I=

(1)

where is the density and ri and rj are spacial components of the object. The energy can then be written as: 1 T = I 2 2 velocity. (2)

where T is the kinetic energy, I is the moment of inertia of the object, and is the angular

B.

Conservation Laws

Angular Momentum L=rp Energy T1 + U1 = T2 + U2 Momentum p1 = p2 (5) (4) (3)

C.

Gravitational Potential

From the work done against the gravity force in bringing a mass in from innity where the potential energy is assigned the value zero, the expression for gravitational potential energy is U= GM m r (6)

where G is the gravitational constant, M is the mass of the attracting body, and r is the distance between their centers 2

D.

Rotational Motion

When approaching problems involving circular motion or rotation of an object we need to remember several relationships. First, Newtons Second Law for rotational motion: = dL = I dt (7)

where is the torque experienced, I is the moment of inertia of the object and is the angular acceleration. We can also write the angular acceleration as: v2 == R (8)

where is the angular rotation of the object, v is the linear velocity and R is the radius of the object. The angular rotation can be written as: = v R (9)

E.

Harmonic Oscillator

The genera harmonic osccilator dierential equation is given by: d2 x dx 2 + 2 + 0 x = 0 dt2 dt There are, however, three kinds of motions: 1. Underdamped: If < 0 , and the solution to the dierential equation is: x(t) = et [Aei t + Bei t ] 2. Damped: If = 0 , and the solution to the dierential equation is: x(t) = Aet + Btet 3.Overdamped: If > 0 , and the solution to the dierential equation is: x(t) = et [Ae t + Be t ] Where is the modied frequency, given by: = 3
2 2 0

(10)

(11)

(12)

(13)

(14)

F.

Archimedes Principle

Archimedes Principle: The magnitude of the buoyant force always equals the weight of the uid displaced by the object. B = f luid .g.Vf luid Case 1: Totally Submerged Object. If the density of the submerged object is greater than that of the uid, the object sinks. If the density of the submerged object is less that that of the uid, the object accelerates upward. If the density oof the submerged object is equal to that of the uid, the object remains at equilibrium. Case 2: Floating object Bouyant force equals the weight of the partially submerged object. The following condition should be satised: object < f luid (16) (15)

G.

Bernoullis equation: Conservation of Energy

For a uid owing through a pipe of varying area. If A1 is the area of one end and A2 is that of the other end, then: 1 2 1 2 P1 + gh1 + v1 = P2 + gh2 + v2 2 2 In general, 1 P + gh + v 2 = constant 2 Continuity Equation: A1 v1 = A2 v2 where Ai and vi being the area and the velocity respectively. (19) (18) (17)

H.

Conservative force

A force F is said to be conservative if it satises one of the following conditions:

1. There is zero net work (W) done by the force when moving a particle through a trajectory that starts and ends in the same place: W =
C

F .dl = 0

(20)

2. The curl of F is zero: F =0 3. The force can be written as the gradient of a potential, : F = (22) (21)

II.

MODERN PHYSICS AND QUANTUM MECHANICS A. Special Relativity

1. Relativisitc Linear Momentum: P = 2. Relativistic Kinetic Energy: K= mc2 mc2 v 2 1 (c) (24) mv 1 ( v )2 c (23)

B.

Tunneling

When we are considering tunneling problems it is import to know the form of the solution as well as properly describe the energy in the system in each area. We know that incoming wave should have the form: 1 = Aeik1 x + Beik1 x (25)

where the rst part is the incoming wave with amplitude A and energy k1 and the second is the reected wave with amplitude B and energy k1 . The incoming wave travels in the positive x direction and is therefore positive while the reected travels in the negative x and is negative. The transmitted wave has the form: 2 = Ceik2 x 5 (26)

with amplitude C and energy k2 . Here the energy is the dierence between the potential and the energy. This quantity may or may not be imaginary. If we are asked to nd the probabilities of reection (R) and transmission (T ) we can use j(x) = Re( From this we can nd that: R= jref (x) jin (x) (28) (29) ) im x (27)

T =1R

C.

Boundary Conditions

We should remember the always important boundary conditions in quantum mechanics: 1 = 2 |x=boundary 2 1 = |x=boundary x x It is important to remember that we evaluate these at the boundary. For a Delta function potential however, a discontinuity of the rst derivative of the wave function exists at the delta function position. Let a be that position, then the rst derivatives are related as follows: d1 d2 2m |x=a |x=a = 2 .(x = a) dx dx Where is the coecient in front of the delta function. (32) (30) (31)

D.

Schrdinger Equation o

We need to remember both the time-dependent and time-independent equations. The time-dependent Schrdinger is written as: o i = H t (33)

The time-independent Schrdinger is written as: o E = H 6 (34)

 where H is the Hamilitonian and is written as: H=

2m

+V.

(35)

E.

Time Independent Non-degenerate Perturbation Theory

The rst order energy correction is given by:

(36)

The second order energy correction is given by:

|< m(0) |V |n(0) >|2 En Em

(37)

F.

The de Broglie Wave Length

The de Broglie wave length, for nonrelativistic eect (v << c), can be expressed as follows: = In terms of the energy of the particle: h = 2.m0 .E In case of relativistic eects (v < c): = h m0 .v 1 v2 c2 (40) (39) h m0 .v (38)

G.

Braggs Diraction

Diraction of X-rays from a crystal lattice. Braggs diraction equation is given by: 2dsin = n 7 (41)

H.

Photoelectirc Eect

KE = Where is the work function of the metal: =

hc

(42)

hc c

(43)

Where c is the minimum wavelength an incident photon should have inorder to extract one electron from the surface of the metal. The stopping potential V0 is related to the maximum kinetic energy by: KEmax = eV0 = hc (44)

I.

Compton scattering

Compton scattering is a type of scattering that X-rays and gamma rays undergo in matter. The following equation can be used to determine the wave length on the emitted photon: = h (1 cos) cmp (45)

J.

Doppler Eect

1. Non-relativistic Doppler Eect: v + vr fo = fs v + vs where vs and vr are the velocities of the source and reciever, respectively. 2. The Relativistic Doppler Eect: fs = fo
K. MandelStam Variable

(46)

1+ 1

where =

v c

(47)

The Mandelstam variables s, t, and u are given as follows: s = (P1 +P2 )2 = (P3 +P4 )2 , t = (P1 P3 )2 = (P2 P4 )2 , u = (P1 P4 )2 = (P2 P3 )2 (48) 8

III. A.

ELECTRODYNAMICS Maxwells Equations (in Gaussian Units)

Guasss Law: .D = 4 Gausss Law for Magnetism: .B = 0 Faradays Law of Induction: E = Amperes Circuital Law: H = Poynting Vector: S= Biot-Savart Law: B= Surface Charge Density: 4(b + f ) = E (55) 1 c I dl r 2 r (54) c (E H) 4 (53) 1 D 4 J+ c c t (52) 1 B c t (51) (50) (49)

B.

Gausss Law

The electric ux through an area is dened as the electric eld multiplied by the area of the surface projected in a plane perpendicular to the eld. Gausss Law is a general law applying to any closed surface. It is an important tool since it permits the assessment of the amount of enclosed charge by mapping the eld on a surface outside the charge distribution. For geometries of sucient symmetry, it simplies the calculation of the electric eld. E dA = 4Qenc We should also note that the electric eld inside a conductor is zero. 9 (56)

C.

Amperes Law

To determine the magnetic eld: B.dl = 0 Ienc Where Ienc is the current enclosed inside the chosen surface. (57)

D.

Potential of a Charge

|r r |1/2 The electric eld and scalar potential can be linked by the equation: E=

(r) =

(58)

(59)

E.

Magnetic Moment

In general, the magnetic moment is expressed as: = 1 2 (r J)d3 r (60)

F.

Electric Potential

The electric potential at a point P in space is given by: Vp = 1 q 4 0 r (61)

Where q is the charge of a particle and r is the distance from P to the particles position. For continous charge distribution:
a

Va Vb =
b

E.dl

(62)

The electric potential energy is related to the electric potential by : Up = q Vp Electrostatic Energy Stored: Ue =
0

(63)

2 10

|E|2 dV

(64)

G.

Capacitance

The capacitance of an electric eld can be found using: C= Q (65)

The energy stored in a capacitor can be found by integrating over the change in work. U= dW = dq q 1 = CV 2 C 2 (66)

Some properties of a parallel plate capacitor: C=

d
0

(67)

E=

(68)

Q A

(69)

If the dielectric between the two plates had a dielectric constant , all of the above equations will remain the same with the substitution of = (70)

H.

RC Circuit

An RC circuit is made up of a resistor and a capacitor which can be connected in series or in parallel. 1. Series Connection: Deriving the voltage across the capacitor: 1 dV V +C =0 R dt Solving this equation: V = V0 e RC 11
t

(71)

(72)

I.

RLC Series Circuit

The properties of an RLC series circuit are as follows: Impedance: Z= Where XL = 1 C (74) (75) R2 + (XL XC )2 (73)

XC = L Phase: = tan1 [ Resonance Frequancy: 0 = 1 LC XL X C ] R

(76)

(77)

J.

Kirchho s laws

Kirchhos current law says the algebraic sum of current into any junction is zero or
n

Ii = 0
i=1

(78)

Kirchhos voltage law says the algebraic sum of the voltage dierences in any loop must equal zero or
n

vi = 0
i=1

(79)

K.

Lenzs Law and Electromagnetic Induction

Lenzs law states: An induced current is always in such a direction as to oppose the motion or change causing it The magnetic ux is given by: = B.A (80)

Where B is the magnetic eld and A is the vector component of the area. The e.m.f is given by: = 12 d dt (81)

The plus/minus sign indicates that the variation of the ux can sometimes be negative. However, the e.m.f should always be positive. Lorentz Force: F = q(E + v B) (82)

L.

Dielectric Boundary Conditions

The boundary conditons on a surface separating two media are as follows: E1t = E2t and D1n = D2n (83)

M.

Electrical Resistivity and Conductivity

The resistivity and the conductivity are inversely proportional: = The resistance is related to the resistivity by: R= l A where lis the length and A is the area (85) 1 (84)

IV. A.

OPTICS AND THEMODYNAMICS Work Function and Photoelectric Eect

In the photoelectric eect the incoming photons remove electrons from the target. There is a minimum energy required to remove an electron from the interior of a solid to a position just outside. This minimum energy is called the work function . The relation between the energy of photon E , the energy of electron Ee , and the work function is given by E = Ee (86)

The energy of the photon is quantized into discrete bundles which can be rewritten as E = h
c where h is Plancks constant and = .

13

B.

Lens

When we are given problems pertaining to lens we should remember the equation that relations the position of the image and the focal length: 1 1 1 + = s1 s2 f (87)

where s1 is the initial position, s2 is the position of the object after it passes through the lens, and f is the focal length of the lens. We can then calculate the magnication of the lens M using: M= s2 s1 (88)

It is also important to know if the image is real or virtual. If the value of s2 is negative, meaning to the left of the lens, then the image is virtual. If the value is positive, to the right of the lens, then the image is real. In the case of a system of two lenses, the magnication of the system becomes: M = m1 .m2 where m1 and m2 can be expressed using: mi = where i=1,2 si si (90) (89)

C.

Series Expansion of Tanh (x)

In Statistical Mechanics the function tanh(x) is used often. We should recognize that the series expansion is 1 tanh(x) = x x3 + O 3
D. Ideal Gas Properties

(91)

The ideal gas equation is given by PV=nRT. The rst law of thermodynamics is written by: dQ=dU+PdV. Some of the properties of this law are given below: 1. At Constant Volume: 14

We have dV=0. This means that work done on the gas is exactly zero. Thus dQ=dU=nCv dT

2. At Constant Pressure: We have dU=nCv dT. We also have PdV=nRdT. Thus dQ=dU+PdV=nCp dT.

3. At Constant Temperature: We have dT=0, which means that dU=PdV.

4. Adiabatic: We have dQ=0, which means that the work and the internal energy are equal dU=PdV. An adiabatic process has the following property: PV =constant.

E.

Van der Waals Equation of state

The Van der Waals Equation of state is: V n [P + a( )2 ]( b) = RT V n (92)

Where P is the pressure,V is the volume, a is a constant that provides a correction for the intermolecular forces, b is a correction for the nite molecular size, and n is the number of moles.

F.

Molecules Degrees of freedom

In general, there are three forms of degrees of freedom. Translational: Related to the displacement of the molecules COM. In 3-dimensional space, the COM can move in three directions (x,y,z), which means any molecule has 3 translational degrees of freedom. Rotational: Related to the rotation of the molecule around axes perpendicular to the line joining the atoms. Consequently, a monatomic molecule has no rotational degrees of freedom, a diatomic molecule has 2 rotational degrees of freedom, and a non-linear (N>2) molecule has 3 rotational degrees of freedom. Vibrational: A monatomic molecule has no vibrational degrees of freedom, a diatomic 15

molecule has 3N-5 degrees of freedom, and a non-linear (N>2) molecule has 3N-6 degrees of freedom. Generally speaking, a molecule, of any kind, has 3N degrees of freedom.

G.

Some Useful Formulas

Partition Function Z=
i

eEi

(93)

Helmholtz Free energy: F = kT ln(Z) Specic heat Cv : Cv = Relation between Cp and Cv : Cp = Cv Cp = Cv + R Cycle Eciency: W QH is the heat put into the system, Q>0. = (98) (96) (97) E T or Cv = T dS dT (95) (94)

Where QH

Heat Q: The heat Q can be positive or negative, depending on whether the system is compressed or expands on its own. At constant volume: Q=
T1 T2

Cv dT = U
T2

(99)

At constant pressure: Q=

Cp dT
T1

(100)

Bose-Einstein Condensation: is a state of matter of a dilute gas of weakly interacting bosons conned in an external potential and cooled to temperatures very near absolute zero. Bose-Einstein Distribution Function: f (E) = 1 Ae
E kT

(101)

16

where k is the Boltzman constant and A equals 1 for bosons. Grand Canonical Ensemble: = kB T lnZ Entropy of a Heat Reservoir: S = Fermi-Dirac Distribution Function: 1 e( ) +1 Q TR (103) (102)

F (E) = (However, at T = 0, F(E) becomes 1).

(104)

Fermi Energy:The Fermi energy is a measure of the energy scale where quantum eects become important for describing the properties of a system of Fermions. To nd the Fermi energy, we use the following equation:

n=
0

g(E)F (E)dE

(105)

Density of state: has three dierent forms depending on the chosen dimensions. - 1D: g(E) = - 2D: g(E) = - 3D: g(E) = 1 dN V dE with N = 2 V 4 k (2)3 3 (108) 1 dN A dE with N = 2 A k 2 (2)2 (107) 1 dN L dE with N = 2 L k 2 (106)

17