Department of Electrical Engineering

Govt. Polytechnic,Nuapda Odisha Pin- 766105

LABORATORY MANUAL

Circuit & Simulation Lab

(3rd Semester)

Department of Electrical Engineering

Govt. Polytechnic,Nuapada Odisha Pin-766105

1
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Sl. No Name of the Experiment Pages

1 3-4
Measurement of equivalent resistance in series and parallel circuit

2 5-6
Measurement of power and power factor using series R-L-C Load.

3
Verification of KCL and KVL. 7-10

4 Verification of Super position theorem 11-13

5
Verification of The venin’s Theorem 14-15

6 16-17
Verification of Norton’s Theorem

7
Verification of Maximum power transfer Theorem 18-19

8 20-21
Determine resonant frequency of series R-L-C circuit.

9 22-23
Study of Low pass filter & determination of cut-off frequency

24-26
Study of High pass filter & determination of cut-off frequency
10

11 Analyze the charging and discharging of an R-C & R-L circuit with
27-32
oscilloscope and Compute the time constant from the tabulated data and
determine the rise time graphically.

12 Construct the following circuits using P-Spice/MATLAB software and

compare the measurements and waveforms. 33-41
i. Superposition theorem
ii. Series Resonant Circuit
iii. Transient Response in R-L-C series circuit

2
 EXPERIMENT NO - 01
AIM OF THE EXPERIMENT: - Measurement of equivalent resistance in series
and parallel circuit
COMPONENT REQUIRED:-

Sl. No Name of the Components Specification Quantity

1 Resistors 500 Ω, 680 Ω, 330 Ω,390 Ω, 270 Ω Each of 2

2 Millimeter Digital 1

3 Software Multisim 14.1 As required

THEORY:-
SERIES CIRCUIT:-
 In electrical circuit is in series connected the current
flowing through the conductor is constant but voltage
is not constant and the resistance can be calculated by,

Rs = R1 + R2 + R3 + ...................... + Rn

PARALLEL CIRCUIT:-
 In electrical series is in parallel connected the
current flowing through the conductor is not
constant but voltage is remain constant and the
resistance can be calculated by,

𝐏 𝐏 𝐏 𝐏
= + + + 𝐏 +………………+ 𝐏
𝐏𝐏 𝐏𝐏 𝐏𝐏 𝐏𝐏 𝐏𝐏 𝐏𝐏
PROCEDURE:-
1. Connected the resisted the resistor as per circuit diagram.
2. Measured the individual resistance of different resistor with the help of multimeter.
3. Measured the total equivalent resistance as per circuit diagram by multimeter.
4. Compare the observed value and calculation value in both the parallel and series.

CALCULATION:-
Let two resistor are connected in series then the total or equivalent resistor is,
R1 = 330 Ω, R2 = 390 Ω  RS = R1+ R2 = 330 + 390 = 720 Ω

3
If, they are connected in parallel then the equivalent resistance is,
R1 = 330 Ω, R2 = 390 Ω
1 1 1 330×390
= +
390
 RP = = 178.8 Ω
RP 330 330+390

OBSERVATION TABLE:-
RESISTANCE IN SERIES RESISTANCE IN PARALLEL
Sl R1 in R2 in
No (Ω) (Ω)
Calculation Observation Calculation Observation

1 500 680 1.18KΩ 1.18KΩ 293.2Ω 288.8Ω

2 270 680 950Ω 958Ω 197.7Ω 193.26Ω

3 330 390 721Ω 720Ω 118.5Ω 178.8Ω

CONCLUSION:-
From the above experiment it we have studied and verified that the observation value
is approximately same to the calculation value in both parallel and series circuit.

4
 Experiment - 02

Aim- Measurement of power and power factor using series R-L-C Load.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:-

Sl. No Name of the Equipment Specification Quantity

1 Variable Resistor 0-100 Ω 1 no

2 Inductor 40W, 250V 1 no
3 Capacitor 2.5 µF 1 no
4 1-Φ Dimmer Set 0-250 v 1 no
5 Voltmeter 0-300 v 3 nos
6 Ammeter 0-5 A 1 no
7 1-Φ Wattmeter 250V, 1 kW 1 no
8 Power factor Meter 250v, 5A 1 no
9 Connecting Wires - As per required

Theory:- A series RLC circuit is one the resistor, inductor and capacitor are connected in series across a
voltage supply. The resulting circuit is called series RLC circuit.

Circuit Diagram:-

1-Փ
AC Watt meter
Supply
KWH

5
Observation Table:-
Sl .no Type of Load Reading of Wattmeter Reading of PF Meter
1 R
2 L
3 C
4 R-L
5 R-C
6 L-C
7 R-L-C

Procedure:-

1- We should take all the tools & instrument for this experiment. 2-
Connect as per Circuit diagram.
3- Then switch ON the supply.
4- Take reading of wattmeter and PF meter.

Conclusion:- From the above experiment, we learnt about the measurement of power and power factor using
series R-L-C Load.

6
 EXPERIMENT NO – 03

AIM OF THE EXPERIMENT: -Verification of KCL & KVL.

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED: -
Sl No Name of the Components Specification Quantity
1 Verification Kit (OMEGA-ETB-201) 1
2 Patch Cord ------------ As per required
3 Power Supply 0-12 Volt --------------
4 Multimeter Digital meter 1

THEORY: -
 KCL states that the algebraic sum
of all the current meeting at a
point or junction is equal to zero.
 It can be stated that total incoming
current at a point will be equal to
the total out going current.
 For verification of kcl we consider
the given circuit.

PROCEDURE: -
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.
2. Vary the voltage to take 5 different reading.
3. Observe different ammeter reading for each input voltage.
4. Compare the reading with the total current following the ckt.
CALCULATION: -
R1= 270Ω R2= 330Ω
R3= 500Ω V= 9V
Req= (270║330) + 500
= 148.5 + 500 = 648.5Ω
V 9
I= = = 0.013A = 13mA
3
Req 648.5

(0.013) × 330
I1= = 7.15mA
270+330

(0.013) × 270
I2 = = 5.85mA  I1+ I 2 = 7.15mA + 5.85mA = 13mA
270+330
7
OBSERBATION TABLE: -

Input I1 (270 Ω) I2 (330 Ω) I3 (500 Ω) I1 + I2 in

Sl No
voltage in mA in mA in mA mA

1. 10V 8.53 6.95 15.49 15.48

2. 9V 7.60 6.2 13.9 13.8

3. 8V 6.84 5.58 12.44 12.42

4. 7V 6 4.89 10.91 10.89

5. 5V 4.30 3.51 7.82 7.81

8
 KIRCHHOFF’S VOLTAGE LAW

THEORY: -
 KVL states that the algebraic sum of ‘EMF’
and product of current and resistance in a
closed loop is equal to zero.
 For the verification of this theorem we have
taken a circuit as shown in the figure.
 In the given circuit we have one ‘EMF’ and
two resistance value 270 Ω and 330 Ω.
 The voltage across 270 Ω resistor is taken
‘V1’ and across 330 Ω resistor is taken ‘V2’.
PROCEDURE: -
1. Connect circuit as per the circuit diagram.
2. Give the power apply to the circuit.
3. Now the measure the voltage across each
resistor using Multimeter and note down
the observe value in the observation table.
4. Now add all the three values of voltage
obtain and compare it with the emf value.
5. This procedure may be respected for
variable voltage values.
CALCULATION: -
Theoretically applying KVL to the given circuit, V – IR1– IR2 = 0

 9 – I × 270Ω - I × 330Ω = 0
 9 – I × ( 270 + 330 ) = 0
 9 = I × ( 270 + 330 ) I= 9
= 0.015A 
270 + 330 I = 15 mA



















9
OBSERBATION TABLE: -

Sl No V1 (270 Ω) V2 (330 Ω) Vt ( V1+V2) Total EMF Applied

1 4.57 5.70 10.27 10V
2 3.98 4.88 8.86 9V
3 3.22 3.91 7.13 7V
4 2.30 2.80 5.10 5V
5 0.90 1.10 2.00 2V

CONCLUSION: -

From the above experiment we observe that sum of emf and voltage drop is equal to zero.

10
 EXPERIMENT NO – 04
SUPER POSITION THEOREM
AIM OF THE EXPERIMENT: - Verification of Super position theorem
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED: -

SL. NAME OF THE

SPECIFICATION QUANTITY
NO COMPONENT
OMEGA
01 VERIFICATION KIT
TYPE - ETB 201
01

02 POWER SUPPLY 0-12 V -

03 PATCH CORDS - As required

04 MULTIMETER - -
THEORY: -
In any linear bilateral network containing two or more independent sources (voltage
or current sources or combination of voltage and current sources), the resultant current /
voltage in any branch is the algebraic sum of currents / voltages caused by each
independent source acting along, with all other independent sources being replaced
meanwhile by their respective internal resistances.

The voltage source replaced by short circuit and the current circuit replaced by open
circuit. The voltage source replaced by short the resistances of the source are replaced at the
time of source elimination.

If the current produced by one source is in one direction while that produced by the
other is in the opposite direction through the same resistor, the resulting current is the
difference of the two and has the direction of the larger current. If the individual currents
are in the same direction, the resulting current is the sum of two and has the direction of
either current..

The total power delivered to a resistive element must be determined using the total
current through or the total voltage across the element and cannot be determined by a
simple sum of the power levels established by each source.

11
PROCEDURE: -
 Connect the power supply to the verification kit.
 Make the connection as per the circuit diagram.
 Remove V2 and close the circuit through a patch cord.
 Measure I31 in the ammeter.
 Now put V2 in the circuit and remove V1 from the circuit. Close the circuit through a
patch cord in place of V1.
 Now replace and measure I32 in the ammeter.
 Now replace V1 and switch on both the sources.

CALCULATION: -
R2R3
Now eliminate the V2 voltage from the circuit , Req = R1 +
R2+R3
R2 V1 R2
Due to voltage source V1 , I31 = I1 × = ×
R2+R3 Req R2+R3
Now eliminate the V1 voltage source from the circuit, R = R + R1R3
eq 2
R1+R3
R1 V2 R1
Due to voltage source V2 , I32 = I2 × = ×
R1+R3 Req R1+R3

12
 So, V1 = 9 V , V2 = 5 V , R1 = 270 Ω, R2 = 330 Ω , R3 = 390 Ω ,
R'eq = 448.75 Ω , R''eq = 489.54
9 330
So, I31 = × = 9.19 mA
448.75 330+390
5 270
Similarly, I32 = ×
489.54 270+390
I3 = I31 + I32 = 9.19 + 4.17 = 13.36 mA
Loop-1 , 9 – 270I1 – ( I1 – I2 ) 390 = 0
9 – 270I1 – 390I1 + 390I2 = 0
 660I1 – 390I2 = 9 ...................................... (i)

Loop-2 , - 330I2 – 5 – (I2-I1)390 = 0

 -330I2 – 5 - 390I2+ 390 I1 = 0
 390I1 – 720I2 = 5 ........................................ (ii)
Now solving the equations (i) and (ii) we get ,
I1 = 0.014 = 14 mA , I2 = 6.5 ×10-4 = 0.65 mA
So , I = I1 - I2 = 14 – 0.65 = 13.35 mA
TABULATION: -
Total I3 where Current Current Total
Sl V1 V2
both (V1) and where (V1) where (V2) (I = I31 +
No. (Volt) (Volt)
(V2) active active I31 active I32 I32)
01 9 5 13.04 8.97 4.09 13.06
02 9 7 14.65 8.97 5.65 14.26
03 9 9 16.29 8.97 7.30 16.27
04 9 10 17.28 8.97 8.12 17.09
05 9 11 17.98 8.97 8.97 17.64

CONCLUSION: -
From the above experiment we studied and observed that different branch current of
the circuit using Super position theorem.

13
 EXPERIMENT NO – 05
VERIFICATION OF THEVENIN’S THEORM
AIM OF THE EXPERIMENT:- Verification of Thevenin‟s Theorem.
EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED

Sl No Name of the Components Specification Quantity

1 Resistors 500 Ω, 680 Ω, 330 Ω,270 Ω As Required
2 Multimeter Digital 1
3 Connecting wire ------------------ -------
4 DC power supply ------------------------- -------

THEORY
Any linear active 2 terminal n/w consisting in of voltage and current source with
some resistance. It can be replaced by an equivalent Thevenin’s voltage source or voltage
source having its value equal to the Thevenin’s equivalent voltage with a series resistor
which is known as Thevenin’s resistance. The equivalent voltage source is represented by
‘Vth’ and equivalent resistance is represented by ‘Rth’. To find the Thevenin’s equivalent
voltage first we have to open circuit the load terminals. The open circuited voltage VAB is
the required Thevenin’s voltage. We have again equal to the voltage across the point ‘P’
and ‘Q’ so VPQ=VAB=VTH.

PROCEDURE
1. Start – Electronics workbench – Multisim 14.1
2. Select the component from place Component library according to given circuit diagram.
3. Connect the multimeter.
4. Make connection as per a circuit diagram.
5. Simulate Run.
6. Double click to the multimeter.
7. See the output result.
CALCULATION
R1= 300 Ohm, R2= 500 Ohm, R3= 680 Ohm, RL= 9v
STEP- 1
Calculate the Vth across load AB terminal and open the 270 ohm resistor.

14
Vs= IR1+IR2= I (R1+R2)
I= Vs/R1+R2= 9/330+500= 1.08 mA
Vth=VAB=I×500= 1.08×500= 5.42V
STEP-2
Calculate the Rth across AB terminal
by short circuit the voltage source.

Rab = (330 || 500) + 680 = 330×500 + 680 = 878.795Ohm

330+500
Then find Ith in the Thevenin’s
equivalent circuit,
Vth 5.422
Ith= Rth +Rl = 878.795+270
= 4.71mA

Il in find I will be equal to the I in

thevenin’s equivalent circuit.

TABULATION
CALCULATED TABLE: -

Applied Vth Rth IL

Sl No.
voltage in V In Volt in ohm in mA
01 09 5.42 878.795 4.72

OBSERVATION TABLE: -
Applied voltage Vth Rth IL
Sl. No
in volt in volt in ohm in mA
01 07 4.217 878.795 3.671
02 08 4.819 878.795 4.195
03 09 5.422 878.795 4.72
04 10 6.020 878.795 5.244
05 11 6.627 878.795 5.768
06 12 7.229 878.795 6.293

CONCLUSION
From the above experiment we know that how to verify Thevenin’s theorem by using
multisim14.1.

15
 EXPERIMENT NO – 06
VERIFICATION OF NORTON’S THEOREM
AIM OF THE EXPERIMENT: - Verification of Norton‟s Theorem.
COMPONENT REQUIRED:-
Sl No Name of the Components Specification
1 Software Multisim-14.1
2 Resistors 500 Ω, 680 Ω, 330 Ω, 270 Ω
3 DC Power source 7 Volt
4 Multimeter As required

THEORY:-
 In any linear bilateral network containing one or more voltage source can be replaced by
an equivalent circuit.
 Consisting of current [IN] in parallel with the equivalent resistance.
 In is the short circuited current following through the load terminals.

PROCEDURE:-
1. Start → Electronics work bench → Multisim 14.1.
2. Select component from place →Component library according to following circuit.
3. Connect the multimeter.
4. Make connection according.
5. Simulate →Run
6. Double click on the
multimeter.
7. See the output result.

CALCULATION:-
STEP - 1
First draws the given original circuit.
STEP - 2
Assume load resistance as short circuited and calculate Norton’s equivalent current as short
circuited path.
Apply mesh analysis, in loop 1 we get,  7 - 330I1 - 500I1 + 500I2 = 0
 7 - 830I1 + 500I2 = 0  830I1 - 500I2 = 7 ---------------- (1)
Apply mesh analysis, in loop 2 we get,  - 500I2 + 500 I1 - 680I2 = 0
 -1180I2 + 500 I1 = 0  500 I1-1180I2= 0 ---------------- (2)
By comparing or calculating Eq.1 & Eq.2 we get, I1 = 0.011A = 11mA & I2 = 4.79mA
16
So, current across short circuit path or
Norton’s equivalent current [IN] = 4.79mA
STEP - 3
Assume load resistance as open circuit and
find equivalent resistance or Norton’s
equivalent resistance,
RN = (330║500) + 680
=198.795+ 680 = 878.795 Ω
STEP - 4
Now draw Norton’s equivalent circuit and find
current across load resistance.
4.79×10−3×878.795
IL = = 3.66mA
878.795+270

TABULATION: -
Calculated Tabulation: -
Applied voltage
Sl No IN in (mA) RN in (mA) IL in (mA)
in (V)
1 7V 4.798 878.795 3.67
Observation Tabulation:-
Applied
Sl No IN in (mA) RN in (mA) IL in (mA)
voltage in (V)
1 7 4.798 878.795 3.670
2 8 5.484 878.795 4.195
3 9 6.169 878.795 4.719
4 10 6.855 878.795 5.244
5 11 7.540 878.795 5.768
6 12 8.226 878.795 6.293
CONCLUSION:-
From the above experiment we know that how to verify the Norton’s theorem by
using software Multisim 14.1.

-
17
 EXPERIMENT NO - 07
VERIFICATION OF MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER THEOREM
AIM OF THE EXPERIMENT:-To study & verify Maximum power transfer theorem.
COMPONENT REQUIRED:-
Sl No Name of the Components Specification
1 Software Multisim-14.1
2 Resistors 1KΩ
3 Variable Resistor 10 KΩ
4 DC Power source 12 Volt
5 Multimeter As required
6 Voltmeter As required
THEORY:-
A resistive load being connected to a DC network receives maximum power when the load
resistance is equal to the internal resistance of the source network as seen from load end.
EXPLANATION:-
A variable resistance 'R L' is connected to a dc source network where 'V 0' represent
the Thevenin’s Voltage and 'Rth' represent the Thevenin’s resistance of the source network.
We have to find out the value of 'R L' such that it receives the maximum from the dc source
with reference to the fig the following can be written.
VO
The current through the network 'I0' will be equal to mean, IO =
RTH +RL
2
VO RL
The power delivered to the resistive load, PL= [IO] 2 RL= (R +R )2
TH L

PL can be maximized by varying the RL & hence maximum power (Pmax) can be delivered
when, d
PL = 0
dRL d d
2 d (RTH +RL )2 RL −RL (RTH +RL )2
RL

d VO RL = 0 V 2 =0 V 2 d RL d RL
=0
dRL (RTH+RL)2 O dR (RTH+RL)2 O (RTH +RL )4
L
VO2 2
 (R TH + R L) − RL2(RTH + R L)= 0  (RTH + RL) [(RTH + RL) − 2R L] = 0
(RTH +RL )4
R + R − 2R = 0  R − R = 0 R = R  Thus P = 𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏
TH L L TH L TH L L (𝐏𝐏𝐏+𝐏𝐏)𝐏
𝐏𝐏 2 𝐏𝐏 𝐏𝐏 2 𝐏𝐏 2
𝐏𝐏 2
By replacing RTH=RL in this equitation, PL= 2  PL= 2 PL= Pmax= 𝐏
(2𝐏 𝐏) 4𝐏𝐏 4𝐏 𝐏 4𝐏𝐏
PROCEDURE:-
1) Start → Electronics work bench → Multisim 14.1.
2) Select component from place →Component library according to following circuit.
3) Connect the multimeter.
4) Make connection according.
18
 5) Simulate →Run
6) Double click on the multimeter.
7) See the output result
CALCULATION:-
STEP - 1
First draws the given original circuit.
STEP - 2
Assume load resistance as open circuited & calculate
Thevenin’s equivalent voltage as short circuited path
Apply mesh analysis, in loop we get,
12 - 1000I1 - 1000I1 = 0  12 - 2000I1 = 0
2000I1 = 12  I1 = 6mA
So, voltage across open circuit path or Thevenin’s
equivalent voltage [VTH] =6V
STEP - 3
Assume load resistance as open circuit and find
Thevenin’s equivalent resistance,
RTH = (1000║1000) + 1000 = 500 + 1000 = 1500 Ω  RTH =1.5KΩ
STEP - 4
After Thevenin’s2 equiv2alent resistance found the Pmax or maximum power of the circuit,
P = 𝐏𝐏 = 6 P = 6mW
max max
4𝐏𝐏 4×1500

TABULATION GRAPH
Sl Load resistance VRL Po (VRL/RL)
No (RL) (5KΩ) in (V) in mW
1 500 (10%) 1.5 4.500
2 1000 (20%) 2.4 5.760
3 1500 (30%) 3.0 6.000
4 2000 (40%) 3.4 5.870
5 2500 (50%) 3.7 5.625
CONCLUSION:-
From the above experiment we concluded that for R L=Rth we get the maximum
power transferred to the load end by using Multisim 14.1.
19
 EXPERIMENT NO – 08
RESONANCE CIRCUIT
AIM OF THE EXPERIMENT: - Determine resonant frequency of series R-L-C circuit

COMPONENTREQUIRED:-

Sl No Name of the Components Specification

1 Software Multisim-14.1
2 Resistors 40kΩ
3 Capacitor 30mF
3 Inductor 0.1mH
4 Sine wave function generator 1kHZ,1Vpk
THEORY:-
SERIES RESONANCE:-
When an inductor and capacitor are connected
in series the output current or voltage are
maximum at a particular frequency depending
on the values of inductor and capacitor.
This is called as resonance condition and the
frequency is called resonating frequency at
which the circuit attains resonance.
For a series L-C Resonant is given by, FO = 𝐏
𝐏𝐏
𝐏𝐏√𝐏𝐏−
𝐏𝐏

20
PROCEDURE:-
1) Start – Electronics Workbench – Multisim14.1.
2) Select the components from place – Components library according to the following
circuit
3) Connect the Power source [simulate – instrument-Power source (A.C Battery)]
4) Simulate- Run

CONCLUSION:-
The circuit at resonance at particular frequency the frequency at which the amplitude get
increased.

21
 EXPERIMENT NO - 09
LOW-PASS FILTER
AIM OF THE EXPERIMENT: - Study of Low pass filter & determination of cut-off frequency.
COMPONENT REQUIRED:-
Sl No Name of the Components Specification
1 Software Multisim-14.1
2 Resistors 1kΩ
3 Capacitor 1µF
3 Sine wave function generator 1kHZ,1Vpk
4 Bode Plotter As required
THEORY:-
A low-pass filter is a filter that passes low-frequency signals but attenuates (reduces the
amplitude of) signals with frequencies higher than the cutoff frequency.
The actual amount of attenuation for each frequency varies from filter to filter.
It is sometimes called a high-cut filter, or treble cut filter when used in audio applications.
A low-pass filter is the opposite of a high-pass filter, and a band-pass filter is a combination
of a low-pass and a high-pass.
Low-pass filters exist in many different forms, including electronic circuits (such as a hiss
filter used in audio), digital filters for smoothing sets of data, acoustic barriers, blurring of
images, and so on.
The moving average operation used in fields such as finance is a particular kind of low-pass
filter, and can be analyzed with the same signal processing techniques as are used for other
low-pass filters.
Low-pass filters provide a smoother form of a signal, removing the short-term fluctuations,
and leaving the longer-term trend.
In an electronic low-pass RC filter for voltage signals, high frequencies contained in the
input signal are attenuated but the filter has little attenuation below its cutoff frequency
which is F = 𝐏 determined by its RC time constant.
c
𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏

22
PROCEDURE:-
1. Start – Electronics Workbench – Multisim14.1.
2. Select the components from place – Components library according to following circuit.
3. Connect the Bode Plotter [Simulate – Instrument- Bode Plotter].
4. Simulate- Run.
5. Double click on Bode Plotter.

OBSERVATION:-
In the above experiment we observe that the output of CRO is much difference when the
theoretical characteristic curve and the practical and theoretical curve are different.

CONCLUSION:-
From the above experiment we studied those characteristics of Low pass Filter by using
software Multisim14.1.

23
 EXPERIMENT NO – 10
AIM OF THE EXPERIMENT

Study of High pass filter & determination of cut-off frequency

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED

Sl No Name of the Components Specification

1 Software Multisim-14.1
2 Resistors 1kΩ
3 Capacitor 1µF
3 Sine wave function generator 1kHZ,1Vpk
4 Bode Plotter As required

THEORY

The High Pass Filter Circuit

In this circuit arrangement, the reactance of the capacitor is very high at low frequencies so the capacitor
acts like an open circuit and blocks any input signals at VIN until the cut-off frequency point ( ƒC ) is
reached. Above this cut-off frequency point the reactance of the capacitor has reduced sufficiently as
to now act more like a short circuit allowing all of the input signal to pass directly to the output as shown
below in the filters response curve.

24
 Frequency Response of a 1st Order High Pass Filter

The Bode Plot or Frequency Response Curve above for a passive high pass filter is the exact
opposite to that of a low pass filter. Here the signal is attenuated or damped at low frequencies with the
output increasing at +20dB/Decade (6dB/Octave) until the frequency reaches the cut-off point
( ƒc ) where again R = Xc. It has a response curve that extends down from infinity to the cut-off
frequency, where the output voltage amplitude is 1/√2 = 70.7% of the input signal value or -3dB (20 log
(Vout/Vin)) of the input value.
Also we can see that the phase angle ( Φ ) of the output signal LEADS that of the input and is equal to
+45o at frequency ƒc. The frequency response curve for this filter implies that the filter can pass all signals
out to infinity. However in practice, the filter response does not extend to infinity but is limited by the
electrical characteristics of the components used.
The cut-off frequency point for a first order high pass filter can be found using the same equation as that
of the low pass filter, but the equation for the phase shift is modified slightly to account for the positive
phase angle as shown below.

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 Cut-off Frequency and Phase Shift

The circuit gain, Av which is given as Vout/Vin (magnitude) and is calculated as:

PROCEDURE
1. Start- Electronic workbench- Multisim 14.1.
2. Select the components from place- components library according to the
following circuit.
3. Connect the oscilloscope [simulate-instrument-oscilloscope].
4. Simulate- Run.
5. Double click on the Bode plotter.
OBSERVATION
In the above experiment we observe that the o/p of CRO is much difference when the
theoretical characteristics curve and the practical and theoretical curve are different.
CONCLUSION
From the above experiment we observe that the characteristics of high pass filter.

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 Experiment - 11

Aim- Analyze the charging and discharging of an R-C & R-L circuit with oscilloscope and Compute the time
constant from the tabulated data and determine the rise time graphically.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:-

Sl. No Name of the Equipment Specification Quantity

1 RLC charging & discharging Kit - 1 no

2 Oscilloscope 2 MHZ 1 no
3 Connecting probes - As per required

Theory:-
R-C charging circuit:-
When a voltage source is applied to an RC circuit, the capacitor, C charges up through the resistance, R
A capacitor, ( C ) in series with a resistor, ( R ) forming a RC Charging Circuit connected across a DC battery supply (
Vs ) via a mechanical switch. at time zero, when the switch is first closed, the capacitor gradually charges up through
the resistor until the voltage across it reaches the supply voltage of the battery.
Let us assume above, that the capacitor, C is fully “discharged” and the switch (S) is fully open. These are the initial
conditions of the circuit, then t = 0, i = 0 and q = 0. When the switch is closed the time begins at t = 0 and
current begins to flow into the capacitor via the resistor.
Since the initial voltage across the capacitor is zero, ( Vc = 0 ) at t = 0 the capacitor appears to be a short circuit
to the external circuit and the maximum current flows through the circuit restricted only by the resistor R. Then
by using Kirchhoff‟s voltage law (KVL), the voltage drops around the circuit are given as:

The current now flowing around the circuit is called the Charging Current and is found by using Ohms law as: i =
Vs/R.

[R-C charging circuit]

 [RC Charging Circuit Curves]

RC Discharging Circuit:-
A Capacitor, C charges up through the resistor until it reaches an amount of time equal to 5 time constants
known as 5T, and then remains fully charged as long as a constant supply is applied to it.
If this fully charged capacitor is now disconnected from its DC battery supply voltage, the stored energy built up
during the charging process would stay indefinitely on its plates, (assuming an ideal capacitor and ignoring
any internal losses), keeping the voltage stored across its connecting terminals at a constant value.
If the battery was replaced by a short circuit, when the switch is closed the capacitor would discharge itself back
through the resistor, R as we now have a RC discharging circuit. As the capacitor discharges its current through the
series resistor the stored energy inside the capacitor is extracted with the voltage Vc across the capacitor decaying to
zero

In a RC Discharging Circuit the time constant ( τ ) is still equal to the value of 63%. Then for a RC discharging circuit
that is initially fully charged, the voltage across the capacitor after one time constant, 1T, has dropped by 63% of its
initial value which is 1 – 0.63 = 0.37 or 37% of its final value.
Thus the time constant of the circuit is given as the time taken for the capacitor to discharge down to
within 63% of its fully charged value. So one time constant for an RC discharge circuit is given as the voltage

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across the plates representing 37% of its final value, with its final value being zero volts (fully discharged), and in our
curve this is given as 0.37Vs.
As the capacitor discharges, it does not lose its charge at a constant rate. At the start of the discharging process,
the initial conditions of the circuit are: t = 0, i = 0 and q = Q. The voltage across the capacitors plates is equal to the
supply voltage and VC = VS. As the voltage at t = 0 across the capacitors plates is at its highest value, maximum
discharge current therefore flows around the RC circuit.

[R-C discharging circuit]

[RC Discharging Circuit Curves]

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R-L charging circuit:-
Suppose the inductor has no energy stored initially. At some point in time, the switch is moved to
position 1, the moment is called time t=0. As the switch closes the source voltage will appear
across the inductor and will try to pass current (I=V/R) abruptly through the inductor. But
according to the Lenz Law, the inductor will oppose the change in current. The current will gradually
increase unless it reaches its final value of current (I=V/R). At the same time, the voltage across the
inductor will decrease unless it reaches zero.

[RL series circuit for inductor charging]

[Inductor voltage during the charging phase]

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 [Inductor current during the charging phase]
R-L discharging circuit:-
Suppose the above inductor is charged (has stored energy in the magnetic field around
it) and has been disconnected from the voltage source. Now connected to the resistive load
i.e. the switch is moved to position 2 at the time t=0. The energy stored will be discharged to a
resistive load and will be dissipated in the resistor. The current will continue to flow in the same
direction and will gradually decrease to zero as well as the voltage across the inductor. But if the
inductor is disconnected and not connected to any load, so current will stop abruptly because
of no closed path. According to the equations above, it will cause a huge voltage across the
inductor and you will observe in the form of spark at switch terminals. The same phenomenon is
used for car engine ignition.

[RL series circuit during the decay phase]

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 [Inductor voltage during discharging phase]

[Inductor current during discharging phase]

Procedure:-
1- We should take all the tools & instrument for this experiment. 2-
Connect as per Circuit diagram.
3- Connect the oscilloscope at the output of circuits. 4-
Then switch ON the supply.
5- Then observe the wave forms.

Conclusion:- From the above experiment, we learnt about the analyze the charging and
discharging of an R-C & R-L circuit with oscilloscope.

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 Experiment - 12

Aim- Construct the following circuits using P-Spice/MATLAB software and compares the measurements and
waveforms.
i. Superposition theorem
ii. Series Resonant Circuit
iii. Transient Response in R-L-C series circuit

SOFTWARE USED : MULTISIM / MATLAB Simulink

(I) SUPERPOSITION THEOREM:

In a linear network with several independent sources which include equivalent sources
due to initial conditions, and linear dependent sources, the overall response in any part of
the network is equal to the sum of individual responses due to each independent
source, considered separately, with all other independent sources reduced to zero”.
Procedure:

Step 1:

1. Make the connections as shown in the circuit diagram by using MULTISIM/MATLAB Simulink.

2. Measure the response „I‟ in the load resistor by considering all the sources 10V, 15V and 8V in the
network.

Step 2:

1. Replace the sources 15V and 8V with their internal impedances (short circuited).

2. Measure the response „I1‟ in the load resistor by considering 10V source in the network.

Step 3:

1. Replace the sources 10V and 8V with their internal impedances (short circuited).

2. Measure the response „I2‟ in the load resistor by considering 15V source in the network.

Step 4:

1. Replace the sources 10V and 15V with their internal impedances (short circuited).

2. Measure the response „I3‟ in the load resistor by considering 8V source in the network. The
responses obtained in step 1 should be equal to the sum of the responses obtained in step 2, 3 and
4.

I=I1+I2+I3

Hence Superposition Theorem is verified.

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34
 Current through Load Resistor 15 Ohms :
Considering 10V Source I1= 0.2667A
Considering 15V Source I2 = 0.3333A
Considering 8V Source I3 = 0.1778
With all the sources in the network I = 0.1111A I=I1+I2+I3
Total Current : I1+I2+I3=0.2667-0.3333+0.1778
=0.1112A
Hence SuperPosition Theorem is Verified.

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(ii) Series Resonant Circuit:-

Aim: - To obtain the plot of of frequency vs. XL, frequency vs. XC , frequency vs. impedance and frequency vs.
current for the given series RLC circuit and determine the resonant frequency and check by theoretical
calculations. R = 15Ω , C = 10 µ F, L = 0.1 H, V = 50V vary frequency in steps of 1 Hz using Matlab.

%Program to find the Parallel Resonance

clc;
clear all;
close all;
r=input('enter the resistance value >');
l=input('enter the inductance value>');
c=input('enter the capacitance value >');
v=input('enter the input voltage - >');
f=5:2:300;
xl=2*pi*f*;
xc=(1./(2*pi*f*c)
);
x=xl-xc;
z=sqrt((r^2)+(x.^2));
i=v./z;
%plotting the graph
subplot(2,2,1);
plot(f,xl);
grid;
xlabel('frequency');
ylabel('X1');
subplot(2,2,2);
plot(f,xc);
grid;
xlabel('frequency');
ylabel('Xc');
subplot(2,2,3);
plot(f,z);
grid;
xlabel('frequency');
ylabel('Z');
subplot(2,2,4);
plot(f,i);
grid;
xlabel('frequency');
ylabel('I');

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 PROGRAM RESULT:
enter the resistance value >15
enter the inductance value - >0.1
enter the capacitance value ---- >10*10^-6
enter the input voltage ------ >50

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(iii) Transient Response in R-L-C series circuit:-
The transient response is the fluctuation in current and voltage in a circuit (after the application of a step
voltage or current) before it settles down to its steady state. This lab will focus on simulation of series RLC
(resistor inductor-capacitor) circuits to demonstrate transient analysis.
Transient Response of Circuit Elements:

A. Resistors: As has been studied before, the application of a voltage V to a resistor (with

resistance R ohms), results in a current I, according to the formula:

I = V/R
The current response to voltage change is instantaneous; a resistor has no transient response.

B. Inductors: A change in voltage across an inductor (with inductance L Henrys) does not result in an

instantaneous change in the current through it. The i-v relationship is described with the equation:

v=L di/ dt

This relationship implies that the voltage across an inductor approaches zero as the current in the

circuit reaches a steady value. This means that in a DC circuit, an inductor will eventually act like a

short circuit.

C. Capacitors: The transient response of a capacitor is such that it resists instantaneous change in the

voltage across it. Its i-v relationship is described by: i=C dv /dt

This implies that as the voltage across the capacitor reaches a steady value, the current

through it approaches zero. In other words, a capacitor eventually acts like an open circuit in a DC

circuit Series Combinations of Circuit Elements: Solving the circuits involves the solution of first

and second order differential equations.

[Sinusoidal response of series RLC Circuit]

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39
40
PROCEDURE:
1. Make the connections as shown in connection diagram.
2. Observe the output waveforms across RLC.
3. Change the value of resistance such that the output obtained at each oscilloscope is
i) Critically damped.
ii) Under damped.
iii) Over damped.

RESULT:

The critically damped, under damped, damped response is observed for an RLC network in
the simulation environment.
 The response to various inputs can be simulated.
 The response of any system designed can be simulated to verify its performance and design

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