Applied Energy 150 (2015) 109–119

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Applied Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/apenergy

Electrification of roads: Opportunities and challenges

Feng Chen a, Nathaniel Taylor b, Nicole Kringos a,⇑
a
Department of Civil and Architectural Engineering, KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Brinellvägen 23, 100 44 Stockholm, Sweden
b
Electromagnetic Engineering Department, School of Electrical Engineering, KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Teknikringen 33, 100 44 Stockholm, Sweden

h i g h l i g h t s

 A historical overview of the technology development towards the electrification of road is presented.
 A review of the Inductive Power Transfer technology and the corresponding pilot efforts is given.
 The challenges over the infrastructural aspects of eRoads are discussed in details.
 The significance of environmental performance of eRoad infrastructure is emphasized.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The Electrical Vehicle (EV) has become a potential solution for enhancing the sustainability of our road
Received 13 December 2014 transportation, in view of the environmental impacts traditional vehicles have regarding emissions and
Received in revised form 11 March 2015 use of fossil fuel dependence. However, the widespread use of EVs is still restrained by the energy storage
Accepted 14 March 2015
technologies, and the electrification of road transportation is still in its early stages. This paper focuses on
the technical aspects related to the ‘electrification of roads’ (called ‘eRoads’) infrastructure that aims to
diminish the limitations for using EVs. A historical overview of the technology development towards
Keywords:
the electrification of road transportation is presented, along with an overview of prospective technologies
Electrification
Inductive Power Transfer
for implementing an eRoad charging infrastructure. Of these, the Inductive Power Transfer (IPT) technol-
Road infrastructure ogy is examined in further details. The main objective of this paper is to explore the potential knowledge
Maintenance gaps that need to be filled for a successful integration of IPT technology within actual road infrastructure.
Environment As such, this paper can be used as an overview of the current state-of-the-art of eRoad infrastructure and
also as guidance towards future research directions in this domain.
Ó 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
1.1. Background and motivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
1.2. Definition of the eRoad infrastructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
1.3. The aim of this paper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
2. Historic overview of eRoad development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
2.1. Conductive charging solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
2.2. Contactless charging solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
2.2.1. Stationary IPT charging solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
2.2.2. Dynamic IPT charging solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
3. Technical development and challenges for eRoad infrastructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
3.1. An introduction of IPT charging system. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
3.1.1. Working principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
3.1.2. Geometric design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
3.2. The challenges for infrastructural integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
3.2.1. A survey on the existing eRoad pilots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114

⇑ Corresponding author. Tel.: +46 (0)87908700.

E-mail address: [email protected] (N. Kringos).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2015.03.067
0306-2619/Ó 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
110 F. Chen et al. / Applied Energy 150 (2015) 109–119

3.2.2. Practical challenges for the eRoad infrastructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114

3.2.3. Some general recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
3.3. Environmental challenge after the integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
4. Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Acknowledgement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118

1. Introduction energy source to other renewable resources. According to the

IEA’s statistics in [4], over 2.5 million BEV/HEV vehicles have been
An Electric Vehicle (EV) is a road vehicle that moves with elec- sold worldwide over the past decade; if all announced targets from
tric propulsion [1]. Given the reported high energy efficiency and the different countries are achieved by incorporating electrical
zero tailpipe emission, the EV has been given focus as a potential vehicles, about 1.5 million BEVs/HEVs would be sold by 2015 and
solution for enhancing the sustainability in our road transportation about 7 million by 2020.
sector. In recent years, no significant improvements have been Different electrical energy storage technologies have been
found for the available energy storage technologies. Recharging found developed and widely used [5,6]. Currently, batteries and
opportunities away from home have thus become a critical con- fuel cells are the main energy storage technologies that have been
cern in order to encourage widespread adoption for the use of discussed for the move towards all-electric vehicles. Batteries are
EVs. Various charging solutions have been studied actively towards commonly used at the moment while fuel cells are noted for their
an electrified-road (eRoad) infrastructure network. However, a potential to become part of the mainstream in the long term [7–
holistic point of view that includes all related technologies has 10]. The characteristics of some main commercialized types of bat-
not been given enough attention. For example, once a road inte- teries are summarized in Table 1 [11–18], not considering other
grates charging solutions for EVs, standard maintenance proce- indirect factors such as the management issues [19] or the safety
dures and material recycling principles utilized today may be in risks. It can be seen from Table 1 that, the lithium-ion type battery
need of severe modifications to ensure the sustainability of the is viewed as more attractive than other types due to its good per-
integrated system. The background, motivation and scope of this formance in specific energy, specific power and lifespan. Na-S also
study are given in the following subsections. suggests good characteristics but it has limitations such as high
operating cost and the need of an extra system to ensure its operat-
1.1. Background and motivation ing temperature [6]. According to the forecast by Roland Berger
[20], the global automotive Lithium-ion battery market will grow
Sustainable development as a principle can be found decades from USD 1.5 billion to around USD 10 billion by 2015, and may
ago [2], described as development that meets the needs of the pre- exceed USD 50 billion by 2020. However, apart from the high ini-
sent without compromising the ability of future generations to tial cost, the technical performance of Lithium-ion batteries is still
meet their own needs. A key concept is the idea of limitations far from the level that would be needed for widespread acceptance
imposed by the state of technology and social organization on of EVs. It was estimated in [7] that an advanced Li-ion battery in an
the environment’s ability to meet present and future needs. The EV could achieve 400–480 km range but would occupy a space of
transportation sector contributes largely to global fossil fuel con- some 450–600 l. Moreover, it was concluded in [21] that the avail-
sumptions and GHG emissions, enhancing its sustainability has ability of natural lithium material can be a potential problem
become a major issue. According to the statistics by the under future increased demand in Lithium-ion battery production,
International Energy Agency (IEA) [3], the transport sector cur- especially if this type of battery is widely used in the electrification
rently accounts for about 23% of total energy-related CO2 emis- of road transportation.
sions. And transport-related CO2 emission is projected to increase In view of the above, EVs have the potential to promote sustain-
by nearly 50% by 2030 and more than 80% by 2050 if in the absence ability in the road transportation sector in the long term, but are
of new polices. To move the sustainable development in the road currently constrained mainly by the energy source technology i.e.
transportation sector forward, short-term activities can promote the battery. The idea behind the eRoad infrastructure is to focus
improvement in fuel efficiency and vehicle emission controls while not only on the battery but also on the infrastructures that allow
the long-term goal is to focus on the transfer from fossil-based for providing electrical power dynamically. In other words, EVs

Table 1
A summary of typical commercialized batteries’ characteristic parameters.

Battery types Specific energy (Wh/kg) Specific power (W/kg) Lifespan (full cycles) Cost ($ kW h1)
Li-iona 100150 [11–13] 150200 [14], 400 [15] >1500 [13], 8002500 [15] 900 1300 [13], 7001200 [14],
>600 [5]
NiMHb 7095 [12,13], 5070 [14] 200300 [12,15] 10002500 [15] 200250[12], 250300 [15]
Lead-Acidc 3050 [13,16], 3540 [14] 180 [13], 200 [15] 1200–1800 [13], 1000 [15,14] 100150 [14], 300600 [16]
ZEBRAd 90120 [6,12,14] 150170 [6], 115 [12], 120 [15] 1300 [15] 230345 [12], 300600 [14,15]
Na-Se 150124 [12], 180 [17], 150230 [12], 160[17] >800 [12], 2500 [16], 250–450 [12], 300350 [16],
100 [18] 5002000 [17] >100 [17]
a
Lithium-ion battery.
b
Nickel-Metal-Hydride battery.
c
Lead-Acid battery.
d
Sodium-Nickel-Chloride battery.
e
Sodium-Sulfur battery.
 F. Chen et al. / Applied Energy 150 (2015) 109–119 111

can be powered continuously while moving along the eRoad, run- trolleybus dates back to the rail-less ‘electromote’ invented by
ning thus to longer distances with only a small battery capacity. In Dr. Ernst Werner von Siemens, which was presented to the public
this way, the main limitations of EV of high initial cost, short range, in Halensee, Berlin in 1882 [22]. The trolleybus has seen develop-
and time-consuming can be reduced significantly. A reduced bat- ment and operation throughout the last century, but has declined
tery size leads to advantages beyond just cost and space: by reduc- from fashion. It was concluded in [23] that passengers liked its
ing the EV’s weight, its energy consumption and also the wear that quiet, vibration-free operation, high performance and overload
it causes to the road are reduced; the limited availability of lithium capacity, and operators welcomed its long life and low mainte-
is also can be mitigated. Hence, an integration of eRoad infrastruc- nance requirements. However, the operational inflexibility
ture into the current transportation network can be a promising restraints, e.g. being tied to fixed routes, made trolleybuses diffi-
solution to promote EVs’ popularity and enhance the sustainability cult to integrate with motor buses. The demand for proliferation
of the road transportation sector. of road improvement and high cost of the energy and overhead
lines contributed further to their demise. A solution to improve
1.2. Definition of the eRoad infrastructure the operational flexibility was found in the transfer of the physical
contact between the vehicle and power source from the overhead
In this paper, the ‘eRoad’ is defined as a transportation infrastruc- to the road surface. This contact can be through a ‘‘collector’’ from
ture that is able to ‘‘deliver the electrical power to charge EVs effi- electric power rails located in the slot of a conduit below the road-
ciently while stationary or even in motion, using specific way [24]. It also can be the contact between the vehicle and a con-
conductive or contactless charging systems’’. Within this definition, ductive strip mounted on the road surface, like the power take-off
the eRoad can serve as an ordinary road for vehicles to use and, at system in [25] and the mechanical pantograph brush in the ‘‘E-
the same time, delivering electrical power to EVs. A succession of TRAN’’ concept in [26]. However, electrical safety issues, reliability
technical breakthroughs is required before the eRoad infrastructure and costs have so far restrained the application of these technolo-
can be sustainably implemented in practice: (i) the technologies gies. In recent years, new pantograph types are under investigation
that allow for acceptable charging solutions, (ii) successful integra- to power the heavy vehicles from conductors either overhead or on
tion of these technologies into the practical road infrastructure and the road surface, such as the Siemens E-Highway concept [27] and
(iii) good functionality and cost-effective maintenance manage- Volvo’s Slide-in Electric Road System [28].
ment over the lifetime of the pavement. Today, large-scale deploy- The second method to power electric vehicles is the use of
ment of different EVs charging infrastructures is still in its early onboard storage of energy, such as a battery, which can produce
stages; likewise, almost all road infrastructures built and main- electricity for the EV’s power supply when needed. The idea to
tained are still based on the traditional building principles which power a vehicle by a battery dates back to the early test performed
do not necessarily cater for the use of electrical vehicles. In this by Robert Davidson in 1842 [29]. He ran a locomotive with a small
sense, the eRoad transportation infrastructure is a multidisciplinary battery on the Edinburgh & Glasgow Railway, achieving a maxi-
research domain where an integrated effort will be of decisive mum speed of 4 miles per hour only. Noting that our predecessors
importance for its success. were just trying to find a suitable automobile propulsion method,
less attention was paid to electric propulsion after the advent of
1.3. The aim of this paper the internal combustion engine. It is due to the urgent concern
over our sustainable development in recent decades that the public
Many different disciplines are currently pursuing the develop- has been aroused to reconsider this green and renewable solution.
ment of knowledge and technology needed to enable electrification Different types of batteries have been developed, driven by various
of road transportation. These developments, supported by the important applications including EVs. The aforementioned lim-
state-of-the-art knowledge of the each discipline and supporting itations, however, still severely restrict the application potential
sector, can be expected to lead to individually optimized solutions. of EVs that depend on their battery for an entire journey. To
There is no guarantee, however, that the summation of these solu- develop EV technology further, focus has thus been given to the
tions will lead to an optimized system as a whole. Design and con- associated charging infrastructures, to provide quicker charging
struction choices of the individual parts should, even at the earliest at stopping points, or even to provide external power when the
stages of their development be considering the connectivity to the vehicle is in motion. Currently, the conductive method and the
other components to ensure the long-term sustainability of the contactless method are two main solutions pursued for charging
system. This paper attempts to address important missing inter- an EV. They are discussed in more detail in the following sections.
faces between disciplines within road electrification: (i) giving an
overview of some of the major research efforts that have been per- 2.1. Conductive charging solution
formed over the past years towards the electrification of road
transportation and (ii) discussing the potential challenges of and The conductive charging solution usually uses a cable that is
after their integration. Given the complexity of the topic, this paper plugged into a car by hand. It is also often referred to as a ‘plug-
has mostly focused on the Inductive Power Transfer (IPT) charging in’ charging solution. These solutions have been implemented in
solutions and the corresponding road infrastructure aspect. This is society and can be mostly seen at stations, parking lots and gar-
by no means a complete overview of the domain as many other ages. Different models used for connectivity [30] and various stan-
aspects, such as the electricity grid and safety issues, are not con- dards [31] have been found to support the practical application of
sidered. Nevertheless, this paper can be useful for researchers and this solution. The main drawbacks for conductive charging solu-
developers in this domain to be further aware of the impact of their tions are that (i) they need to be operated by hand; (ii) the recharg-
choices and the needed cross-couplings between domains for the ing needs to occur quite frequently due to the low battery capacity.
success of road electrification. Additionally, safety issues also have to be considered at dirty con-
tacts in wet weather conditions [30].
2. Historic overview of eRoad development
2.2. Contactless charging solution
The electrification of road transportation started long ago with
the electrically powered public transportation vehicles in urban The contactless charging solution is referred to as the use of a
areas, such as the trolleybuses. The original prototype of the Wireless Power Transmission (WPT) system to charge an EV. It
112 F. Chen et al. / Applied Energy 150 (2015) 109–119

was reported in [32,33] that the contactless charging solution is in Belgium [49], the Slide-in Electric Road System project in
more convenient and possibly safer than the conductive solution. Sweden [50], and the FABRIC project within European Union [51].
There are currently six main types of wireless power transmission
technologies that are under investigation for EVs [34]:
3. Technical development and challenges for eRoad
infrastructure
 Inductive Power Transfer (IPT)
 Capacitive Power Transfer (CPT)
Much research has been performed towards the development of
 Permanent Magnet Coupling Transfer (PMPT)
the charging systems, including the associated technologies e.g. the
 Resonant Inductive Power Transfer (RIPT)
power grid, electromagnetic shielding and information communi-
 On-line Inductive Power Transfer (OLPT)
cation. However, hardly any scientific research has been found
 Resonant Antennae Power Transfer (RAPT)
on the road infrastructural aspects, signifying thus an urgent need
of an extensive investigation regarding the integration of such
In these, the IPT technology has shown good performance and
technology in realistic road structures to enable EV charging.
studied actively as a contactless charging solution. Actually, the
Therefore, this paper focuses on the following three questions:
technology itself is not new and the principle can be similar as
the well-known Tesla coil invented by Nikola Tesla one century
 What are the mechanism, current achievement and limitations
ago [35]. The two basic conditions for an IPT system to deliver elec-
of IPT charging technology?
trical power efficiently and under a wide air gap distance are: (i) a
 What are the challenges for successful integration of the charg-
magnetic coupling between primary coils and secondary coils; (ii)
ing facilities into real roads?
resonance in the system. This technology has already been put into
 What will be the potential challenges that will emerge after the
commercial practice in home electronics devices and has recently
integration?
received increased popularity for mobile phones chargers [36,37].
Many attempts to power EVs by stationary IPT systems and even
To be able to answer these questions, in this section an intro-
in a dynamic way can be found in the past decades and with a sig-
duction of the IPT charging system’s working principle and a sur-
nificant increase in recent years. The main challenge for IPT charg-
vey on the past pilot test efforts are presented. Thereafter, a
ing solutions today lies in the limited energy transfer distance and
discussion is given on the challenges towards a successful integra-
efficiency. To illustrate this, a brief review is presented in the fol-
tion that minimizes the risk of premature damage to pavement and
lowing subsections.
IPT components, and enables sustainable maintenance operations
ensuring the long term performance of eRoads. Finally, the
2.2.1. Stationary IPT charging solution environmental performance of the eRoad is given focus, i.e. avoid-
The stationary IPT charging technology was found developed in ing a situation in which the benefits of using EVs to save energy
the 1990s. However, the harsh infrastructure requirements and usage and reduce GHG emissions are overshadowed by an increas-
high costs limited their application only to some specific cases ingly negative impact on the physical road infrastructure.
such as captive fleets and automatic rent-a-car systems [31].
Benefiting from the technology and associated policy develop- 3.1. An introduction of IPT charging system
ments, in recent years, the stationary IPT charging solution has
been revisited for the application of charging EVs. For instances, A Wireless Power Transmission (WPT) system can be defined as
[38] showed an 5 kW IPT system with a large air gap distance of ‘‘a system that can efficiently transmit electric power from one
20 cm and an efficiency up to 95%. In [39], a 5 kW IPT system point to another through the vacuum of space or the earth’s atmo-
was shown to transfer 90% of energy with an air gap of 175 mm sphere without the use of wires or any other substance’’ [52]. In a
to 265 mm. The Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) demon- broader sense, WPT can be classified as Far-field (radiative) trans-
strated an IPT system with a 2 kW output power at a fixed mission and Near-field (non-radiative) transmission. The Near-
100 mm air gap [40,41]. field WPT systems are more suited to transfer larger power via
magnetic coupling mechanism, while the Far-field WPT systems
2.2.2. Dynamic IPT charging solution are usually used to transmit signals to far distances for communi-
The theoretical principles of the dynamic IPT charging solutions cation with low EM power. The IPT technology is a typical Near-
are similar to the stationary ones but the conductive coils are nor- field WPT technology and has been studied actively in the contact-
mally placed along an extended distance. A typical dynamic IPT less charging solution for EVs. Other Mid-field and Far-field WPT
charging system used for EVs can be found in the old patents technologies, such as the strongly coupled magnetic resonance
[42–45], namely the ‘Road powered electric vehicles’ (RPEV). In [53,54] and electromagnetic radiation [55,56] (e.g. the RAPT tech-
their description, the EV onboard energy storage device can induc- nology mentioned previously), have also shown potential but are
tively receive electrical power through coils in the roadway over limited in their application due to the low power and efficiency,
which the vehicle travels. A systematic pilot test of dynamic IPT and complex tracking systems.
charging solution was performed by the California Partners for
Advanced Transit and Highways (PATH) throughout the 1980s– 3.1.1. Working principles
1990s [46]. In their test site, the track layout was 213 m long A typical IPT system usually consists of an on-board device
and with 134 m of buried inductor. The overall efficiency of the installed under the vehicle’s chassis and an off-board power deliv-
IPT system was reported to be 60% at a 100 kW peak input power. ery device embedded in the roadway. As illustrated in Fig. 1, a IPT
The Korean Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST) off-board system mainly has three parts: (1) the power supply that
introduced the ‘On-line Electrical Vehicle’ (OLEV) concept in 2009 provides a suitably regulated DC output voltage via a rectifier; (2) a
[47,48]. Their third-generation IPT system could transfer 17 kW converter to provide high output frequencies, combined with
power at a 17 cm air gap distance, and the energy efficiency was capacitance to achieve resonance with the transmitter and reduce
reported to go up to 71%. The feasibility of dynamic IPT charging the switching loss; (3) a transmitter that is mutually coupled with
solutions is under active investigations nowadays and many pilot the pick-up device, mainly consisting of conductive coils, ferrite
projects can be found. For instances, the Flanders’ DRIVE project cores and a backing plate. The on-board part can pick up high
 F. Chen et al. / Applied Energy 150 (2015) 109–119 113

Fig. 1. Diagram of a typical stationary IPT charging system.

Fig. 2. (a) Closed coil inductances and (b) a simplified equivalent circuit of IPT model.

Fig. 3. Different types of IPT charging transmitter: (a) circular structure; (b) polar structure and (c) bipolar structure; (d) bone structure of ultra slim W-type transmitter.

frequency AC current through magnetic coupling and change it Bus bars Pickup core
into a DC current to charge the installed battery.
The mechanism of magnetic induction relies on the Ampere’s
Asphalt
and Faraday laws. Ampere’s law states that an alternating current
in the primary coil can create an alternating magnetic field around
it, while Faraday’s law states that voltage can be induced in the
secondary coil if it is exposed to this time-varying magnetic field.
A simple explanation of the magnetic coupling and equivalent cir-
cuit of the IPT system is shown in Fig. 2.
The self-inductance L1 of the primary coil can be divided into a
leakage part due to the magnetic flux that links only this coil, and a
part due to magnetic flux that links both coils, illustrated in
Fig. 2(a). In order to compensate the large leakage flux, capaci-
tances C1 and C2 are introduced into the circuits. They can be con- Fig. 4. Illustration of cross section geometry of roadway and pickup inductor in
nected in series, shown in Fig. 2(b), but need not limited to a series PATH’s test site.
connection. Assuming that the voltages and currents are sinusoidal
with angular frequency x, the equivalent circuits of primary and
secondary coil in Fig. 2(b) can be described by the following phasor employed by Mickel et al. (2010) [57] showed that the typical
equations, where R1 and R2 are the resistances of the coils: switch currents are in the order of hundreds of milliamps when
the system is resonating with a track current of 23A. The perfor-
1 mance of a typical IPT system is influenced by many parameters,
U 1 ¼ R1 i1 þ jxL1 i1 þ i1  jxMi2 ð1Þ
jxC 1 such as frequency, the distance and the lateral misalignments
between the coils, the load and the geometry of the magnetic field,
1 which can be illustrated by the study performed in [58].
jxMi1 ¼ R2 i2 þ jxL2 i2 þ i2 þ Rload i2 ð2Þ
jxC 2
When resonance occurs, the reactive part of both the primary and 3.1.2. Geometric design
secondary impedances in the equivalent circuits comes to zero Ferrite shaping materials and highly electrically conductive
due to the compensations. Therefore, electrical energy losses due backing plates are commonly used in IPT transmitter structures
to the power electronics in the system can be minimized, such as to improve the performance of the transfer. According to the stud-
switching and resistive losses. To illustrate this, the experiment ies [39,59–62], the circular shaped structure is commonly used,
114 F. Chen et al. / Applied Energy 150 (2015) 109–119

while new polarized or double polarized structures appear to offer (3) KAIST’s OLEV project (South Korean) [68]. The existing road
a better tolerance for gap distances and misalignments. Some lane was excavated, and then the cable conductors and fer-
available transmitter structures for stationary inductive charging rite cores were installed. These conductors and ferrite cores
are shown in Fig. 3(a), (b) and (c). For a dynamic off-board IPT sys- were then sealed by cement concrete and a thin asphalt
tem, possible geometries include a long or sectioned wire loop and overlay was finally applied on top. In contrast to the
ultra slim bone structure (in Fig. 3(d)) [47,63–66]. PATH’s way, no inductor modules were used.

3.2. The challenges for infrastructural integration 3.2.2. Practical challenges for the eRoad infrastructure
The survey above suggests that little research has been per-
To build an eRoad using IPT technology, facilities such as trans- formed on the structural performance of eRoad infrastructure.
mitters (coils, ferrite cores) and other controlling and ICT sensors One similar case is the ‘solar energy harvesting road system’ pilot
need to be integrated into the road pavement. It is of paramount research that was performed in [69,70]. In this research,
importance that this integration does not influence the perfor- polypropylene pipes with 30 mm external diameter were embed-
mance of the individual components. It has been pointed out in ded inside the road pavement, with a 100 mm separation. A com-
[67] that the problem areas to be solved for IPT charging solution bined laboratory and FEM simulation study suggested that if the
are the development of appropriate roadway infrastructure: the pipes were located at a depth of less than 50 mm, damage could
existing technology requires that fragile ferrite materials have to be expected in asphalt top layers due to the traffic. Likewise, per-
be integrated into the road pavement in such a way to give a long manent deformation or shear failure of the asphalt around the dis-
service life in a very hostile environment. In fact, not only the frag- continuities was predicted due to the peak stresses near the tubes.
ile IPT facilities need to be protected, the protection of the road’s In the case of eRoad, similar mechanical risks can be expected,
structural performance itself is similarly essential. If an eRoad is especially at the interfaces between the IPT facilities and the road
damaged during its designed service lifetime, the IPT systems will materials. For this reason, in the following a summary is given
be prevented from functioning properly, leaving the eRoad in an about the challenging aspects that should be addressed for the suc-
overall state of malfunction for charging EVs or even supporting cessful eRoad implementation.
the mobility of ‘normal’ traffic. Keeping good long term perfor-
mance of the eRoads can thus be crucial in maximizing economic,
social and environmental benefits of the entire system. Timely 3.2.2.1. Concepts of road pavements and maintenance.
identification and addressing of these challenges are thus of para- (1) Road pavement types
mount importance and failure to do so would render all efforts to
optimize the IPT facilities useless in practice. Most road structures today are designed to have a long lifetime
(usually 20 years) in a cost-effective way. Generally, three types of
3.2.1. A survey on the existing eRoad pilots road pavements are mainly in use today. (a) Flexible asphalt pave-
The integration of IPT facilities into the road surface layers can ments: consisting of high-quality bituminous surface courses (hot
be a complex and variable process, and the research on this topic is mix asphalt, HMA) that are placed on a series of granular unbound
still in its early stages. An important pilot case is the PATH’s test layers. This type of pavement is applied extensively all around the
scenario performed throughout the 1980s–1990s [46]. The cross- world. (b) Rigid cement concrete pavements: usually consisting of a
sectional geometry of the roadway prototype is shown in Fig. 4. Portland Cement Concrete (PCC) slab layer that is placed either
It was reported that road mechanical integrity problems were directly on the prepared subgrade or on a single layer of granular
induced after the construction, leading to immediate appearance or stabilized material. (c) Composite pavements: consisting of both
of cracks. Some of these problems were due to inappropriate or HMA and PCC layers, where the PCC provides a strong base while
inexperienced construction procedures; others were due to lack the HMA provides a smooth and non-reflective surface. However,
of the theoretical analysis, an example was the bucking of the con- this type of pavement is not in standard used because of the initial
ducting cables that because of the induced thermal expansion cost is comparably higher.
discontinuities.
There are currently several on-going pilot cases regarding the (2) Maintenance activities
integration of IPT charging systems into the road surface.
Unfortunately, the information regarding the infrastructural aspect Normally, the aim of pavement maintenance activities is to
is still limited in all these: extend the road service lifetime, preventing progressive damage
and ensuring safety and comfort of the traffic. Due to the traffic
(1) Flanders’ DRIVE project (Belgium) [49]. The total test track and environmental loading over its service life, there are two broad
length is 600 meters, which include two inductive sections. failure modes in road pavement [71,72]: (1) Failure of the surfacing
In this, the first section has a cement concrete pavement layer: the purpose of the pavement surface is to allow vehicles to
and the second section is testing an asphalt concrete pave- pass in comfort and safely, and also to prevent the ingress of water
ment. It was claimed that it is possible to integrate the sys- into the pavement. Failure can take the form of loss of surface tex-
tem into both concrete and asphalt road surface. ture, loss of surface regularity or impermeability. (2) Failure of the
(2) Slide-in Electric Road System-Inductive project (Sweden) [50]. structural layer: cracking or rutting can happen when horizontal
The test track facility has a total length of 300 m of which strain or vertical strain exceeds the materials’ maximum limits in
4 highway segments of 20 m have been built. To install a the structural layer. This kind of failure will require expensive
segment of electric road, the top 200 mm depth of asphalt rehabilitation or reconstruction, and therefore must be postponed
road surface was ground away in an 800 mm wide strip. as long as possible by the design.
Then, the 20 m primary winding segments were installed According to the AASHTO Design Guide [73], pavement mainte-
in a carrier to maintain the winding shape, while the carrier nance actions for both flexible and rigid pavements usually include
was fixed to the roadbed and the cable ends routed to the the following types of work: (i) Periodic Maintenance: work under-
wayside power converter. Finally, 40 mm asphalt was taken primarily for the preservation of the existing roadway,
applied to complete the installation. It should be noticed mainly concerning the surface layer. This can include items such
that ferrite cores were not used in this pilot. as patching, filling potholes, sealing cracks and joints, repair of
 F. Chen et al. / Applied Energy 150 (2015) 109–119 115

Seasonal temperature changes

HMA
PCC

Joint point
Daily temperature changes
Bending stress δ

Shear stress τ

(a) (b)

Fig. 5. Reflective cracking mechanisms due to (a) traffic loading and (b) temperature variations (after [77,78]).

minor failures, resurfacing of a short length and undersealing of for these risks is available, and the best choice so far has been just
concrete slabs. (ii) Rehabilitation: work undertaken to extend the to delay the process, for example by using appropriate asphalt joint
service life of an existing pavement. This includes placement and materials [76–78].
replacement of additional surfacing material to restore a good sur-
face. It also could include other work necessary to return an exist- (2) Challenge for eRoad maintenance
ing roadway to a condition of structural or functional adequacy,
including the partial removal and replacement of the pavement In order to ensure the optimum functionality of eRoads over a
structure. very long time, early considerations of the eRoad’s maintenance
operations during its long service lifetime can be of great impor-
tance. However, the maintenance for eRoad will also be confronted
3.2.2.2. Challenges for the eRoad performance. There are generally with some practical challenges. For instances, given the sensitivity
two ways that can be used to embed the charging facilitates inside of the IPT system to the transfer distance, the requirement for the
the pavement surface: (i) The IPT facilities are fixed in excavated eRoad surface quality could be stricter than the case in ‘normal’
pavement as a skeleton structure, which is then sealed and pro- pavements. In addition, premature structural failure like rutting
tected by extra road materials; (ii) The IPT facilities can be will be intolerable for eRoad pavement, since the replacement or
moulded in prefabricated modules and then embedded into the reconstruction of an eRoad is anticipated to be difficult and com-
pavement as an entity. From a road infrastructure point of view, plex, given its heterogeneous structure.
challenges for both embedment methods could exist, arising from
two main aspects: (i) the potential premature damages in the early 3.2.3. Some general recommendations
service life and (ii) the cost-effective maintenance in the long term.
(1) Considerations of the eRoad structural design
(1) Challenge for the eRoad structure
A potential solution to prevent the structural distresses is to use
The structural performance for eRoads may be very different a very strong structural layer that can last for 50 years or even
from the traditional pavements, given the location of the IPT facili- longer, following the perpetual road concept. In this way, the main-
ties. In order that the traffic and environmental loading will not tenance actions can be confined to only the surface. In fact, some
induce premature damage to eRoad structure in its early service research [81–84] states that perpetual road pavements can be a
life stages, the charging facilities must be able to endure stresses very cost-effective choice for future road pavement design but the
caused by: the repeated loading from traffic, the climate-induced practical experience is not much and the initial cost will be higher
thermal contraction and expansion inside the pavement, freezing than ordinary roads. The IPT embedment is better done in the pave-
and frost heave during the winter and the moisture flow during ment surface layer rather than the structural layer or base/sub-base
thawing in spring. The charging facilities, especially the fragile fer- layers. The reason is that the structural layer’s protection is a very
rites, must not be susceptible to damage from these mechanical important aspect for the road pavement, and its failure will neces-
responses inside the eRoad. sitate expensive rehabilitation or reconstruction actions. Of course,
At the same time, the risks for cracking and de-bonding failures this consideration will depend strongly upon the geometry of the
around the discontinuous interfaces are relatively high and will charging facilities and their layout inside the pavement.
accelerate the structural deterioration. A typical example is the
reflective cracking that happens in the composite structure of (2) Considerations of the mechanical integrity
HMA overlay placed over existing PCC pavements. In this regard,
studies [74,75] have shown that due to the traffic and environmen- An additional, thin protection overlay (asphalt/concrete) on the
tal loading, excessive vertical and horizontal movements may eRoad surface can be very useful, giving the potential benefits that
occur around the discontinuous interfaces between the HMA over- include:
lay and the PCC layer. These movements can result in considerable
stresses, and cracking may happen when these stresses exceed the  The protection of the IPT facilities against accidental traffic and
HMA material’s strength. An illustration of the typical cracking environmental loading damage, and also against water ingress
mechanisms is given in Fig. 5. No particular prevention solution corrosion.
116 F. Chen et al. / Applied Energy 150 (2015) 109–119

Table 2
Summary of potential methods for improving eRoad structural integrity.

Method Mechanism Materials Comment

Overlay systems Asphalt Increased To retard reflective cracking by Not applicable A beneficial but not economical way
mixture thickness increasing the thickness of HMA
overlay [85] overlay
Reinforced To provide greater resistance to Polymers modified bitumen (SBS, Inexpensive, and easy for the paving
HMA stresses by reinforcing the rubber, carbon black, etc.), short- operation
materials pavement materials length (polypropylene or
[86,87] polyester) fibers
Open Contains large inter-connecting Open gradation asphalt mixtures, Performs well and reduces noise
graded air voids and can relieve the e.g., SMA and OGFC
structure stresses caused by PCC
[88,89] movements
Surface seals [90] Be applied before the road surface Hot bitumen or cold bitumen A cost-effective and quick maintenance
deteriorates to the stage patching emulsion is sprayed onto the road treatment method of rejuvenating a surface
or reconstruction is required surface, followed by spreading
qualified aggregate chips
Slurry Seals [91] Be applied in thin overlays (varies Mixtures of bitumen emulsion, Extending the life of existing pavements by
from 3 mm to 20 mm) to avoid fine aggregates, filler, water and protecting them against ageing and the
permanent deformation caused specific additives environment, but do not contribute to the
by the traffic structural strength of the pavement
Closed joint Joint materials Be placed between two Coal-tar products, rubber, Can accommodate very large movements
systems [76,77,91] pavements to accommodate silicone, and polymer modified
movements, improving asphalt binder
waterproofing, riding quality,
noise reduction
Geometry design To optimize gap plate width, Not applicable Can help reduce the interface stresses or the
[78,91,92] thickness, edge geometry and the tensile stresses within the joint materials
interface geometry
Interlayer systems Stress absorbing Absorb movements at the joints Placing a seal coat made of rubber Effective to relieve stress and usually varies
membrane interlayer and dissipate stress before it asphalt binder then rolling in from 0.6–1.0 cm
[80,93,94] reaches the overlay coarse aggregate chips
Geosynthetics Use fabrics, grids, and composites Geotextile, fiber-glass, Mostly mixed used, and the performance
interlayers [79,94–97] to reinforce the HMA overlay, and geocomposite, etc. tack coat is highly depends on proper construction
impregnated in tack coat to emulsified and rubberized procedures
absorb excessive stresses asphalt
Reinforcement Reinforce overlay in the event of Steel nettings, Glass-fiber grids Initial high cost of construction but can
interlayers [98,75,99] excessive yielding/fracture extend lifespan longer

 An overlay that may act as a stress relief layer to improve the concentrations, and their structural thickness can reduce deflec-
structural integration and benefit the eRoad’s long term tions and also moisture [93].
performance. Attention should be paid to the fact that these methods perform
 Enhanced cost-effectiveness as maintenance and rehabilitation differently in different road conditions and climates. In this sense,
actions will be confined to only the overlay. their real effectiveness for handling the mechanical problems in
 Avoiding safety issues related to the voltages present in the IPT eRoad is still not clear and should be selected carefully before their
system. implementation.

An additional overlay, however, will increase the energy trans- (3) Considerations regarding long term maintenance
fer distance (by some 2–5 cm). Therefore, it should be as thin as
possible, which in return puts high demands on its long-term Preventive maintenance can be important for the eRoad to
material quality. ensure its good surface quality. This is a periodic maintenance
It is also possible to use different closed joint and interlayer action that is carried out when the road is still in good condition
materials at the mechanically discontinuous interfaces. These to delay the potential surface failures. It includes activities such
materials may have the potential to release the high stresses or as controlling the effects of oxidation, ravelling (i.e. de-bonding
strains, delaying the potential cracking or de-bonding damages. A of stones from the surface layers) and surface cracking.
summary is presented in Table 2 [85–98,75,99]. High-quality joint Resurfacing of the overlay can be done every few years to ensure
materials can accommodate very large structural movements, the functionality, safety and comfort, and avoid more severe main-
which can today be found in the application between asphalt sec- tenance needs. Pavement reinforcement concepts [100] can also be
tions on road bridges. For example, polymer-modified asphaltic introduced since they can improve the robustness and cost-effec-
plug joints (APJ) [76] are required to work within a temperature tiveness of the road pavement as a whole.
range from 25 °C to +45 °C and to sustain gap closings and open- Suitable structural health monitoring systems can be used to
ings from 12.5 mm to 25 mm, at the same time being able to take continuously monitor the changes of stresses, deformations, mois-
vertical gap movements up to a maximum of 5 mm. Likewise, dif- tures and temperature gradients within the eRoad structure. Based
ferent types of Interlayer materials have been used quite fre- on these, actions can be taken before the structural distresses hap-
quently to mitigate reflective cracking and preserve the integrity pen. In this, the selection of the sensors for the eRoad should con-
of the pavement. Asphalt Rubber Membrane Interlayers (ARMI) is sider carefully over electromagnetic noise immunity, structural
a good example of this; they can help reduce the stress integrity with eRoad and measurement accuracy.
 F. Chen et al. / Applied Energy 150 (2015) 109–119 117

Moreover, given the complex structure and high initial cost of environmental impact of the changed road construction
eRoad, the major rehabilitation activities should be delayed as long and maintenance also needs to be included in EV’s total life
as possible; even if inevitable in the future, they are better to be cycle performance. In other words, the benefits of the elec-
limited to the road material sections rather than the whole struc- trified road transportation should not be overshadowed by
ture. This can also be one of the reasons why the IPT facilities the added energy or GHG emission associated with the
may be better envisaged to be prefabricated in the module and inclusion of IPT charging technology in the road
embedded as an entity. infrastructure.

3.3. Environmental challenge after the integration Overall, the introduction of eRoad infrastructure could con-
tribute to the promotion of EVs’ implementation into the market,
Supposing that all the technical limitations can ultimately be but its real environmental benefits are still poorly known and are
removed, there is still a great need to reflect upon the original not expected to be realized immediately. To provide the critical
aim of pursuing the EV technology to effectively reduce the decision support for eRoad infrastructure, towards the goal of
environmental impacts of our transportation system. To answer enhanced transportation sustainability, a combined life cycle
this, the analysis over the total lifecycle performance of EVs and assessment performed over the fuel, vehicle, charging facilities
its comparison with the conventional ICE vehicles from the whole and road infrastructure is thereby essential.
system’s perspective will be of great importance. Life Cycle
Assessment (LCA), as a technique for assessing the environmental
aspects and potential impacts associated with a product through- 4. Summary
out its life [101], has been used extensively to study the environ-
mental performance of EVs regarding the energy consumption Considering the environmental impacts of traditional vehicles
and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. It is thereby important, how- regarding emission and use of fossil fuel, electrical vehicles (EVs)
ever, that appropriate system boundaries are chosen and that the have become a potential solution for contributing to the sustain-
integrated system is considered. Several aspects can be included ability of our road transportation. This paper provided an overview
in such an analysis: of the knowledge and technologies that will be needed to enable
the electrification of road transportation, including their current
(1) Fuel life cycle performance. This includes phases of upstream achievement and limitations. From the road infrastructure per-
production and downstream in-use. Studies [102–106] have spective, this paper tries to further investigate the potential chal-
shown that compared to the conventional ICEs, EVs can lenges that are generally not being taken into account in current
reduce the energy consumption and GHG emissions signifi- research efforts to determine the success of an electrified road.
cantly during the total life cycle. This reduction depends Based on the research performed for this paper, the following con-
heavily on the energy source types, while shifting from high clusions can be given:
GHG intensity power sources to cleaner energy sources
offers the greatest potential. For instance, in [107] a micro- (1) The electrification of the road transportation sector has a
grid system was proposed, consisting of wind turbines, solar long history and is developing further towards the future.
panels and stationary storage facilities. In this, the trolleybuses played an important role while other
(2) Vehicle life cycle performance. This includes phases of vehicle energy storage technologies have also been studied. In
production, use and end of life. Studies [108–110] have recent decades, there is a great concern over the enhanced
shown that compared to conventional ICVs, EVs’ life cycle sustainability of road transportation sector and the use of
energy consumptions and GHG emissions are more intensive EVs has been given great expectation. Different charging
than that of conventional ICVs life cycle due to the produc- solutions have been studied actively to diminish the battery
tion, maintenance and management of extra energy source limitations for EVs, especially the Inductive Power Transfer
facilities. In other words, the energy source facilities (battery (IPT) technology that applied to dynamic charging.
and associated devices) contribute mostly to the increased (2) From a road infrastructural perspective, there is a lack of
EVs’ vehicle life cycle energy consumption and GHG consideration regarding the practical road infrastructure
emissions. where the charging solutions will be enabled from.
(3) Energy supply infrastructure life cycle performance. The energy Specifically, the structural integrity, the cost-effective con-
supply infrastructure (including power plant, grid and dis- struction and the maintenance will be key challenges.
tribution) has performed as an indirect role in the EVs’ life Some general suggestions were made but their real effec-
cycle environmental performance [111–114]. The environ- tiveness will depend strongly on many other factors, such
mental impacts from the energy supply infrastructure can as the geometry and structural properties of the IPT
reduce the EVs’ potential in energy usage and GHG emis- facilities.
sions. Although this is not a dominating factor, it should (3) Many challenges have been noticed and studied for the suc-
not be neglected. cess of IPT charging solution towards the application.
(4) Road infrastructure life cycle performance. Road infrastructure However, there are some further missing interfaces after
is an important part of the system that contributes to the the integration that are mostly overlooked but need to be
overall life cycle environmental impacts in the transporta- given serious consideration in the future. For instance, the
tion sector [115,116]. Provided that the eRoad is built based eRoad’s environmental performance can be of great impor-
on upgrading the existing road infrastructure, the road pave- tance, i.e. the real effectiveness of using eRoad infrastructure
ment will be excavated and reconstructed. Likewise, regular to reduce the overall energy usage and GHG emissions.
operational maintenance actions will be performed through-
out the use phase to ensure the good conditions of the Last but not least, this is just a starting point for this
eRoad. In these stages, new infrastructural materials, new ‘Electrification of Road’ infrastructure research domain. There are
on-site processes and extra waste disposals can be involved other possible challenges that have not been given focus in a road
but the consequential environmental impacts are unclear. infrastructure point of view. For instance, it was found in [40] that
Therefore, for the case of eRoad infrastructure, the the electromagnetic loss caused by the road surface materials
118 F. Chen et al. / Applied Energy 150 (2015) 109–119

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