Anodizing

and the crystal structure of the metal near the surface.

Thick coatings are normally porous, so a sealing process
is often needed to achieve corrosion resistance. Anodized
aluminium surfaces, for example, are harder than alu-
minium but have low to moderate wear resistance that
can be improved with increasing thickness or by apply-
ing suitable sealing substances. Anodic films are gener-
ally much stronger and more adherent than most types of
paint and metal plating, but also more brittle. This makes
them less likely to crack and peel from aging and wear,
but more susceptible to cracking from thermal stress.

These carabiners have an anodized aluminium surface that has

1 History
been dyed; they are made in many colors.
Anodizing was first used on an industrial scale in 1923
Anodizing (also spelled anodising, particularly in the to protect Duralumin seaplane parts from corrosion.
UK, India and Australia) is an electrolytic passivation This early chromic acid–based process was called the
process used to increase the thickness of the natural oxide Bengough-Stuart process and was documented in British
layer on the surface of metal parts. defence specification DEF STAN 03-24/3. It is still used
today despite its legacy requirements for a complicated
The process is called anodizing because the part to be voltage cycle now known to be unnecessary. Variations
treated forms the anode electrode of an electrical circuit. of this process soon evolved, and the first sulfuric acid
Anodizing increases resistance to corrosion and wear, and anodizing process was patented by Gower and O'Brien in
provides better adhesion for paint primers and glues than 1927. Sulfuric acid soon became and remains the most
does bare metal. Anodic films can also be used for a num- common anodizing electrolyte.[1]
ber of cosmetic effects, either with thick porous coatings
that can absorb dyes or with thin transparent coatings that Oxalic acid anodizing was first patented in Japan in 1923
add interference effects to reflected light. and later widely used in Germany, particularly for ar-
chitectural applications. Anodized aluminium extrusion
Anodizing is also used to prevent galling of threaded was a popular architectural material in the 1960s and
components and to make dielectric films for electrolytic 1970s, but has since been displaced by cheaper plastics
capacitors. Anodic films are most commonly applied and powder coating.[2] The phosphoric acid processes are
to protect aluminium alloys, although processes also ex- the most recent major development, so far only used as
ist for titanium, zinc, magnesium, niobium, zirconium, pretreatments for adhesives or organic paints.[1] A wide
hafnium, and tantalum. Iron or carbon steel metal exfo- variety of proprietary and increasingly complex varia-
liates when oxidized under neutral or alkaline microelec- tions of all these anodizing processes continue to be de-
trolytic conditions; i.e., the iron oxide (actually ferric hy- veloped by industry, so the growing trend in military and
droxide or hydrated iron oxide, also known as rust) forms industrial standards is to classify by coating properties
by anoxic anodic pits and large cathodic surface, these rather than by process chemistry.
pits concentrate anions such as sulfate and chloride accel-
erating the underlying metal to corrosion. Carbon flakes
or nodules in iron or steel with high carbon content (high-
carbon steel, cast iron) may cause an electrolytic potential 2 Anodized aluminium
and interfere with coating or plating. Ferrous metals are
commonly anodized electrolytically in nitric acid or by Aluminium alloys are anodized to increase corrosion
treatment with red fuming nitric acid to form hard black resistance and to allow dyeing (coloring), improved
ferric oxide. This oxide remains conformal even when lubrication, or improved adhesion. However, anodizing
plated on wire and the wire is bent. does not increase the strength of the aluminium object.
Anodizing changes the microscopic texture of the surface The anodic layer is non-conductive.[3]

1
2 2 ANODIZED ALUMINIUM

When exposed to air at room temperature, or any other face. If the part is anodized on all sides, then all linear di-
gas containing oxygen, pure aluminium self-passivates by mensions will increase by the oxide thickness. Anodized
forming a surface layer of amorphous aluminium oxide 2 aluminium surfaces are harder than aluminium but have
to 3 nm thick,[4] which provides very effective protec- low to moderate wear resistance, although this can be im-
tion against corrosion. Aluminium alloys typically form proved with thickness and sealing.
a thicker oxide layer, 5–15 nm thick, but tend to be more
susceptible to corrosion. Aluminium alloy parts are an-
odized to greatly increase the thickness of this layer for 2.1 Process
corrosion resistance. The corrosion resistance of alu-
minium alloys is significantly decreased by certain alloy- The anodized aluminium layer is grown by passing a
ing elements or impurities: copper, iron, and silicon,[5] so direct current through an electrolytic solution, with the
2000-, 4000-, and 6000-series Al alloys tend to be most aluminium object serving as the anode (the positive elec-
susceptible. trode). The current releases hydrogen at the cathode (the
negative electrode) and oxygen at the surface of the alu-
Although anodizing produces a very regular and uniform
minium anode, creating a build-up of aluminium oxide.
coating, microscopic fissures in the coating can lead to
Alternating current and pulsed current is also possible but
corrosion. Further, the coating is susceptible to chemical
rarely used. The voltage required by various solutions
dissolution in the presence of high- and low-pH chem-
may range from 1 to 300 V DC, although most fall in
istry, which results in stripping the coating and corro-
the range of 15 to 21 V. Higher voltages are typically re-
sion of the substrate. To combat this, various techniques
quired for thicker coatings formed in sulfuric and organic
have been developed either to reduce the number of fis-
acid. The anodizing current varies with the area of alu-
sures, to insert more chemically stable compounds into
minium being anodized and typically ranges from 30 to
the oxide, or both. For instance, sulfuric-anodized ar-
300 A/m2 (2.8 to 28 A/ft2 ).
ticles are normally sealed, either through hydro-thermal
sealing or precipitating sealing, to reduce porosity and in- Aluminium anodizing is usually performed in an acid so-
terstitial pathways that allow corrosive ion exchange be- lution, which slowly dissolves the aluminium oxide. The
tween the surface and the substrate. Precipitating seals acid action is balanced with the oxidation rate to form a
enhance chemical stability but are less effective in elimi- coating with nanopores, 10–150 nm in diameter.[6] These
nating ion exchange pathways. Most recently, new tech- pores are what allow the electrolyte solution and cur-
niques to partially convert the amorphous oxide coat- rent to reach the aluminium substrate and continue grow-
ing into more stable micro-crystalline compounds have ing the coating to greater thickness beyond what is pro-
been developed that have shown significant improvement duced by autopassivation.[8] However, these same pores
based on shorter bond lengths. will later permit air or water to reach the substrate and
initiate corrosion if not sealed. They are often filled with
Some aluminium aircraft parts, architectural materials,
colored dyes and/or corrosion inhibitors before sealing.
and consumer products are anodized. Anodized alu-
Because the dye is only superficial, the underlying oxide
minium can be found on MP3 players, smartphones,
may continue to provide corrosion protection even if mi-
multi-tools, flashlights, cookware, cameras, sporting
nor wear and scratches may break through the dyed layer.
goods, window frames, roofs, in electrolytic capacitors,
and on many other products both for corrosion resistance Conditions such as electrolyte concentration, acidity, so-
and the ability to retain dye. Although anodizing only has lution temperature, and current must be controlled to al-
moderate wear resistance, the deeper pores can better re- low the formation of a consistent oxide layer. Harder,
tain a lubricating film than a smooth surface would. thicker films tend to be produced by more dilute solutions
at lower temperatures with higher voltages and currents.
Anodized coatings have a much lower thermal conduc-
The film thickness can range from under 0.5 micrometers
tivity and coefficient of linear expansion than aluminium.
for bright decorative work up to 150 micrometers for ar-
As a result, the coating will crack from thermal stress if
chitectural applications.
exposed to temperatures above 80 °C (353 K). The coat-
[6]
ing can crack, but it will not peel. The melting point of
aluminium oxide is 2050 °C (2323 K), much higher than 2.2 Dual-finishing aluminium
pure aluminium’s 658 °C (931 K).[6] This and the non-
conductivity of aluminum oxide can make welding more Anodizing can be performed in combination with
difficult. chromate conversion coating. Each process provides cor-
In typical commercial aluminium anodizing processes, rosion resistance, with anodizing offering a significant
the aluminium oxide is grown down into the surface and advantage when it comes to ruggedness or physical wear
out from the surface by equal amounts.[7] So anodizing resistance. The reason for combining the processes can
will increase the part dimensions on each surface by half vary, however, the significant difference between anodiz-
the oxide thickness. For example, a coating that is 2 μm ing and chromate conversion coating is the electrical con-
thick will increase the part dimensions by 1 μm per sur- ductivity of the films produced. Although both stable
compounds, chromate conversion coating has a greatly in-
3.2 Sulfuric acid anodizing (Type II & III) 3

creased electrical conductivity. Applications where this 3.2 Sulfuric acid anodizing (Type II & III)
may be useful are varied, however, the issue of ground-
ing or earthing components as part of a larger system is
Sulfuric acid is the most widely used solution to produce
an obvious one.
anodized coating. Coatings of moderate thickness 1.8 μm
The dual finishing process uses the best each process has to 25 μm (0.00007” to 0.001”)[10] are known as Type II
to offer, anodizing with its hard wear resistance and chro- in North America, as named by MIL-A-8625, while coat-
mate conversion coating with its electrical conductivity.[9] ings thicker than 25 μm (0.001”) are known as Type III,
The process steps can typically involve chromate conver- hardcoat, hard anodizing, or engineered anodizing. Very
sion coating the entire component, followed by a masking thin coatings similar to those produced by chromic an-
of the surface in areas where the chromate coating must odizing are known as[6] Type IIB. Thick coatings require
remain intact. Beyond that, the chromate coating is then more process control, and are produced in a refriger-
dissolved in unmasked areas. The component can then ated tank near the freezing point of water with higher
be anodized, with anodizing taking to the unmasked ar- voltages than the thinner coatings. Hard anodizing can be
eas. The exact process will vary dependent on service made between 13 and 150 μm (0.0005” to 0.006”) thick.
provider, component geometry and required outcome. Anodizing thickness increases wear resistance, corrosion
resistance, ability to retain lubricants and PTFE coatings,
and electrical and thermal insulation. Standards for thin
(Soft/Standard) sulfuric anodizing are given by MIL-A-
3 Other widely used specifications 8625 Types II and IIB, AMS 2471 (undyed), and AMS
2472 (dyed), BS EN ISO 12373/1 (decorative), BS 3987
(Architectural) . Standards for thick sulfuric anodizing
The most widely used anodizing specification in the
are given by MIL-A-8625 Type III, AMS 2469, BS 5599,
US is a U.S. military spec, MIL-A-8625, which de-
BS EN 2536 and the obsolete AMS 2468 and DEF STAN
fines three types of aluminium anodization. Type I is
03-26/1.
chromic acid anodization, Type II is sulfuric acid an-
odization, and Type III is sulfuric acid hardcoat anodiza-
tion. Other anodizing specifications include more MIL-
SPECs (e.g., MIL-A-63576), aerospace industry specs by
organizations such as SAE, ASTM, and ISO (e.g., AMS
2469, AMS 2470, AMS 2471, AMS 2472, AMS 2482, 3.3 Organic acid anodizing
ASTM B580, ASTM D3933, ISO 10074, and BS 5599),
and corporation-specific specs (such as those of Boeing,
Lockheed Martin, and other large contractors). AMS Anodizing can produce yellowish integral colors without
2468 is obsolete. None of these specifications define a dyes if it is carried out in weak acids with high[6]voltages,
detailed process or chemistry, but rather a set of tests and high current densities, and strong refrigeration. Shades
quality assurance measures which the anodized product of color are restricted to a range which includes pale yel-
must meet. BS 1615 provides guidance in the selection of low, gold, deep bronze, brown, grey, and black. Some ad-
alloys for anodizing. For British defence work, a detailed vanced variations can produce a white coating with 80%
chromic and sulfuric anodizing processes are described reflectivity. The shade of color produced is sensitive to
by STAN 03-24/3 and STAN 03-25/3 respectively. variations in the metallurgy of the underlying alloy and
cannot be reproduced consistently.[2]
Anodization in some organic acids, for example malic
3.1 Chromic acid anodizing (Type I) acid, can enter a 'runaway' situation, in which the cur-
rent drives the acid to attack the aluminum far more ag-
The oldest anodizing process uses chromic acid. It is gressively than normal, resulting in huge pits and scarring.
widely known as the Bengough-Stuart process. In North Also, if the current or voltage are driven too high, 'burn-
America it is known as Type I because it is so designated ing' can set in; in this case the supplies act as if nearly
by the MIL-A-8625 standard, but it is also covered by shorted and large, uneven and amorphous black regions
AMS 2470 and MIL-A-8625 Type IB. In the UK it is nor- develop.
mally specified as Def Stan 03/24 and used in areas that Integral color anodizing is generally done with organic
are prone to come into contact with propellants etc. There acids, but the same effect has been produced in labo-
are also Boeing and Airbus standards. Chromic acid pro- ratory with very dilute sulfuric acid. Integral color an-
duces thinner, 0.5 μm to 18 μm (0.00002” to 0.0007”)[10] odizing was originally performed with oxalic acid, but
more opaque films that are softer, ductile, and to a degree sulfonated aromatic compounds containing oxygen, par-
self-healing. They are harder to dye and may be applied ticularly sulfosalicylic acid, have been more common
as a pretreatment before painting. The method of film since the 1960s.[2] Thicknesses up to 50 μm can be
formation is different from using sulfuric acid in that the achieved. Organic acid anodizing is called Type IC by
voltage is ramped up through the process cycle. MIL-A-8625.
4 5 DYEING

3.4 Phosphoric acid anodizing when sealed with oil, wax, or sodium silicate.[12] Stan-
dards for magnesium anodizing are given in AMS 2466,
Anodizing can be carried out in phosphoric acid, usually AMS 2478, AMS 2479, and ASTM B893.
as a surface preparation for adhesives. This is described
in standard ASTM D3933.
4.3 Anodized zinc

3.5 Borate and tartrate baths Zinc is rarely anodized, but a process was developed by
the International Lead Zinc Research Organization and
Anodizing can also be performed in borate or tartrate covered by MIL-A-81801.[12] A solution of ammonium
baths in which aluminium oxide is insoluble. In these phosphate, chromate and fluoride with voltages of up to
processes, the coating growth stops when the part is fully 200 V can produce olive green coatings up to 80 μm
covered, and the thickness is linearly related to the volt- thick.[12] The coatings are hard and corrosion resistant.
age applied.[6] These coatings are free of pores, relative Zinc or Galvanized steel can be anodized at lower volt-
to the sulfuric and chromic acid processes.[6] This type ages (20-30 V) as well using direct currents from sili-
of coating is widely used to make electrolytic capacitors, cate baths containing varying concentration of sodium sil-
because the thin aluminium films (typically less than 0.5 icate, sodium hydroxide, borax, sodium nitrite and nickel
μm) would risk being pierced by acidic processes.[1] sulphate.[13]

3.6 Plasma electrolytic oxidation 4.4 Anodized niobium

Plasma electrolytic oxidation is a similar process, but Niobium anodizes in a similar fashion to titanium with
where higher voltages are applied. This causes sparks to a range of attractive colors being formed by interference
occur, and results in more crystalline/ceramic type coat- at different film thicknesses. Again the film thickness is
ings. dependent on the anodizing voltage.[14][15] Uses include
jewelry and commemorative coins.

4 Other metals
4.5 Anodized tantalum
4.1 Anodized titanium Tantalum anodizes in a similar fashion to titanium and
niobium with a range of attractive colors being formed by
interference at different film thicknesses. Again the film
thickness is dependent on the anodizing voltage and typ-
ically ranges from 18-23 Angstroms per volt depending
Selected colors achievable through anodization of titanium.
on electrolyte and temperature. Uses include Tantalum
capacitors.
Anodized titanium is used in a recent generation of
dental implants. An anodized oxide layer has a thick-
ness in the range of 30 nanometers (1.2×10−6 in) to sev- 5 Dyeing
eral micrometers.[11] Standards for titanium anodizing
are given by AMS 2487 and AMS 2488. The most common anodizing processes, for example sul-
furic acid on aluminium, produce a porous surface which
Anodizing titanium generates an array of different col-
can accept dyes easily. The number of dye colors is al-
ors without dyes, for which it is sometimes used in art,
most endless; however, the colors produced tend to vary
costume jewelry, body piercing jewelry and wedding
according to the base alloy. Though some may prefer
rings. The color formed is dependent on the thickness of
lighter colors, in practice they may be difficult to produce
the oxide (which is determined by the anodizing voltage);
on certain alloys such as high-silicon casting grades and
it is caused by the interference of light reflecting off the
2000-series aluminium-copper alloys. Another concern
oxide surface with light traveling through it and reflecting
is the “lightfastness” of organic dyestuffs—some colors
off the underlying metal surface.
(reds and blues) are particularly prone to fading. Black
dyes and gold produced by inorganic means (ferric am-
monium oxalate) are more lightfast. Dyed anodizing is
4.2 Anodized magnesium
usually sealed to reduce or eliminate dye bleed out.
Magnesium is anodized primarily as a primer for paint. A Alternatively, metal (usually tin) can be electrolytically
thin (5 μm) film is sufficient for this.[12] Thicker coatings deposited in the pores of the anodic coating to provide
of 25 μm and up can provide mild corrosion resistance colors that are more lightfast. Metal dye colors range
 5

torcycle components, and architectural moulding.

7 Sealing
Acidic anodizing solutions produce pores in the anodized
coating. These pores can absorb dyes and retain lubri-
cants, but are also an avenue for corrosion. When lubri-
cation properties are not critical, they are usually sealed
after dyeing to increase corrosion resistance and dye re-
tention. Long immersion in boiling-hot deionized water
or steam is the simplest sealing process, although it is not
completely effective and reduces abrasion resistance by
20%.[6] The oxide is converted into its hydrated form, and
the resulting swelling reduces the porosity of the surface.
Cold sealing, where the pores are closed by impregnation
of a sealant in a room-temperature bath, is more popular
due to energy savings. Coatings sealed in this method are
not suitable for adhesive bonding. Teflon, nickel acetate,
cobalt acetate, and hot sodium or potassium dichromate
seals are commonly used. MIL-A-8625 requires sealing
for thin coatings (Types I and II) and allows it as an option
for thick ones (Type III).

8 Cleaning
Anodized aluminium surfaces are susceptible to panel
edge staining, a unique type of surface staining that can
Colored iPod Mini cases are dyed following anodizing and before affect the structural integrity of the metal.
thermal sealing

from pale champagne to black. Bronze shades are com- 9 Environmental impact
monly used for architectural metals.
Alternatively the color may be produced integral to the Anodizing is one of the more environmentally friendly
film. This is done during the anodizing process using metal finishing processes. With the exception of organic
organic acids mixed with the sulfuric electrolyte and a (aka integral color) anodizing, the by-products contain
pulsed current. only small amounts of heavy metals, halogens, or volatile
Splash effects are created by dying the unsealed porous organic compounds. Integral color anodizing produces
surface in lighter colors and then splashing darker color no VOCs, heavy metals, or halogens as all of the byprod-
dyes onto the surface. Aqueous and solvent-based dye ucts found in the effluent streams of other processes
mixtures may also be alternately applied since the colored come from their dyes or plating materials.[16] The most
dyes will resist each other and leave spotted effects. common anodizing effluents, aluminium hydroxide and
aluminium sulfate, are recycled for the manufacturing of
alum, baking powder, cosmetics, newsprint and fertilizer
or used by industrial wastewater treatment systems.
6 Printing
Photo-quality images and graphics in vivid color may be
printed into the unsealed porous oxide layer using color 10 Mechanical considerations
dyes via silkscreen, sublimation transfer or digital printer.
Line-art-quality graphics can be achieved by use of a Anodizing will raise the surface, since the oxide created
printer. Color graphics may also be directly applied by occupies more space than the base metal converted.[17]
hand using an airbrush, sponge or paintbrush. Printed an- This will generally not be of consequence except where
odizing is sealed to prevent or reduce dye bleed-out. Uses there are tight tolerances. If so, the thickness of the an-
include baseball bats, signs, furniture, surgical trays, mo- odizing layer has to be taken into account when choosing
6 12 EXTERNAL LINKS

the machining dimension. A general practice on engi- [15] Chiou, Y. L. (1971). “A note on the thicknesses of
neering drawing is to specify that “dimensions apply af- anodized niobium oxide films”. Thin Solid Films.
ter all surface finishes”. This will force the machine shop 8 (4): R37–R39. Bibcode:1971TSF.....8R..37C.
to take into account the anodization thickness when per- doi:10.1016/0040-6090(71)90027-7.
forming final machining of the mechanical part prior to [16] “Anodizing and the environment”. Archived from the
anodization. Also in the case of small holes threaded to original on 8 September 2008. Retrieved 2008-09-08.
accept screws, anodizing may cause the screws to bind,
thus the threaded holes may need to be chased with a [17] [Link]
tap to restore the original dimensions. Alternatively, spe- [Link]
cial oversize taps may be used to precompensate for this
growth. In the case of unthreaded holes that accept fixed-
diameter pins or rods, a slightly oversized hole to allow
11.1 Bibliography
for the dimension change may be appropriate. Depend-
• Davis, Joseph R. (1993). Aluminum and Aluminum
ing on the alloy and thickness of the anodized coating, the
Alloys (4th ed.). ASM International. ISBN 978-0-
same may have a significantly negative effect on fatigue
87170-496-2. OCLC 246875365.
life. On the contrary, it may also increase fatigue life by
preventing corrosion pitting. • Sheasby, P. G.; Pinner, R. (2001). The Surface
Treatment and Finishing of Aluminum and its Alloys.
2 (sixth ed.). Materials Park, Ohio & Stevenage,
11 References UK: ASM International & Finishing Publications.
ISBN 0-904477-23-1.
[1] Sheasby & Pinner 2001, pp. 427–596.

[2] Sheasby & Pinner 2001, pp. 597–742.

12 External links
[3] Davis 1993, p. 376.

[4] Sheasby & Pinner 2001, p. 5. • Hard anodizing – A selection of suitable aluminum
alloys
[5] Sheasby & Pinner 2001, p. 9.
• Article on Anodising and it’s applications from
[6] Edwards, Joseph (1997). Coating and Surface Treatment Manufacturing Network Knowledge Base
Systems for Metals. Finishing Publications Ltd. and ASM
International. pp. 34–38. ISBN 0-904477-16-9. • The Aluminum Anodizers Council
[7] Kutz, Myer. “Protective coatings for aluminum alloys”. • Article on anodizing and dyeing from Coating and
Handbook of Environmental Degradation of Materials.
Fabrications Magazine
Norwich, NY: William Andrew. p. 353. ISBN 978-0-
8155-1749-8. • Encyclopedia Article
[8] Sheasby & Pinner 2001, pp. 327–425. • Website with useful anodizing information in Lay-
[9] “What are the types of Anodising and which materials can man’s Terms
you Anodise?". [Link]. Re-
trieved 2015-11-25. • Titanium in Technicolor, an article on anodizing ti-
tanium from Theodore Gray’s How2.0 column in
[10] US Military Specification MIL-A-8625, ASSIST database Popular Science
[11] [Link] • a scientific paper for a novel method to create
vol005supp01/pdf/[Link]
a high-density nanopore structure: “High-density
[12] Edwards, Joseph (1997). Coating and Surface Treatment Nanoporous Structures for Enhanced Electrocatal-
Systems for Metals. Finishing Publications Ltd. and ASM ysis
International. pp. 39–40. ISBN 0-904477-16-9.

[13] Imam, M. A., Moniruzzaman, M., & Mamun, M.

A. ANODIZING OF ZINC FOR IMPROVED SUR-
FACE PROPERTIES. Proceedings of a meeting held
20–24 November 2011, 18th International Corrosion
Congress, Perth, Australia, PP.199-206 (2012), ISBN
9781618393630

[14] Biason Gomes, M. A.; Onofre, S.; Juanto, S.; de S. Bul-

hões, L. O. (1991). “Anodization of niobium in sulphuric
acid media”. Journal of Applied Electrochemistry. 21
(11): 1023–1026. doi:10.1007/BF01077589.
 7

13 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

13.1 Text
• Anodizing Source: [Link] Contributors: AxelBoldt, Deb, William Avery, Heron,
Gbleem, Julesd, Stone, Hankwang, Boffy b, Altenmann, Bkell, Dusik, DocWatson42, Bogdanb, BenFrantzDale, Orpheus, Leonard G.,
Bobblewik, Ryanaxp, OldakQuill, Burkenyo, M1ss1ontomars2k4, RedWordSmith, Rich Farmbrough, Xezbeth, Ioliver, Alistair1978, ~K,
Duk, A2Kafir, CaptHayfever, SidP, BRW, Wtshymanski, Grenavitar, Gene Nygaard, Vadim Makarov, Ceyockey, Infinoid, Imaginato-
rium, SKopp, Woohookitty, TomTheHand, Polyparadigm, Bluemoose, SDC, Dmitry Gerasimov~enwiki, Zzyzx11, Bmenrigh, Lionelbrits,
Old Moonraker, TeaDrinker, Stevenfruitsmaak, Alphachimp, Zotel, Bgwhite, Roboto de Ajvol, YurikBot, RobotE, Ytrottier, Gaius Cor-
nelius, Shaddack, TERdON, Mikeblas, Kyle Barbour, Amigan, Huangcjz, Jwissick, GrinBot~enwiki, SmackBot, Aim Here, Kellen, [Link],
Blue520, LaurensvanLieshout, Gilliam, Chris the speller, QuixoticLife, McNeight, Sadads, H Bruthzoo, Famine, Readams, VMS Mosaic,
CupawnTae, Jac64, TiCPU, John, Zaphraud, MrGodot, Wizard191, Iridescent, TwistOfCain, Iepeulas, FairuseBot, Dan1679, DonaldJB,
Sirmorcock, RSido, Mikiemike, BeenAroundAWhile, NickFr, Seven of Nine, Njlowrie, Inzy, Rifleman 82, Gogo Dodo, Christian75, Alai-
bot, Optimist on the run, Onekopaka, Briommeb, Wdmarcus, --MK--, Mojo Hand, AntiVandalBot, Guy Macon, Indrek, James smith2,
Jnthnparkes, Plantsurfer, Ccrrccrr, Acroterion, VoABot II, Twsx, BrianGV, DerHexer, MartinBot, [Link], LedgendGamer, Cpiral,
Mccajor, McSly, Ltbuttercream, Manhars, Davehi1, Xxrobtasicxx, Lamro, Anjiro, SieBot, BotMultichill, LeadSongDog, Slightlymighty,
Twinsday, Trojancowboy, Mild Bill Hiccup, Shjacks45, Jtmonone~enwiki, Eeekster, John JD Doe, AHDGraham, ClanCC, Sylph15, Dav-
eayerstdavies, Airplaneman, Addbot, Deltasquared, Element16, Reedmalloy, Will kerswell, Favonian, Nahat, Tide rolls, Lightbot, Leonar-
dob, Yobot, Murphystout, Sixty6falcon, Materialscientist, Citation bot, ArthurBot, Jeffrey Mall, Anon423, Twirligig, Novem Linguae,
FrescoBot, Citation bot 1, Pinethicket, Trappist the monk, Sumone10154, MrX, AChurilov, Minimac, Dcobourne, [Link], DASHBot,
WTM, Dcirovic, Roger Liart, Hunter Hutchins, Karl61058, Abdullahabin, Afarmers, Mikhail Ryazanov, ClueBot NG, Nishaca, Help-
ful Pixie Bot, Novusuna, TimothyCabot, Bibcode Bot, BG19bot, GKFX, CarloMartinelli, Manufacturing unit 9, BenjaminD91, Comfr,
Maliimam, TheJJJunk, Epicgenius, Napy65, Laizhibuyi99, Stamptrader, Ioklmj1, Torontocycles, KH-1, WyattAlex, Wveditor, KasparBot,
Melange396, Juself, Ashley Pearce, GreenC bot and Anonymous: 250

13.2 Images
• File:Anodized_titanium_colors.svg Source: [Link] Li-
cense: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: TiCPU
• File:Cheap_carabiners.JPG Source: [Link] License: Public do-
main Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Polyparadigm
• File:IPod_mini.png Source: [Link] License: CC0 Contributors: No
machine-readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright claims). Original artist: No machine-readable author pro-
vided. Beavis~commonswiki assumed (based on copyright claims).
• File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg Source: [Link] License:
CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: This file was derived from Wiki letter [Link]: <a href='//[Link]/wiki/File:
Wiki_letter_w.svg' class='image'><img alt='Wiki letter [Link]' src='[Link]
letter_w.svg/50px-Wiki_letter_w.[Link]' width='50' height='50' srcset='[Link]
Wiki_letter_w.svg/75px-Wiki_letter_w.[Link] 1.5x, [Link]
100px-Wiki_letter_w.[Link] 2x' data-file-width='44' data-file-height='44' /></a>
Original artist: Derivative work by Thumperward

13.3 Content license

• Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0