Kotlin (programming language)

Kotlin (/ˈkɒtlɪn/)[2] is a cross-platform, statically typed, general-purpose high-level programming

language with type inference. Kotlin is designed to interoperate fully with Java, and the JVM version
of Kotlin's standard library depends on the Java Class Library, but type inference allows its syntax to
be more concise. Kotlin mainly targets the JVM, but also compiles to JavaScript (e.g., for frontend
web applications using React)[3] or native code via LLVM (e.g., for native iOS apps sharing business
logic with Android apps).[4] Language development costs are borne by JetBrains, while the Kotlin
Foundation protects the Kotlin trademark.[5]

On 7 May 2019, Google announced that the Kotlin programming language had become its preferred
language for Android app developers.[6] Since the release of Android Studio 3.0 in October 2017,
Kotlin has been included as an alternative to the standard Java compiler. The Android Kotlin compiler
emits Java 8 bytecode by default (which runs in any later JVM), but allows targeting Java 9 up to 20,
for optimizing,[7] or allows for more features; has bidirectional record class interoperability support
for JVM, introduced in Java 16, considered stable as of Kotlin 1.5.

Kotlin has support for the web with Kotlin/JS, through an intermediate representation-based backend
which has been declared stable since version 1.8, released December 2022. Kotlin/Native (for e.g.
Apple silicon support) has been declared stable since version 1.9.20, released November 2023.[8][9]

History

A 2D picture of the
Kotlin mascot

A 3D picture of the
Kotlin mascot
Name Kotlin

The name is derived from Kotlin Island, a Russian

island in the Gulf of Finland, near Saint Petersburg.
Andrey Breslav, Kotlin's former lead designer, Paradigm Multi-paradigm:
mentioned that the team decided to name it after object-oriented,
an island, in imitation of the Java programming functional, imperative,

language which shares a name with the block structured,

Indonesian island of Java.[10] declarative, generic,

reflective, concurrent

Designed by JetBrains
Development
Developer JetBrains
The first commit to the Kotlin Git repository was
First appeared July 22, 2011
on November 8, 2010.[11]

In July 2011, JetBrains unveiled Project Kotlin, a Stable release 2.1.10[1] / 27

new language for the JVM, which had been under January 2025
[12]
development for a year. JetBrains lead Dmitry
Typing discipline Inferred, static, strong
Jemerov said that most languages did not have
the features they were looking for, with the Platform Android

exception of Scala. However, he cited the slow JVM

[12]
compilation time of Scala as a deficiency. One
JavaScript
of the stated goals of Kotlin is to compile as
(Kotlin/JS ([Link]
quickly as Java. In February 2012, JetBrains open
[Link]/docs/j
sourced the project under the Apache 2 license.[13] [Link]) )

JetBrains expected Kotlin to drive IntelliJ IDEA macOS (incl. Apple

sales.[14] silicon support)

iOS, tvOS, watchOS

Kotlin 1.0 was released on February 15, 2016.[15]
Linux
This is considered to be the first officially stable
release and JetBrains has committed to long-term Windows
backwards compatibility starting with this version.
WebAssembly

At Google I/O 2017, Google announced first-class LLVM

[16] (Kotlin/Native (http
support for Kotlin on Android.
s://[Link]/d
[17]
Kotlin 1.1 was released on March 1, 2017.
Kotlin 1.2 was released on November 28, 2017.[18] ocs/native-overvie

Sharing code between JVM and JavaScript [Link]) )

platforms feature was newly added to this release

OS Cross-platform
(multiplatform programming is by now a beta
feature[19] upgraded from "experimental"). A full- License Apache 2.0

stack demo has been made with the new Filename extensions .kt, .kts, .kexe, .klib
[20][21]
Kotlin/JS Gradle Plugin.
Website [Link] (http
Kotlin 1.3 was released on 29 October 2018, s://[Link]/)

adding support for coroutines for use with

Influenced by
asynchronous programming.[22]
C# · Eiffel · Gosu · Groovy · Java · JavaScript ·
On 7 May 2019, Google announced that the Kotlin ML · Python · Scala
programming language is now its preferred
Influenced
language for Android app developers.[6]

V (Vlang)
Kotlin 1.4 was released in August 2020, with e.g.
some slight changes to the support for Apple's
platforms, i.e. to the Objective-C/Swift interop.[23]

Kotlin 1.5 was released in May 2021.

Kotlin 1.6 was released in November 2021.

Kotlin 1.7 was released in June 2022, including the alpha version of the new Kotlin K2 compiler.[24]

Kotlin 1.8 was released in December 2022, 1.8.0 was released on January 11, 2023.[25]

Kotlin 1.9 was released in July 2023, 1.9.0 was released on July 6, 2023.[26]

Kotlin 2.0 was released in May 2024, 2.0.0 was released on May 21, 2024.[27]

Kotlin 2.1 was released in November 2024, 2.1.0 was released on November 27, 2024.[28]

Design

Development lead Andrey Breslav has said that Kotlin is designed to be an industrial-strength object-
oriented language, and a "better language" than Java, but still be fully interoperable with Java code,
allowing companies to make a gradual migration from Java to Kotlin.[29]
Semicolons are optional as a statement terminator; in most cases a newline is sufficient for the
compiler to deduce that the statement has ended.[30]

Kotlin variable declarations and parameter lists have the data type come after the variable name (and
with a colon separator), similar to Ada, BASIC, Pascal, TypeScript and Rust. This, according to an
article from Roman Elizarov, current project lead, results in alignment of variable names and is more
pleasing to eyes, especially when there are a few variable declarations in succession, and one or
more of the types is too complex for type inference, or needs to be declared explicitly for human
readers to understand.[31][32]

The influence of Scala in Kotlin can be seen in the extensive support for both object-oriented and
functional programming[33] and in a number of specific features:

there is a distinction between mutable and immutable variables (var vs val keyword)

all classes are public and final (non-inheritable) by default

functions and methods support default arguments, variable-length argument lists and named
arguments

Kotlin 1.3 added support for contracts,[34] which are stable for the standard library declarations, but
still experimental for user-defined declarations. Contracts are inspired by Eiffel's design by
contract[35] programming paradigm.

Following ScalaJS ([Link] , Kotlin code may be transpiled to JavaScript,

allowing for interoperability between code written in the two languages. This can be used either to
write full web applications in Kotlin, or to share code between a Kotlin backend and a JavaScript
frontend.[36]

Syntax

Procedural programming style

Kotlin relaxes Java's restriction of allowing static methods and variables to exist only within a class
body. Static objects and functions can be defined at the top level of the package without needing a
redundant class level. For compatibility with Java, Kotlin provides a JvmName annotation which
specifies a class name used when the package is viewed from a Java project. For example,
@file:JvmName("JavaClassName") .
Main entry point

As in C, C++, C#, Java, and Go, the entry point to a Kotlin program is a function named "main", which
may be passed an array containing any command-line arguments. This is optional since Kotlin 1.3.[37]
Perl, PHP, and Unix shell–style string interpolation is supported. Type inference is also supported.

1 // Hello, World! example

2 fun main() {
3 val scope = "World"
4 println("Hello, $scope!")
5 }

1 fun main(args: Array<String>) {

2 for (arg in args)
3 println(arg)
4 }

Extension functions

Similar to C#, Kotlin allows adding an extension function to any class without the formalities of
creating a derived class with new functions. An extension function has access to all the public
interface of a class, which it can use to create a new function interface to a target class. An extension
function will appear exactly like a function of the class and will be shown in code completion
inspection of class functions. For example:

1 package [Link]
2
3 fun [Link](): Char = get(length - 1)
4
5 >>> println("Kotlin".lastChar())

By placing the preceding code in the top-level of a package, the String class is extended to include a
lastChar function that was not included in the original definition of the String class.

1 // Overloading '+' operator using an extension function

2 operator fun [Link](other: Point): Point {
3 return Point(x + other.x, y + other.y)
4 }
 5
6 >>> val p1 = Point(10, 20)
7 >>> val p2 = Point(30, 40)
8 >>> println(p1 + p2)
9 Point(x=40, y=60)

Scope functions

Kotlin has five scope functions, which allow the changing of scope within the context of an object.
The scope functions are let , run , with , apply , and also .[38]

Unpack arguments with spread operator

Similar to Python, the spread operator asterisk (*) unpacks an array's contents as individual
arguments to a function, e.g.:

1 fun main(args: Array<String>) {

2 val list = listOf("args: ", *args)
3 println(list)
4 }

Destructuring declarations

Destructuring declarations decompose an object into multiple variables at once, e.g. a 2D coordinate
object might be destructured into two integers, x and y .

For example, the [Link] object supports destructuring to simplify access to its key and value
fields:

1 for ((key, value) in map)

2 println("$key: $value")

Nested functions

Kotlin allows local functions to be declared inside of other functions or methods.

 1 class User(val id: Int, val name: String, val address: String)
2
3 fun saveUserToDb(user: User) {
4 fun validate(user: User, value: String, fieldName: String) {
5 require([Link]()) { "Can't save user
${[Link]}: empty $fieldName" }
6 }
7
8 validate(user, [Link], "Name")
9 validate(user, [Link], "Address")
10 // Save user to the database
11 ...
12 }

Classes are final by default

In Kotlin, to derive a new class from a base class type, the base class needs to be explicitly marked
as "open". This is in contrast to most object-oriented languages such as Java where classes are open
by default.

Example of a base class that is open to deriving a new subclass from it:

1 // open on the class means this class will allow derived classes
2 open class MegaButton {
3
4 // no-open on a function means that
5 // polymorphic behavior disabled if function overridden in
derived class
6 fun disable() { ... }
7
8 // open on a function means that
9 // polymorphic behavior allowed if function is overridden
in derived class
10 open fun animate() { ... }
11 }
12
13 class GigaButton: MegaButton() {
14
15 // Explicit use of override keyword required to override a
function in derived class
16 override fun animate() { println("Giga Click!") }
17 }
Abstract classes are open by default

Abstract classes define abstract or "pure virtual" placeholder functions that will be defined in a
derived class. Abstract classes are open by default.

1 // No need for the open keyword here, it’s already open by

default
2 abstract class Animated {
3
4 // This virtual function is already open by default as well
5 abstract fun animate()
6
7 open fun stopAnimating() { }
8
9 fun animateTwice() { }
10 }

Classes are public by default

Kotlin provides the following keywords to restrict visibility for top-level declaration, such as classes,
and for class members: public , internal , protected , and private .

When applied to a class member:

Keyword Visibility

public (default) Everywhere

internal Within a module

protected Within subclasses

private Within a class

When applied to a top-level declaration:

Keyword Visibility

public (default) Everywhere

internal Within a module

private Within a file

Example:
 1 // Class is visible only to current module
2 internal open class TalkativeButton {
3 // method is only visible to current class
4 private fun yell() = println("Hey!")
5 // method is visible to current class and derived classes
6 protected fun whisper() = println("Let's talk!")
7 }
8 internal class MyTalkativeButton: TalkativeButton() {
9 fun utter() = [Link]()
10 }
11 MyTalkativeButton().utter()

Primary constructor vs. secondary constructors

Kotlin supports the specification of a "primary constructor" as part of the class definition itself,
consisting of an argument list following the class name. This argument list supports an expanded
syntax on Kotlin's standard function argument lists that enables declaration of class properties in the
primary constructor, including visibility, extensibility, and mutability attributes. Additionally, when
defining a subclass, properties in super-interfaces and super-classes can be overridden in the
primary constructor.

1 // Example of class using primary constructor syntax

2 // (Only one constructor required for this class)
3 open class BaseUser(open var isSubscribed: Boolean)
4 open class PowerUser(protected val nickname: String, final
override var isSubscribed: Boolean = true):BaseUser(isSubscribed)
{ }

However, in cases where more than one constructor is needed for a class, a more general
constructor can be defined using secondary constructor syntax, which closely resembles the
constructor syntax used in most object-oriented languages like C++, C#, and Java.

1 // Example of class using secondary constructor syntax

2 // (more than one constructor required for this class)
3 class Context
4 class AttributeSet
5 open class View(ctx:Context) {
6 constructor(ctx: Context, attr: AttributeSet): this(ctx)
7 }
8 class MyButton : View {
9 // Constructor #1
 10 constructor(ctx: Context) : super(ctx) {
11 }
12 // Constructor #2
13 constructor(ctx: Context, attr: AttributeSet) : super(ctx,
attr) {
14 // ...
15 }
16 }

Sealed classes

Sealed classes and interfaces restrict subclass hierarchies, meaning more control over the
inheritance hierarchy.

Declaration of sealed interface and class:

1 sealed interface Expr

2 sealed class Job

All the subclasses of the sealed class are defined at compile time. No new subclasses can be added
to it after the compilation of the module having the sealed class. For example, a sealed class in a
compiled jar file cannot be subclassed.

1 sealed class Vehicle

2 data class Car(val brandName: String, val owner: String, val
color: String): Vehicle()
3 class Bike(val brandName: String, val owner: String, val color:
String): Vehicle()
4 class Tractor(val brandName: String, val owner: String, val
color: String): Vehicle()
5 val kiaCar = Car("KIA", "John", "Blue")
6 val hyundaiCar = Car("Hyundai", "Britto", "Green")

Data classes

Kotlin's data class construct defines classes whose primary purpose is storing data, similar to
Java's record types. Like Java's record types, the construct is similar to normal classes except
that the key methods equals , hashCode and toString are automatically generated from the

class properties. Unlike Java's records, data classes are open for inheritance.
Kotlin interactive shell

$ kotlinc-jvm
type :help for help; :quit for quit
>>> 2 + 2
4
>>> println("Hello, World!")
Hello, World!

Kotlin as a scripting language

Kotlin can also be used as a scripting language. A script is a Kotlin source file using the .kts
filename extension, with executable source code at the top-level scope:

1 // list_folders.kts
2 import [Link]
3 val folders = File(args[0]).listFiles { file ->
[Link]() }
4 folders?.forEach(::println)

Scripts can be run by passing the -script option and the corresponding script file to the compiler.

$ kotlinc -script list_folders.kts "path_to_folder_to_inspect"

Null safety

Kotlin makes a distinction between nullable and non-nullable data types. All nullable objects must be
declared with a "?" postfix after the type name. Operations on nullable objects need special care from
developers: a null-check must be performed before using the value, either explicitly, or with the aid of
Kotlin's null-safe operators:

?. (the safe navigation operator) can be used to safely access a method or property of a possibly
null object. If the object is null, the method will not be called and the expression evaluates to null.
Example:

1 // returns null if...

2 // - foo() returns null,
 3 // - or if foo() is non-null, but bar() returns
null,
4 // - or if foo() and bar() are non-null, but baz()
returns null.
5 // vice versa, return value is non-null if and only
if foo(), bar() and baz() are non-null
6 foo()?.bar()?.baz()

?: (the null coalescing operator) is a binary operator that returns the first operand, if non-null, else
the second operand. It is often referred to as the Elvis operator, due to its resemblance to an
emoticon representation of Elvis Presley.

1 fun sayHello(maybe: String?, neverNull: Int) {

2 // use of Elvis operator
3 val name: String = maybe ?: "stranger"
4 println("Hello $name")
5 }

Lambdas

Kotlin provides support for higher-order functions and anonymous functions, or lambdas.[39]

1 // the following function takes a lambda, f, and executes f

passing it the string "lambda"
2 // note that (String) -> Unit indicates a lambda with a String
parameter and Unit return type
3 fun executeLambda(f: (String) -> Unit) {
4 f("lambda")
5 }

Lambdas are declared using braces, { }. If a lambda takes parameters, they are declared within the
braces and followed by the -> operator.

1 // the following statement defines a lambda that takes a single

parameter and passes it to the println function
2 val l = { c : Any? -> println(c) }
3 // lambdas with no parameters may simply be defined using { }
4 val l2 = { print("no parameters") }
"Hello world" example

(Taken from and explained at [Link] .)

1 fun main() {
2 println("Hello, world!")
3 // Hello, world!
4 }

Tools

Android Studio (based on IntelliJ IDEA) has official support for Kotlin, starting from Android Studio
3.[40]

Integration with common Java build tools is supported, including Apache Maven,[41] Apache Ant,[42]
and Gradle.[43]

Emacs has a Kotlin Mode in its MELPA package repository.

JetBrains also provides a plugin for Eclipse.[44][45]

IntelliJ IDEA has plug-in support for Kotlin.[46] IntelliJ IDEA 15 was the first version to bundle the
Kotlin plugin in the IntelliJ Installer, and to provide Kotlin support out of the box.[47]

Gradle: Kotlin has seamless integration with Gradle, which is a popular build automation tool.
Gradle allows you to build, automate, and manage the lifecycle of your Kotlin projects efficiently[48]

Applications

When Kotlin was announced as an official Android development language at Google I/O in May 2017,
it became the third language fully supported for Android, after Java and C++.[49] As of 2020, Kotlin
was the most widely used language on Android, with Google estimating that 70% of the top 1,000
apps on the Play Store were written in Kotlin. Google itself had 60 apps written in Kotlin, including
Maps and Drive. Many Android apps, such as Google Home, were in the process of being migrated to
Kotlin, and therefore use both Kotlin and Java. Kotlin on Android is seen as beneficial for its null-
pointer safety, as well as for its features that make for shorter, more readable code.[50]

In addition to its prominent use on Android, Kotlin was gaining traction in server-side development.
The Spring Framework officially added Kotlin support with version 5, on 4 January 2017.[51] To further
support Kotlin, Spring has translated all its documentation to Kotlin, and added built-in support for
many Kotlin-specific features such as coroutines.[52] In addition to Spring, JetBrains has produced a
Kotlin-first framework called Ktor for building web applications.[53]

In 2020, JetBrains found in a survey of developers who use Kotlin that 56% were using Kotlin for
mobile apps, while 47% were using it for a web back-end. Just over a third of all Kotlin developers
said that they were migrating to Kotlin from another language. Most Kotlin users were targeting
Android (or otherwise on the JVM), with only 6% using Kotlin Native.[54]

Adoption

In 2018, Kotlin was the fastest growing language on GitHub, with 2.6 times more developers
compared to 2017.[55] It is the fourth most loved programming language according to the 2020 Stack
Overflow Developer Survey.[56]

Kotlin was also awarded the O'Reilly Open Source Software Conference Breakout Award for 2019.[57]

Many companies/organizations have used Kotlin for backend development:

Allegro[58]

Amazon[59]

Atlassian[60]

Cash App[61][62]

Flux[63]

Google[64]

Gradle[65]

JetBrains[66]

Meshcloud[67]

Norwegian Tax Administration[68]

OLX[69]

Pivotal[70]

Rocket Travel[71]

Shazam[72]

Zalando[73]
Some companies/organizations have used Kotlin for web development:

Barclay's Bank[74]

Data2viz[75]

Fritz2[76]

JetBrains[77]

A number of companies have publicly stated they were using Kotlin:

Basecamp[78]

Corda, a distributed ledger developed by a consortium of well-known banks (such as Goldman

Sachs, Wells Fargo, J.P. Morgan, Deutsche Bank, UBS, HSBC, BNP Paribas, and Société Générale),
has over 90% Kotlin code in its codebase.

Coursera[79]

DripStat[80]

Duolingo[81]

Meta[82]

Netflix[83]

Pinterest[84]

Trello[85]

Uber[86]

See also

Comparison of programming languages Free and open-source

software portal
References Computer
programming portal

This article contains quotations from Kotlin tutorials which are released under an Apache 2.0
license.

1. "Release Kotlin 2.1.10" ([Link] . 27 January

2025. Retrieved 27 January 2025.
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version from 9 to 21. Note that in this case the resulting bytecode might not run on lower
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JVM, Android, JavaScript, iOS, Linux, Windows, Mac and even embedded systems like STM32,
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the way exceptions are translated."

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External links

Official website ([Link]