ECOTECH STP MINI COURSE

(PART OF ECOTECHÕS WASTEWATER TREATMENT

MASTERCLASS FOR PROFESSIONALS)

Decentralised urban STP technologies for

residential, commercial, and industrial buildings
Ecotech Copyright 2023 - All Rights Reserved

**This document shall not be modified or reproduced in whole or

part, or made available for download, or otherwise circulated
training@[Link]

[Link]
Contents
§ Ecotech company profile
§ Basics of wastewater treatment
§ Review of STP technologies for decentralised urban STPs (<5000 KLD)

[Link]
 Ecotech by the numbers
> 80 STPs >25 MLD 350 employees
under long-term O&M under treatment [Link], PhDs, Operators, etc.

37 years 4 cities >1000 clients

Bangalore, Pune, past and present
in the business
Hyderabad, Chennai

>150 projects >70 rectifications No. 1

Design, Greenfield & of dysfunctional STPs technical advisor to KSPCB/NGT
rectification EPC projects for successfully performed and Bangalore Apt. Federation,
STP & ETP JLL, Colliers, CBRE, etc.

[Link]
Partial list of STP and ETP clients

[Link]
Dr. Ananth S. Kodavasal (Director)
[Link] Chemical Engineering (IIT-Madras)
MS, PhD (Chemical Engineering) with a focus on Advanced WWT, Vanderbilt
University (Tennessee, USA)
§ Trained under Prof. WW Eckenfelder Jr., author of the first books on modern
WWT.
§ Over 42 yearsÕ experience with stints at Hindustan Dorr Oliver, and Voltas.
§ Oversees overall operations of the company and drives growth and business
development initiatives.
§ Author of STP Guide published by KSPCB, academic & educator, sought after
speaker and technical advisor to KSPCB, Bangalore Apartments Federation.

[Link]
Dr. Janardhan Kodavasal (Executive Director)
[Link] Mech Engineering, NITK Surathkal, 2007
MS Aero, MS Mech, PhD Mech, U. of Michigan Ann Arbor (USA), 2013 (4.0/4.0 GPA)
§ Experience
o Engineering Manager at Cummins (USA) leading a team of engineers developing
powertrain systems for 2030 designing 1 Million-mile+ Engine/Powertrains
o Staff scientist at Argonne National Laboratory (Chicago, US Dept. of Energy) where he
led Machine Learning activities that brought in ~1 million dollars in funding through
proposals he was Principal Investigator on.
o Systems Engineering at Bosch USA Gasoline Systems (Detroit) and Lawrence
Livermore National Lab (California).
§ Over 25 international conference/journal publications with >800 citations,
4 US Patents on advanced engine controls
§ Awarded US Green Card under prestigious Outstanding Researcher category

[Link]
Polluting Industries
§ Domestic (BPO/Software/Residential)
§ Metals/minerals processing
§ Food processing including fermentation
§ Oil & petrochemicals
§ Chemicals, bulk drugs
§ Textiles
§ Pulp & Paper
§ etc.

[Link]
Basic biological reaction for wastewater treatment
Nutrients
+ (N, P) More

à
Microbes
Wastewater Energy
(food) à
+ à + Gases

Oxygen à Microbes Products

[Link]
Wastewater quantity, discharge pattern
§ Daily average
§ Hourly average/peak hourly
§ Continuous/intermittent
§ Batch dump
§ Number of shifts

Size of Equalisation Tank >= Max Difference

Max Difference is higher for batch vs. continuous
SBR: 8-10 hrs. average flow
EA, MBBR, MBR: 4-6 hours avg flow

[Link]
Three Cardinal Rules for a good WWT plant

Proper Proper Proper

Design Engineering Operation &
Maintenance
[Link]
 THE Z E ROT H LAW
S E L E C T I O N O F T H E A P P R O P R I AT E
TREATMENT TECHNOLOGY
b a s e d on s ca le of t re a t me nt ( K L D ) , s p a ce con st ra int s,
ca p ex, op ex & op e ra tor s k ill lev e l

Non e of t h e conv e nt ion a l ST P te ch n olog ie s a re <b a d = 3 i f

d e s ig n e d a n d e n g in e e re d p rop e rly w it h ou t s h ortcu t s .
H ow eve r, ca re mu st b e ta ke n to ma ke th e <rig ht = ch oice .

[Link]
3200 STPs
IN BANGALORE 450 MLD SEWAGE
> 80% STPS are dysfunctional to various degrees

wrong technology
incorrect design
poor engineering
Little benefit and huge O&M costs
[Link]
> 1200 STPs
IN PUNE 180 MLD SEWAGE
Majority dysfunctional to various degrees

wrong technology
incorrect design
poor engineering
Little benefit and huge O&M costs
[Link]
STP diseases Ð the Dr.Õs diagnosis

In Bangalore it is ÒSBRitisÓ

In Pune it is ÒMBBRitisÓ

[Link]
 over Rs.2000
crores
in STP assets in 20-25% investment
B a n ga l o re enough to revamp
> 2000 defunct
huge fresh water STPs
savings potential protect waterbodies
[Link]
COMMUNITIES CAN BE UP TO
60% SELF-SUFFICIENT IN
WATER
Break Even Point BEYOND 100 KLD, STP
at Rs. 100 per KL MAKES MONEY
SPEND EVEN RS. 40-60 LAKHS
PAYBACK PERIOD IS MONTHS
[Link]
Proven conventional STP technologies
1. Extended Aeration Activated Sludge (EAAS, based on
conventional, classic Activated Sludge Process)
o best suited for 80 Ð 5000 KLD (well-suited for varying inflows)
2. Moving Bed Biofilm Reactor (MBBR, aka FAB, IFAS, etc. which
are brand names)
o best suited for > 5000 KLD (large/municipal) NOTE: There are
3. Sequencing Batch Reactor (SBR) several sundry
technologies like
o best suited for > 10,000 KLD (municipal, with uniform daily inflow) electrocoagulation,
4. Membrane Bio-Reactor (MBR) sonic treatment,
CAACO, etc.:
o best suited for 100 Ð 5000 KLD (in constrained space)
promoters of which
5. Anaerobic Systems claim ÒproprietaryÓ or
o best suited for < 50 KLD, but denitrification can be a challenge ÒpatentedÓÐ please
avoid at all cost!

[Link]
 Extended Aeration is
most appropriate
technology for
Decentralised Urban
STPs from a Total Cost
of Operation and
Performance
standpoint
The KSPCB asked Ecotech to author
a book (FOR LAYMAN) providing
guidelines on proper EAAS design
and O&M due to the large confusion
and lack of reliable information
available to builders and STP owners
on most appropriate technology for
small STPs (<5000 KLD), after the
MOEF and CPCB decentralised STP
mandate in 2006

[Link]
Sl. ASPECT/FEATURE EAAS SBR MBBR MBR

1 History 100 years (ASP) 30 Years 30 Years 20 Years

2 Category Aerobic, Continuous Aerobic, Batch tratment Aerobic, continuous Aerobic, continuous
3 Optimum Scale 100-5000 KLD > 10 MLD Ð Fairly Uniform flow > 5 MLD > 100 KLD if money no object
4 Flow pattern tolerance Variable, peak flows Fairly Uniform inflow required Variable, Peak flows Variable, Peak flows
5 Key Differentiator from EAAS -- No Settling tank No sludge Recirculation No Settling tank
No Sludge Recirculation Attached Growth system Solid-Liquid separation by UF
Bigger tank vols. esp. Collection Tank membrane
(min. 8-10 hr. retention time needed) No PSF, No ACF
6 Depth/ Height 2.5 Ð 4.5 m 4.5 m Minimum SWD Larger SWD is efficient Large Headspace reqd.
7 D.O Level in AT 1.5 Ð 2.0 PPM 1.0 Ð 3.0 PPM 3-4.0 PPM Ð High Energy req. 1.5-2 PPM in AT
5 Ð 6 PPM in MBR tank
8 Diffusers CBD/Fine Bubble CBD only due to fluctuating W.L CBD only CBD/Fine Bubble
Energy efficient Energy Inefficient Energy inefficient Energy efficient
9 Robustness Robust Robust if designed and engineered Robust if designed and Robust if preceded by very fine
without compromise engineered without compromise screen 1-2 mm
10 Recovery from upset Fast Slow Slow Slow
11 Skill level for O&M Low Moderately low Low Very high
12 Sludge handling Easy Challenging Challenging Easy. XS sludge generation high
13 Life Cycle Cost Low at optimum scale100- 5000 Low at optimum scale > 10 MLD Low at optimum scale > 5 MLD Very High at all scales
KLD
14 Quality of water Good Good Ð If designed and engineered Good - If designed and Very Good
without compromise engineered without compromise
15 Lacunae most commonly Secondary Clariflocculator Small Eq. tank No primary settler Fine screen not provided
observed in Indian STPs provided by some vendors which Small SBR tank Undersized MBBR Tank Membrane cleaning protocol not
leading to failure is superfluous Single SBR tank Inappropriate media followed
High Decant percentage Inadequate media Rapid loss of integrity of
Rudimentary Decanter Sub Optimal D.O in tank membranes
Small Sludge tank Tube/ Plate settler
Qualitative Comparison of Undersized Filter press Undersized Filter press
common STP technologies ACF not provided Shallow MBBR tank
Sludge shipped out Large EQT with no aeration
Two set Air blower not provided Sludge shipped out of EQT and
Pseudo SBR technology SHT
Pseudo MBBR technology
16 HEART of the System Secondary settling [Link]
Decant phase Primary Sedimentation Slide 19 fouling & Avoidance
Membrane
 Capex & Opex COMPARISON FOR TYPICAL 400 KLD STP
TECHOLOGY CAPEX REMARKS Note: For all the STP technologies, proper design and
(GENUINE) (Electromech only) engineering guidelines have been followed to have an
Apples-to-Apples comparison and treat 100% quantity
EAAS 100 x1.0 (Basis)
to 100% quality meeting all PCB norms. Any of these
SBR 130 x 1.3
techs (genuine, not fake) designed, built, and
MBBR 120 x 1.3 operated by Ecotech will perform, but capex and opex
MBR 200 x 2.0 will be different as shown, at this scale (sub 5000 KLD)

Sl. ITEM EAAS SBR MBBR MBR All techs will work
at this scale (if
1 Footprint, Sqm 240 300 195 190
designed
2 Spatial volume, cum 705 1010 705 725
correctly), but
3 Tank volume, m3 (- Final) 460 730 460 270
EAAS is most
4 Connected load 47.2 87 50 55
5 Power drawn, kW 22.4 42.6 25.0 31.2 optimal from an
6 Energy Used, Units 479 546 500 631 overall capex,
7 No. of driven eqpmt 10 14 14 21 opex, and footprint
8 Opex/d (Rs.) Incl. Chem 8000 9000 9500 12500 standpoint

[Link]
Extended Aeration Activated Sludge (EAAS)
1. Based on the Classic Activated Sludge Process (ASP) (100 years old), but does not have Primary
Sedimentation due to challenges in handling primary sludge or human faeces (as is the case in municipal
plants), and instead, the retention time in the Aeration Tank is extended to 14-16 hours, in addition to aeration
in the collection tank which needs 4-6 hours retention time max. We donÕt have an EQT in a municipal STP.
2. It is a CONTINUOUS process (like MBBR and MBR), in that the flow downstream of the EQT is constant and
equal to the STP capacity. For e.g. a 240 KLD EAAS STP will be operational for roughly 20-22 hours in a day Ð
with 4-hour max downtime for filter backwash, equipment servicing, etc., and thus pumping at a constant
rate of approx. 12 m3/hr.
3. Digestion of the sewage is done in the Aeration Tank by aerobic bacteria that naturally occur in sewage Ð the
bacteria and sewage (food for bacteria) are completely mixed as a ÒMixed LiquorÓ in the AT, and treatment
happens in the Òsuspended growthÓ regime (like SBR and MBR)
4. Sludge recirculation (from the settling tank to AT) is provided Ð as the bacterial population in the incoming
sewage is not sufficient to achieve treatment. Typically 5-6 % of excess sludge is produced per day (due to
natural growth in the bacterial population), which is withdrawn from the system to maintain bacterial mass
and targeting the average age to be about 15-20 days
5. A hopper bottom secondary settling tank is provided to separate the clear (treated) water from the sludge,
and due to the conical nature of the tank, the settled sludge is naturally thick and easy to dewater using a
filter press (not the case with flat-bottomed SBR)

[Link]
 Genuine EAAS Process Design

EcotechÕs EA35+ system is based on the proven EAAS technology with proprietary innovations in
design and engineering to optimise Total Cost of Ownership, comply with nitrogen and
phosphorus control, and remove need for advanced tertiary treatment like UF and RO

[Link]
 sludge recirculation

1. bar screen 2. grease trap 3. equalisation tank

(aerated) 4.
aeration
Stages 3 & 4 allow for tank
extended aeration
sludge recirculation 3 activated sludge
treated water filtration

Ecotech EA35+ excess sludge 5. settling tank

[Link]
 TM
Ecotech EA35+ : The technology that sets you up for
success
" Based on the 100-year-old time-
tested Activated Sludge
Process (ASP)
" Totally open-source, nothing is
patented, uses standard
equipment, chemicals, spares,
and supplies
" Continuous process ensures
minimum retention time of
sewage in tanks and low odour
" Hopper-bottom settling tank
results in easy sludge handling
" Lowest Total Cost of Ownership
" Robust to varying loads (BOD
and flow)
" Requires minimal operator skill
of all the STP technologies (SBR,
MBR, MBBR)

[Link]
 TM
Ecotech 24x7 : Our world-class O&M package that
ensures enduring results
1x [Link] Env. Engineer: Monitors
3x Operators: 3 dedicated operators.
process & troubleshoots off-
With IDs, uniforms, PPE. 100% PF/ESI
nominal operation. Regular
compliant. Manned 24x7, 3 shifts.
reporting to Client.
Three per site
One for 10 sites

Bangalore O&M Manager:

1x Field Officer: Attendance,
All engineers and field officers report to
discipline of operators, visits site
him. Accountable for overall customer
1x/week.
success. Meets client as-needed
One for 10 sites
Ramananda SG

1x Mechanic/Electrician: Routine Managing Director

preventive maintenance (oil Client can directly escalate any
change, etc.), and major annual serious concerns to MD
service. Visits site 1x/fortnight. Dr. Ananth Kodavasal
One for 10 sites.

Additional across Ecotech: 3 Q&T officers, 1 Logistics Officer, 1 PF/ESI compliance officer
[Link]
 The results of this double-engine:
Ecotech EA35+ coupled with Ecotech 24x7

Chaithanya Godrej Platinum Unilever Research Karle Infra Kennametal WIDIA

Samarpan 200 KLD 100 KLD 100 KLD 300 KLD 100 KLD

Guaranteed
performance
day, after day
with EcotechÕs
double-engine

Kumar Palm Springs Kumar Prospera Megapolis Saffron Spectra Palmwoods

650 KLD 460 KLD 510 KLD 150 KLD
Pune sites
[Link]
 Nip tail-risk of STP Non-Compliance at the bud with RTMS

Remove opacity and bring in transparency into your STP operations and compliance with Ecochirp

From Ignorance is bliss: Opaque paper-based To Knowledge is power: Real-time,

logbooks and data increase hidden risk taken on by foolproof data at risk-ownersÕ fingertips
procurement, MD, CEO, CFO, FMS, and risk owners minimizes non-compliance tail risk

Ecochirp empowers MD, CEO, CFO, Risk Function, Procurement Managers, FMS to ensure they
can proactively take risk-mitigation measures to avoid STP non-compliance from PCB
[Link]
Web dashboard for an Ecotech client 300 KLD (Jul-Aug 2023)

[Link]
 Prof.
Moving Bed Biofilm Reactor (MBBR) Hallvard
Odegaard,
1. Originally developed in the late 1980s by Prof. Hallvard Odegaard inventor of
MBBR
of NTNU (Norwegian University of Science and Technology)
1. This is a continuous treatment process (like EAAS and MBR, but unlike SBR). Thus, it is robust to varying inflows
2. The key innovation in MBBR is utilizing special extremely high surface area plastic media that act as a substrate for
the aerobic bacteria to grow on. Treatment happens in an Òattached growth regimeÓ, unlike in EAAS, SBR, and MBR,
where treatment happens in a Òsuspended growth regimeÓ
3. This allows us to maintain a very high population/concentration of biomass in the aeration tank (also called MBBR
tank) Ð this in turn allows reduction in the volume of the aeration tank compared to EAAS or SBR, saving footprint
and capex. Typically for Sewage 60 % of tank volume to be filled with media Ð NOT FOLLOWED IN INDIA
4. Also, unlike EAAS, MBBR does not require Sludge Recirculation, which translates to large energy savings in the >5000
KLD scale. In small scale DUS we use AIR LIFT SLUDGE RECIRCULATION and hence no advantage here for MBBR
5. However, the key to realize all these benefits is (a) Having a critical primary sedimentation stage to remove human
feces which is very difficult to digest in the Òattached growth regime, and (b) having high quality MBBR media of the
right roughness (such as from Anox Kaldness, now Veolia), specifically for Wastewater Treatment
6. Deficiencies in Ònon-genuineÓ MBBRs in India: (a) Primary sedimentation avoided as fecal sludge handling a
challenge in small STPs (b) Cheap cooling tower grade MBBR media used (c) Instead of HoppeR Bottom Secondary
Settling Tank, we see mainly Lamella Tube/Plate Settlers which result in severe secondary sludge handling issues

[Link]
P R O F. H A L L V A R D O D E G A A R D O F N O R W AY
I N V E N T E D M B B R I N L AT E 8 8 0 S ( N OT N E W T E C H )

P R O P E R P R I M A R Y S E D I M E N TAT I O N I S
A M U S T U N D E R A L L C I R C U M S TA N C E S

[Link]
Genuine MBBR Process Design

[Link]
MOVING BED
BIOREACTOR P L A S T I C M E D I A TO
I N C R E A S E S U R FA C E A R E A
(MBBR)
P R I M A R Y S E D I M E N TAT I O N I S S U E S

S LU D G E H A N D L I N G I S S U E S

P O O R LY D E S I G N E D & E N G I N E E R E D

N OT A P P R O P R I AT E F O R S M A L L S T P S
[Link]
Typical issues with MBBRs for small STPs
§ No primary sedimentation
§ Primary sewage solids (faeces) cannot be digested in small MBBRs in less time
§ Generic plastic carrier media used. Density, Roughness, Surface Area - not
tailor made, unlike more expensive Anox Kaldness-Veolia media
§ Cannot transfer more Oxygen in less time using Coarse Bubble Diffusers
§ Fine Bubble Diffuser cannot be used due to media interference (have to use
less efficient coarse bubble diffuser)
§ Shallow MBBR tanks Ð less efficient oxygen transfer
§ Higher D.O of 3.0-4.0 PPM to be maintained thus impacting energy efficiency
§ Primary solids (faeces) slip out of MBBR tank
§ Dead microbes slough off from MBBR tank, also attach to plate and tune
settler
[Link]
[Link]
Typical issues with MBBRs for small STPs (contÕd)
§ Plate/tube settler cannot be used for Biomass settling (This is WTP legacy Ð
chemical sludge)
§ Sludge/solids adhere to plate/tubes and then become septic and escape
out
§ Thin slurry from plate settler difficult to dewater
§ Sludge requires thickening, digestion, conditioning before dewatering

[Link]
Sequencing Batch Reactor (SBR)
§ Original patent from George Wheeler (USA), 1914, first large scale plant in 1967 in USA.
§ SBR treats daily sewage generation is THREE EQUAL BATCHES. No Decentralised Urban STP generates sewage
in THREE EQUAL INSTALLMENTS. Therefore by definition, by the very nature of technology, SBR is simply not
suitable when there are distinct peak hour / peak day flows such as in Residential complexes, commercial
establishments, malls etc.

§ SBR occupies more space, draws more energy, carries higher risk of odour generation due to Large
Collection tank, poses problems in sludge dewatering, has inherent solids carryover tendency (if motorised
long weir decanter is not provided), definite risk of choking downstream filters resulting in bypassing of filters
by the harried STP operator.
§ Denitrification (being mandated by CPCB and already enforced in states like Karnataka and Maharashtra,
Telangana soon to follow) is a major challenge in SBR, where expensive agitators are needed to create
agitate the contents of the SBR while maintaining anoxic conditions to achieve denitrification. These mixers
are each several lakhs.

§ In large STPS (>10 MLD) with more or less uniform flow, like in Municipal STPs, by default there will be multiple
SBR tanks, no need for an initial Equalisation tank, Multiple air blowers. Only under these conditions, the
advantages of SBR come through over EAAS in large plants

[Link]
 On a 10,000 KLD+ scale the capex from purple
items readily recovered from energy savings
Genuine SBR Process Design with multiple SBR tanks (syncing multiple SBR
tanks in small scale with variable flows is
impossible), and multiple air systems needed to
allow shutting off one set at any time. These
savings do not manifest at the small scale

Sludge Holding
Tank

Volute Screw
Press

[Link] Slide 37
*only SBR tank shown. Up to collection/equalisation tank, scheme is same as EAAS, tertiary treatment (filters) also identical

S EQ U E N C I N G B ATC H R E A C TO R ( S B R )
1
fill wastewater
from ET/CT
5
idle 2
react
waste mechanical
sludge agitation
aeration

4
clarifie decant 3
d settle
water
[Link]
to CWT
 MOTORISED DECANTERS NEEDED
BUT RUDIMENTARY DECANTERS USED

SLUDGE ENTERS
DECANT WATER
FOULS TERTIARY FILTERS & OPERATOR WILL JUST BYPASS

DECANT TANK WITH SLUDGE GOES SEPTIC

[Link]
 Genuine SBR requires
Motorised long-weir
Decanter

required to gently transfer clear

water to decant tank or CWT, so
sludge not sucked into CWT. But
most vendors never provide in
small plants resulting in decant
tank full of sludge, going septic,
and choking tertiary filters
downstream
[Link]
 D E C A N T
V ELO CI T Y

3 0 0 0
TIMES
or CWT
S E T T L I N G
V ELO CI T Y

DECANT ISSUES
Sludge sucked up and into CWT, and fouls Sand and Charcoal filters downstream w/o motorized decanter

[Link]
AREA AND POWER MYTHS
O V E R S I Z E D C O L L E C T I O N TA N K F O R S M A L L
S T P S TO DEAL WITH 8 HOURS OF EFFLUENT

P O W E R S A V I N G S O N LY W I T H
T W O S E T S O F A I R B LO W E RS

A R E A & P O W E R B E N E F I T S O N LY F O R
L A R G E P L A N T S B E YO N D 1 0 M L D
[Link]
I N A P P R O P R I AT E F O R S M A L L S T P S 3
RESIDENTIAL, COMMERCIAL
D I S T I N C T P E A K F L O W S R EQ U I R E L A R G E R
EQ UA L I S AT I O N TA N K

D E C A N T O N LY 3 3 % O F AT V O L U M E
³ L A R G E R A E R AT I O N TA N K N E E D E D

ODOUR NUISANCE, MORE ENERGY,

LARGER FOOTPRINT, M O R E EQ P T S
[Link]
 or mechanical clarifier
(results in thick, good
S LU D G E H A N D L I N G I S S U E S consistency sludge, easy
to handle)

F L AT B OT TO M S B R
THIN E XC ES S S LU D G E

CONVENTIONAL EAAS
THICK EXCESS
SLUDGE
[Link]
D E N I T R I F I C AT I O N C H A L L E N G E
DENITRIFICATION IS NOW BEING MANDATED ACROSS STATES
(KARNATAKA, MH, SEVERAL STATES ALREADY ENFORCING)

SBR NEEDS EXPENSIVE SUBMERGED MECHANICAL AGITATORS IN

SBR TANK TO ACHIEVE THIS: MANY TIMES 4 NOS IF 2 TANKS

MAJOR TAIL RISK FOR SBR STPS IN EAAS THIS IS DONE IN A

SMALL SEPARATE 1.5- 2-HR ANOX TANK, EASY TO RETROFIT)

[Link]
MBR (Membrane Bioreactor)
NO PROBLEM WITH
RELIABILITY & COST ISSUES:
TECHNOLOGY
NOT MATURE FOR SMALL STPS
INVENTED IN 1960S BY DORR
OLIVER
Main advantage is smaller footprint,
but not worth the reliability issues. Also
REQUIRES automation and cannot be
operated in manual mode if case of
PLC failure
ALSO JUST NOT SUITABLE AT HIGH FREE
OIL & GREASE (HOTELS, MALLS)
[Link]
 Zero Free Oil practically
[Link] impossible in Food court/
Banquet hall Environment
 Conventional, bullet-proof technology (Extended
Aeration Activated Sludge) most appropriate for small
sub-5000 KLD STPs

BU L L ET T R AI N ( M O D E R N T E C H N O LO G Y )
G R EAT FO R TO KYO TO O SAK A ( I NT ER -CI T Y )

M ETRO ( C O N V E N T I O N A L T E C H N O LO G Y )
M OST APPROPR I ATE FOR WI TH I N TOKYO

[Link]