CHAPTER

2 Ecology
Ecology is a branch of science that deals with the inter-relationship
between biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living) components of nature as
well as with the relationship among the individuals, population and
community of the biotic components.
The term 'ecology' is derived from two Greek words oikos (meaning
house) and logos (meaning study of) and is used to denote the
relationship between the organisms and their environment.
Ecology has been defined in a number of ways. According to
Woodbury (1954), 'Ecology is a science which investigates organisms
in relation to their environment'. E.P. Odum (1969) defined ecology as
the study of structure and function of nature'. The most acceptable
definition of ecology was proposed by Charles Krebs
(1985), Ecology
is the scientific study of the interaction that determines the
distribution and abundance of organisms.
In ecology, the term 'habitat' is used to denote the place where an
organism's or species' population lives, for example pond. A pond is the
habitat of zooplankton and fish. "Niche' is the fundamental unit of an
organism's or species' population in the community. Whereas 'habitat
is the place where an organism lives, 'niche' is the activity (functional)
aspect of the organism. 'Population' is used to denote groups of
individuals of any one kind of organism and 'community' or biotic
community includes all the populations of a given area, called habitat.
Ecology plays a significant role in our day-to-day life. It is concerned
with agriculture, horticulture, conservation of soil, forest, wildlife, water
resources, etc.

2.1 OBJECTIVE OF ECOLOGY

The importance of ecology is due to the presence of man in the eco-
system. Man interacts not only with its own species but also with other
 Ecology
There are
millions and of organisms in ddymam
millions

hving onganisms. and each oneofthem

plays a significan
jective and providiTole
with each other
has broad objective
ustence

Ecology thus,
in the cco-system. environmentalism,
as well as for eval
as for evaluat
sCientific basis for the aims of what is 'right' or
its goals and policies.
Ecology does not dictate
of biodiversih
of biodiversitywrongand
about the quantification
but provides knowledge
The objective of understandt
ecology is to understand he
population dynamics. measures to conser

dynamics of our surroundings

and to take proper vein
the main objective of ecology is to stud y:
ifand when required. However,
distribution and abundance of organisme
1. The local and geographical
between organisms in population and
2. The inter-relationship
communities.
functional adjustments of organisms
3. The structural adaptations and
to their physical environment.
natural conditions.
4. The behaviour of organisms under
5. The biological productivity of nature and its relationship with
mankind.

6. Temporal changes in the occurrence, abundance and activities of

organisms.
7. Conservation and management of natural resources and pollution

2.2 CLASSIFICATION OF ECOLOGY

A
Ecology is a broad discipline comprising of many sub-disciplines.
common, broad classification, going from
the lowest to the highest
of entities
complexity, where complexity can be defined as the number
and processes in the system under study is:
Physiological Ecology (Eco-physiology) and Behavioura
Ecology: This ecology examines adaptations of an individual
his environment.
tne
Population Ecology(or Autoecology): This ecology studies
dynamics ofpopulation of a single species.
with

Community Ecology(or Synecology): This ecology deals

the interactions between species within an ecologicalcomm
energy
Eco-system Ecology: This ecology studies the flows of
and matter through the biotic and abiotic components oreco

systems.
Foolog 67

.
Landscape Ecology: This ccology examines the
occurring in multiple eco-systems or very processes
and studies the relationship between the large geographic areas
processes.
Ecology. however, can also be sub-divided into
such as: animal ecology, plant ecology, insect many other branches
ecology, desert ecology,
[Link], ethology, space ecology and so on.
2.3 ECOLOGICAL FACTORS
In aneco-system, a living organism is influenced by a
environmental factors. These environmental factorslarge number of
ecological factors or eco-factors. are known as

These factors may be biotic

(living) or abiotic (non-living). All the
environmental factors bring marked distributional, structural and functional
changes in organisms. To live, grow and
carry out all its activities,
organism requires a harmonious relationship with its
an

environment. The differences in immediate

fish in sweet water and saline vegetation
of a desert and a rain
forest,
water, animals in tropical countries and
cold countries,
clearly indicate the role of environmental factors in the
distribution and survival of
organisms in different
Theorganisms subjected to diurnal, seasonal,eco-systems.
annual and
relations of the
environment, develop strategiesi to cope with cyclic
these
changes for their survival. Only those which are able to
conditions, remain and those who cannot, become [Link] with the
The ecological factors can be
classified into:
1. Climatic
factors: (a) light (b) temperature (c) nature rainfall
(e) wind ( humidity (g) (d)
these factors affects the atmospheric gases (h) pH. A variation in
distribution and lifestyle of
2.
Topographic organisms.
factors: (a) altitude (b) slope and direction ofmountain
chain and valleys.
3.
Edaphic factors: Structure, formation and characteristics of different
types of soils.
4.
Biotic factors: Biotic factors are derived from the interactions
between different species of life
(intra-specific as well as inter-
specific). The different species mentioned here are
organisms and animals. plants, micro-
5. Limiting factors.
68 Ecolog
2.3.1 Climatic Factors

Light
for both plants and animals. Sunlight is the ultim
mate
Light plays vital role
a
fo
the biological world. Light highly essential for
is
source of energy for
role in respiration andtranspiration
photosynthesis, plays important
modifying the shape and size and
regulates hormones in plants thereby
of flowers, fruits, germination
influences the growth and development
and distribution of plants.
As far as animals are concerned, light influences reproduction and

metabolism.
Heat
Like light, heat exerts a profound influence on the physiological and
biochemical activities of organisms. Generally, organisms prefer to
conduct their activities in a temperature region of 4 C to 45 C. The
physiological effects of temperature are the mineral absorption in plants,
water uptake, growth, gemination in plants and distrnbution, migration,
hibernation and reproductive activities in animals. Both organisms exhibit
morphological, ecological and physiological adaptation to the variation
in temperature. The biochemical effects are due to enzymes and
hormonal changes and are related to the temperature.
Water
Water is one of the most important materials necessary for life. All the
physiological processes take place in water. The availability of water in
an eco-system affects the
distribution, growth and other activities ofits
organisms.

Rainfall
Rainfall (precipitation) determines the type of
The evergreen forest in tropical regions is due to vegetation any region
in
the year. The grasslands are found in heavy rainfall throughou
regions where there is heav
rainfall in summer and low rainfall in winter. Due to
the animals and birds in the various changes in vegetati0L
regions also differ.
Wind
Wind brings physical, anatomical and physiological
changes
Excessive transpiration due to wind leads to desiccation plans.o
and death
to
 69

apical mersistens. Thus, the plants become dwarf, contain small leaves
and more branches. On the mountains, due to the danger of uprooting.
the vegetation is composcd of species having prostrate growth, with
long underground roots. This is known as growth of rhizome type.

Humidiy
The physiological activities of organisms, like transpiration, absorption
of water. etc. are greatly influenced by humidity. Thus, humidity plays
an important role in the life of plants and animals.

Atmospheric Gases

Gases like nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, water vapour and inert
gases are essential for sustaining life. However, gases like sulphur dioxide
(SO,), nitrogen dioxide (NO,), hydrogen sulphide (H,S) and smoke
particles from the industries have a major influence on the environment
and lead to various physiological changes in plants and animals.

pH
pH can be a deciding factor in aquatic eco-system, as far as distribution
of organisms is concemed. For aquatic animals as well as for organisms
on land, the pH should not be too acidic or too alkaline. For every species,
there is an optimum pH level at which they can survive.

Large scale industrialization and the discharge of effluents into water

bodies or the soil, change the pH level to a great extent, endangering
the lives of organisms.

2.3.2 Topographic Factors

known topographic factors.
The physical geographical factors are as

These factors include (1) altitude (2) slope and (3) direction ofmountain
conditions of a
chains and valleys. All these factors affect the climatic
With rise in
place and thereby influence the distribution of organisms.
and as we go higher,
altitude, there is progressive fall in temperature
of the wind. A
with a decrease in temperature there is greater activity
of water and nutrients
decrease in soil temperature reduces the absorption
and decreased
by the plants. In higher altitudes, the atmospheric pressuremammals. The
concentration of oxygen affects animals, particularly
the
mountain chains have a pronounced effect on
slope and direction of
70
Ecology
amount of solar radiation, rainfall, wind velocity, temperature and on t.
whole, the climate of the area. This in turn affects vegetation patten
and thus, the distribution of animals. erns

2.3.3 Edaphic Factors

Edaphic factors deal with the structure formation and characteristics of
different types of soils.
Soil provides mechanical anchorage to
plants and holds water and
mineral ions for the plants. They provide a basis for the
activities of
microorganisms and animals. Soil contains organic and inorganic colloids
electrolytes, organic matter and soil organism. Soil water forms the life
line of soil organisms, since
proper growth of microorganisms and soil
invertebrate population occurs in soil
is a solvent for the
containing adequate moisture. Water
organic nutrients as well as minerals and thus, its
contents regulate the
features of plants.
physiological, morphological and anatomical
Soil air, found in soil pores contains CO,, 0, and N, while their
quantity differs from soil to soil. The soil air is a
factor that determines the very important edaphic
types of microorganisms, soil animals and
vegetation that can grow in the soil. Similar to soil
about morphological, water, it also brings
and animals. physiological and anatomical changes plants
in
Soil
temperature is very
important as it affects the
microorganisms, plants and animals. The soil growth of
growth, the ability of the roots
to absorb
temperature influences root
organism. nutrients and movement or
Soil pH and
salinity are also important because when the pH of tne
soil is very high (highly
alkaline) there is no
Soil organism like vegetation.
bacteria, fungi, algae and
nematodes, earthworms modify the soil animals like
and help to form humus. structure, increase soilprotozoa.
fix atmospheric Nitrogen fixing bacteria and blue fertilny
nitrogen and increase soil green algac
Thus, a change in any of the soil fertility.
effect on the whole. constituents will have a tremend0U
 71
Ecology

2.3.4 Biotic Factors

The living components (animals

and plants) of the environment are
considered as the bioti factors. Organisms in the environment interact
themselves and this may be intra-specific (between populations of
among
or inter-specitic (between populations of different
same organism)
Some the interactions are mutualy benef+cial while some are
species). of
beneficial only one species without harming the others or by harming
to
interactions are very essential for the survival of the
the others. These
nature of the influence, these interactions
biotic factors. Based on the
can be
classified as:

Symbiosis
each other metabolically
In symbiosis, two different species depend upon
are known as 'symbionts'.
and thus, are mutually benefitted. The species
roots are the symbionts.
For example, Rhizobium bacteria and leguminous
to live in and derive readymade
In this case, the bacteria get protective space
roots on the other hand, utilize
food from leguminous roots. The leguminous
the fixed nitrogen in the bacteria to manufacture proteins.

Commensalism
the other either bencfits or
In this case, one species is benefited while
The members are called the 'commensals' and this
remains neutral.
some algae and
commensalism. For example,
association, is known as
The
form a different life form known as lichens.
Jungi join together to utilize
manufacture food through photosynthesis, which thefungi
algae and together
in retum, the fungi protects
the algae from drying up
and
both colonize tree barks, rocks, etc. or burrow
and marine animals share the nest
Some terrestrial insects
to it.
of others without causing any damage
Parasitism one is theparasite and
diferent species, i.e., harmed.
s case, there are two
benefited and the host is
the parasiteis For example,
T er,host. Although two plants or
animals.
may be
like
hosts
WOdifferent species which live on
parasites,
lice are the
uitoes, bedbugs,
animal and man, harming them.
72
Ecology
Epiphytism
Inthis case, epiphytes grow on other plants but do not derive food
food ffrom
them. For example, Lianas, a woody plant has roots in the ground
bu
takes the support of other plants to climb.
Some carmivorous plants like, Nepenthes, a pitcher plant, grows
on
other plants but derives food from insects. They have folded leaf lamina
modified into a pitcher-like structure with a lid. Zooplankton ente
into the structure through the lid, gets trapped and the soft parts are
digested
Competition
Organisms survive on some materials and if these are found inadequate
competition occurs. The competition may be both intra-specific and
inter-specific. This leads to the survival or dominance of certain species
over others. As all the
species cannot tolerate same range of temperature,
humidity, etc., only those who can, survive.
2.3.5 Limiting Factors

Limiting factors denote the amount of substance that is

either least
abundant or overabundant in relation to the
need of the living
Limiting factors may be density dependent, for organism
stock is fixed for a
given
example, when the food
to scarcity of food.
density of population,
overpopulation will lead
Limiting factor may be density
or tsunami
may wipe out an entire
independent, for example, earthquake
there are few or population irrespective of whether
[Link] density independent
living organisms may be abiotic factors limiting factors affecting
temperature, water, etc., or other biotic [Link] climate, soil, wind,
may not be tolerable to certain Some climatic conditions
species and
or in extreme cases
make them extinct. might reduce their population
amount ofnutrients, air and If the soil does
not have prope
and sufficient amount of moisture, the plants will not prepare
food to
support animal life, reducing balanceu
population. Biotic factors are the most the
influence the growth and distribution important limiting factors tnas
Laws of
of plants and animals.
Limiting Factors
To explain the effect
ofddifferent limiting
number laws and principles have been factors on living organisms
of
organism
proposed by different scientis
 73

. liehig\ Law of Mfinimum

An onganism requires quantity ofa particular nutrient for its
minimum
the
growth and if it is depicted below the critical minimum level,
pper
or will grow abnormally.
ongan1sm will fail grow
to
once nutrient, it will make
For example. if the soil is deticient in any
inactive and the proper growth of the
the other nutrient metabolically
plant will get restricted.
Blackman's Law of Limiting Factor
2.
number of factors and the
A biological process is controlled by a
affect the process on the whole.
deficiency of any of these factors will
is dependent on
For example, photosynthesis by plants. Photosynthesis
intensity of solar
nght amount of water, carbon dioxide, chlorophyll, of
radiation and temperature of chloroplast. A deficiency any of these
factors will affect the rate of photosynthesis.

3. Shelford's Law of Tolerance

minimum amount of a material
The law states that, it is not only that the
can be a limiting factor, but also
the excess amount of the same material
can be limiting to the growth
and development of an organism.
for the growth
For example, all the soil nutrients are equally important
in excess might limit the uptake
and development of plants, but anything
of the other nutrient, restricting the proper growth.
minimum and maximum for
Every organism thus, has an ecological known as limit or zone
between two limits is
every factor and the range
has two
of tolerance. Thus, every environmental factor
zones:

intolerance
(a) Zone of tolerance (b) Zone of
favourable for the growth and
(a) Zone of tolerance: This zone is
can be sub-divided into
development of organism. Zone of tolerance
the following
It is the most favourable zone for growth and
) Optimum zone:

development of an organism.
which
ii) Critical minimum zone: It is the lowest minimum limit below
growth and development of the organism ceases.
(iii) Critical maximum zone: It is the highest maximum limit above
which growth and development of the organism ceases.
 74

(b) Zone of intolerance: Tolerance with respect to

Ecology
various fa.
ditfers from species to species. Organisms that have a
wide rano factors
tolerance for all factors have a better chance of survival and ange of
henc
widely distributed. hence, are

Optimum

Any factor

Fig. 2.1. Range of tolerance

2.4 ECOLOGICAL BALANCE OR

ECO-SYSTEM STABILITY
Ecological balance or eco-system stability implies a balance between
the production and
consumption of each component in the eco-system.
According to T.D. Brock, 'Steady state condition in nature
is a time
independent condition in which production and
eco-system
each constituent in the
system is consumption of
allconstituents within the systemexactly balanced, the concentration or
remains constant, even though there
occurs a continual
change'.
There are a number of
the stability of theories, mechanisms and models to explain
eco-system. The important ones are:
() Theory of Diversity or
Stability
Ifthere is diversity of food webs it will
lead to an increase in
links in the food web and if numberor
community
system, the stability will increase. succession operates in an eco
(i) Homeostatic Mechanis
Inbuilt, self-regulating mechanism is known as
Ifwithin an eco-system the population of specieshomeostatic mechanism.
increases significanty
 75
Eolog

the result will be scareity

of food, leading to competition for food. Most
snecies will die of starvation and the species population will be brought
ack to its original value and the stability will be restored.
(in Models
The equilibrium, as well as non-equilibrium [Link] explain stability.
Thus, if the eco-system is disturbed by external factors, it may quickly
retum to its original state by some adjustments, restoring the stability.
However, if it does not retum to its original state, the disordered arrangement
might lead to cross-relationships and make the system stable.

2.5 ECOLOGICAL INSTABILITY

When an eco-system is unable to adjust to the environmental changes,
it is said to be unstable. The instability occurs due to a number of natural
and anthropogenic activities such as destruction of natural vegetation
and animal species, partly or completely or by replacing them by other
vegetations and animals, introduction of toxic substances like insecticides
and pesticides and toxic gases like S0,, NO2, etc.

2.6 IMPORTANCE OF ECOLOGY

During the past decades, due to rapid increase in technology and
population, humans have far more influenced their own environment
than any other eco-system engineer.
Some quoted examples of ecological crisis are:
Permian: Triassic extinction over 25 million years ago.
Cretaceous: Tertiary extinction over 65 million years ago.
Global waming related to greenhouse effect could involve flooding
of the Asian deltas, multiplication of extreme weather phenomena
and changes in the nature and quality of the food resources.
Ozone layerhole issue.
Deforestation and desertification, resulting in disappearance of
many species.
The nuclear meltdown at Chernobyl in 1986, caused the death of
caused mutation in
many people and animals due to cancer and
large number of people and animals.
 76
Ecology
the various primit.
factors responsible for thehelps us to
understand
existence of life on earth. The survivalagh
tive
The study of ecology
relationships. Altho
the ecological
ecology deals with ma ny
on
entirely
well-being depend branch of biology,
considered a
ecology is physics, geolou
science, such as chemistry,
other branches of the study of ecology giva
ves
pedology, etc. Thus,
geography, meteorology, and helps to
take proper care ofthe
he
insight into the u n i v e r s e
a reactive
environment for overall survival.

QUESTIONS WITH ANSWERS

Q.1. (a) Whatis ecology?

of ecology?
(6) What are the objectives
of ecology?
(c) What is the importance between environment and
(d) What is the basic difference
ecology?
Ans. (a) Ecology is the study
of the inter-relationship between living
environment, i.e., the scientific
organisms and their biotic and biological
abundance of living organisms and how they
study of the distribution and
interactions with other organisms and their
are affected by the
environment.
The biotic and physical environment includes light and heat (solar
wind, moisture oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients in soil,
water
rádiation),
and on the whole the entire atmosphere. The biotic or biological
environment includes organisms of the same kind as well as all other
and
plants and animals that inhabitate the same environmental region
the nearby regions (in few cases).
The term Oekologie was coined in 1866, by the German biologist
Ernst Heinrich Haeckel although, some research work conclude that it
was invented by Henry David Thoreau in 1852. The word is derived
from the Greek oikos (means 'household') and iogos (means "stuu
of ), therefore, 'ecology' means the 'study of household (of nature)
(b) The main objective of ecology is to study:
(i) The local and geographical distribution and abundance
organisms.
and
(i) The inter-relationship
between organisms in population
communities.
 11
Eologr
of
(i) The structural adaptations and functional adjustments
organisms to their physical environment.
under natural conditions.
(i)The behaviour of organisms
and its relationship with
()The biological productivity ofnature
mankind.
abundance and activities
(1i) Temporal changes in the occurrence,
of organisms.
and
The conservation and management of natural
resources
(vii)
pollution.
the environment.
This study, will help to take proper measure protect
to
increase in technology and
(c) During the past decades, due rapid
to
their own environment
population, humans have far more influenced
than any other eco-system engineer.
Some quoted examples of ecological crisis
are:

Permian: Triassic extinction over 25 million years ago

.Cretaceous: Tertiary extinction over 65 million years ago.
involve
.Global warming related to greenhouse effect, naming could
of extreme weather
flooding of the Asian deltas, multiplication
food resources.
phenomena and changes in the nature and qualityof the
Ozone layer holeissue.
of
Deforestation and desertification, resulting in disappearance
many species
deaths of
The nuclear meltdown at Chernobyl in 1986, caused the
many people and animals
due to cancer and caused mutation in
large number of people and animals.
The study of ecology helps us to understand the various primitive
factors responsible for the existence of life on earth. The survival and
well-being depend entirely on the ecological relationships. Although
with many
ecology is considered a branch of biology, ecology deals
other branches of science, such as chemistry, physics, geology,
geography, meteorology, pedology, etc. Thus, the study of ecology gives
a reactive insight into the universe and helps to take proper care of the

environment for our survival.

which an
(d) Environment is the living and non-living surroundings in
organism (human and animal) lives. Ecology is the study of inter
78
Ecology
rclationship or the interaction between organisms and theirsurToundings
Ecology involves the study of various eco-systems. In more simplified
way. cnvironment is our surroundings that make up our world and ecolopy
Is the study of all those things that make up our environment.
Q. 2.(a) How have the terms habitat' and 'niche been definedin
ccology?
(b) Discuss the different branches ofecology with their meaning?
(c) What is the most acceptable definition of ecology?
Ans. (a) In ecology the term 'habitat' is used to denote the place where
organism or species populations live, for example pond, a pond is the
habitat ofzooplankton and fish while 'niche' is the fundamental unit of
an organism's or species' population in the community. 'Habitat' is the
place where an organism lives, 'niche' is the activity (functional aspect)
of the organism.
(b) The different branches of ecology are:
Physiological Ecology (Eco-physiology) and behavioural
ecology: This ecology examines the adaptations of an
individual to his environment.
Population Ecology(or Autoecology): This ecology studies
the dynamics of population of a
single species.
Community Ecology (or Synecology): This ecology deals
with the interactions between
species within an ecological
community.
Eco-system Ecology: This ecology studies the flows of
energyand matter through the bioticnd abiotic
of eco-systems. components
Landscape Ecology: This ecology examines the processes
Occurring in multiple eco-systems or very large
and studies the
areas geographic
relationship between the processes
Ecology, however, can also be sub-divided into
such as animal many other branene
ecology, plant ecology, insect ecology, desert
pedology, palaeoecology, ethology, space ecology
c) The most acceptable ecology and on.
so

Charles Krebs (1985), definition of ecology was proposeu

Ecology is the scientific study of the interacio
that determines the distribution
and abundance
of organisms.
 79

you mean by 'Ccological factors"? Define.

a W hat do
What is the role ot 'ecological factors?
)
Classity ccological factors.

Ans. (a) In an eco-system, living organism is influenced by a large

a

factors. These environmental factors are

number of environmental
factors or eco-factors. These factors may be biotic
nown as ecolog1cal
ving) or abiotic (non-living).
(h) The ecological or environmental factors bring marked
dstributional., structural and functional changes in organisms. To live,
growand carry out all its activities, an organism requires a harmonious
Telationship with its immediate environment. The differences in vegetation
of a desert and a rain forest, fish in sweet water and saline water,
animals in tropical countries and cold countries, clearly indicate the role
of environmental factors in the distribution and survival of organisms in
different eco-systems.
The organisms subjected to diurnal, seasonal, annual and cyclic
relations of the environment, develop strategies to cope with these
changes for their survival. Only those which are able to cope with the
conditions, remain and those who cannot become extinct.
(c) The ecological factors can be classified into:
( Climatic factors: (a) light (6) temperature (e) nature (d)
rainfall (e) wind () humidity (g) atmospheric gases (h) pi.
A variation in these factors affects the distribution and
lifestyle of organisms.
(i) Topographicfactors: (a) Altitude (b) slope and direction
of mountain chain and valleys.
(ii) Edaphicfactors: Structure, fomation and characteristics
of different types of soils.
the
(vi) Biotic factors: Biotic factors are derived from
interactions between different species of life (intra-specific
mentioned
aswell as inter-specific). The different species
here are plants, microorganisms and animals.
4.(a) What are limiting factors? How dothey affect living organism?
(6) Discuss some laws of limiting factors?
of substance that is either
ns. (a) Limiting factors denote the amount of the living
need
cast abundant or overabundant in relation to the
80
Ecology
organism. Limiting factors may be density dependent, 1or example, when

the food stock is fixed for a given density of population, overpopulation

will lead to scarcity of food.
factor be density independent; for example,:an
Limiting may
out an entire population irrespective
earthquake or a tsunami may wipe
of whether there are few or many.
factors affecting living organisms
The density independent limiting
temperature, water, etc
like climate, soil, wind,
may be abiotic factors may
conditions not be tolerable to
or other bioticfactors. Some climatic
or in extreme cases
reduce their population
certain species and might
does not have proper amount ofnutrients
make them extinct. If the soil
not prepare balanced and sufficient
air and moisture, the plants will
support animal life thereby
reducing their population.
amount of food to

Biotic factors are the most important

limiting factors that influence the
and animals.
growth and distribution of plants
Factors
(6) Laws of Limiting
factors on living organisms,
To explain the effect of different limiting
been proposed by different scientists:
number oflaws and principles have
minimum quantity
[Link]'s Law ofMinimum: An organism requiresit is
and if depicted below
ofaparticular nutrient for its proper growth will fail to grow or will grow
the critical minimum level, the organism
abnormally.
it will make
For example, if the soil is deficient in any one nutrient,
of the
the other nutrient metabolically inactive and the proper growth
plant will get restricted.
2. Blackman's Law of Limiting Factor: A biological processiS
these
controlled by a number of factors and the deficiency of any of
factors will affect the process on the whole.
For example, the process ofphotosynthesis by plants. Photosynthesis
is dependent on right amount of water, carbon dioxide, chlorophyl,
intensity of solar radiation and temperature of chloroplast. Adeficiency
of any of these factors will affect the rate of photosynthesis.
3. Shelford's Law of Tolerance: The law states that, it is not onlytha
the minimum amount ofa material can be a limiting factor, but also
excess amount of the same material can be limiting to the growth a
development of an organism.
 81
Ecology

For example, all the soil nutrients are equally important for the
and
growth and
growth development of plants, but anything in excess might limit
the uptakeof the other nutrient, restricting the proper growth.
Every organism thus, has an ecological minimum and maximum
for every factor and the range between the two limits is known as limit
or zone of tolerance. Thus, every environmental factor has two zones:
(a) Zone of tolerance

(6) Zone of intolerance

(a) Zone of Tolerance

This zone is favourable for the growth and development of an organism.
Zone of tolerance can be sub-divided into:
() Optimum zone: It is the most favourable zone for the growth
and development of an organism.
Gi) Critical minimum zone: It is the lowest minimum limit below
which growth and development of the organism ceases.
Gii) Critical maximum zone: It is the highest maximum limit above
which growth and development of the organism ceases.
(6) Zone of Intolerance
Tolerance with respect to various factors differs from species to species.
Organisms that have a wide range of tolerance for all factors have a
better chance of survival and hence, are widely distributed.
Q.5. (a) Define eco-system stability and instability
(6) Discuss in brief the biotic factors.
Ans. (a) Ecological balance or eco-system stability implies a balance
between the production and consumption of each component in the
eco-system.
On the other hand, when an eco-system is unable to adjust to the
environmental changes, it is said to be unstable. The instability occurs
due to a number of natural and anthropogenic activities such as destruction
of
naturalvegetation and animal species, partly completely or by
or of toxic
placing them by other vegetations and animals, introduction
stances like insecticides and pesticides and toxic gases like S02
NO,, etc.
and
() Organisms in the environment interact among themselves
or
nis
may be intra-specific (between population of same organism)
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Ecology
Some of
inter-specific (between population of different species).
bencficial
are
of tha
the
al to onl.
interactions are mutually beneficial while some only
one species without harming the others or by harming
the ers. Thesa
others.
These
interactions put together are referred to as
factors'. The
'biotic varioe
us
interactions shown by biotic factors are (1) Symbiosis (2) Commensalism
(3) Parasitism (4) Epiphytism (5) Competition.

EXERCISE

[Link] is ecology? Discuss in detail the scope

and objectives of
Q.
ecology. Discuss the effects
ecological factors?
Q.2. What are topographic
the
of light and temperature on living organism.
Q.3. Write notes on:
intolerance.
(a) Zone of tolerance and
(6) Light as a climatic factor.
(c) Edaphic factors as eco-factors.
Q.4. Why is the concept of limiting factors so important? Discuss
Liebig's law and Blackman's law in this context.
Q.5. Which ecological factors are most important and why? In what
How does altitude
way are symbiosis and commensalisms different?
affect the distribution of animals?