CHAPTER 4

4. DISTANCE MEASUREMENT
Distance is one of the fundamental measurements in surveying. Although frequently measured as a spatial
distance (sloping distance) in three-dimensional space, inevitably it is the horizontal equivalent which is
required. Distance is required in many instances, e.g. to give scale to a network of control points, to fix
the position of topographic detail by offsets or polar coordinates, to set out the position of a point in
construction work, etc.

Distance may be determined by direct or indirect measurements. Direct measurement of a line means to
find its length by comparing it with something of known length, such as a rope, a steel chain or steel
measuring tape. Indirect measurement means deducing the length of a line from the measurement of
other quantities, such as Tacheometric method or optical method, EDM (Electromagnetic distance
measurement) and GPS (Global Positioning System).

4.1 DIRECT METHODS

a. Instruments For distance measurement

The materials for measuring distance directly are:-

1. Chains: - are measuring instruments, which have 20 m length and subdivided into 20 cm or 30 cm.
But nowadays due to improved manufacturing techniques the chain has been replaced by steel
tapes.
2. Tape: - metallic tape, steel tape, cloth tape, invar tape.

The other instruments, which are involved in measuring a distance (horizontal), i.e. to make station, are.

1. Pegs:-these are either wooden or steel which are either circular or square with length 30cm used to
mark the station.
2. Arrow- made of 12 mm diameter steel to mark the tape length
3. Ranging Rods: - a circular section of 2m, 2.5m or 3m pointed with red & white with diameter of
3cm.
4. Ranging Pole: - similar to ranging rod with heavier in section and length of 4 – 6m high. These are
used in undulated pound where it’s difficult to use ranging rod.
5. Tripod: - in hard or paved pound tripod is used to support the ranging rods.
6. Plumb bob: - This is used to transfer the end points of the chain where measuring distance
in a hilly terrain. It is also to test the verticality of ranging rod leveling etc.
7. Optical Square – two pentagonal prisms mounted one above the other in a metal or plastic housing.
The instrument is used for establishing and checking alignments and to raise an offset.

Ranging out Survey Lines

While measuring the length of a survey line or ‘chain line’, the tape must be stretched straight along the
line joining its two terminal stations. IF the length of line is less than the length of the chain, there will be
no difficulty, in doing so. If however the length of the line exceeds the length of the chain, some
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intermediate points will have to be established in line with the two terminal points before chaining is
started. The process of fixing or establishing such intermediate points is known as ranging. Direct
Ranging includes ranging by eyes and by theodolite whereas indirect ranging is done by establishing
intermediate two stations from each one of the chain line ends, and taking step by step ranging from both
ends.

Principle of chaining

In most of Engineering Surveying Steel tape is used. So to measure the length of a line, which is greater
than the length of the tape, the following principle should be followed. At least two persons are needed in
chaining i.e. with two chainmen.
 Leader chainman (with ranging rod & peg),
 Follower chainman
 One who is recording measurements (optional)

OFFSET
In chain surveying the positions of details i.e. boundaries, roads churches stream bends etc. are located
with respect to the chain line by measuring their distance right or left of the chain lines. Such lateral
measurements are called offset.
There are two kinds of offset.
i) Perpendicular offsets.
ii) Oblique offsets.
1. Perpendicular offsets: - when the lateral measurements for fixing detail points are made
perpendicular to chain lines, the offset is known perpendicular offsets or light angle offsets.
2. Oblique offsets:- when the lateral measurements for fixing detail points are made of any
angle to the chain line, the offsets are known as oblique offsets.
Chain lines

Steel tape
stretched on {Perpendicular
ground offset}

Oblique offset
Building

Perpendicular
offset
Chain lines with
steel band
stretched

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Measurements of perpendicular offsets
The offsets are generally measured either metallic or steel tapes depending up on the accuracy required of
surveying.
For every offset the following information has to book.
1. The distance along the chain line or chainage.
2. The length of the offsets.

Tree

Length of offset

Chainage

Instruments for measuring right angles

For setting out right angles in chain surveying, the following instruments are generally used.

i) Cross staff
a) Open cross staff
b) Adjustable cross staff.
ii) Optical Square.
iii) Prism squares.
1. Open cross staff: - it is the simplest types of cross staff, which is commonly used. It consists of head
and leg. The head is wooden block octagonal or round, about 15 cm side or 20cm diameter and 4cm
deep. The wooden block is provided with two cats 1cm deep at right angle to each other for
establishing two lines of rights.
2. French cross staff:- It consists of octagonal brass box with slits cut in each face so that the opposite
pairs form a sight line. The instruments may be mounted on short ranging rods, and to set out a right
angle.
3. Adjustable cross staff:- It consists of a brass cylinder tube divided at the middle. The lower portions
remains fixed and upper portions can be rotated relative to the lower one by circular rack. Sighting
slits are provided in the both parts. The lower part is graduated in to degrees and their sub-divisions
while the upper one carries a vernier.

Example for procedures is open cross staff: for siding the foot of perpendicular offsets, proceed as under.

Chair line B A

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 The cross staff is held vertically on the chain line where perpendicular from an object is expected to
meet
 Turn the cross staff until one pair of opposite slits, is directed to a ranging rod at A.
 Look through the other pair of slits and see if the points to which the offset is taken, is bisected (C)
 If not, the cross staff is moved forward or backward on the chain line tangent to A and bisect C.
Care should be taken while holding the cross staff vertically.

Field problems and their solution

It is never practicable to arrange lay out and survey go that all the chain lines can be run in straight
forward manner. Obstacles generally create difficulties in surveying. Solution of simple difficulties with
essential equipment used in chair surveying, may be made as under

Problem –1 To erect a perpendicular from the chair line to a point (detail)

Method – 1 3-4-5 method

G
5m
3m Chain lines
A
B 4m C

Method-2

By selecting two point B & C on the chain line equidistant from the given points G on the line pin down
the ends of 30m tape i.e. zero and 30m marks on B & C respectively. Hold the 15m-mark and move it
away from the line fill two halves are stretched. Then the point G is of 15m-mark is on the required
offsets.

45°

B G C
15 m 15 m

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 Method –3

Select any point D i.e GD<30m, with D as center and GD as radius swing and an arc cutting the chain line
at A and K
K

Rope

A G

Problem-2 To drop perpendiculars to a chain line from outside points

Two cases are given below
a. When point G is accessible
Method –1

A L D

 With G as center and GD as radius swing an arc then the arc will cut the chain line at D
 Pin down point A and D and measure its length
 Point half the length of AD i.e. point L
 Then point L is point of offset.
Method-2
 Select any point B on a given chair liar and measure a convene length BG
 Get off BC equal to BG
 Measure CG
 Obtain the point L by measuring
Proof GLC
CG2 = GL2 + LC2 2 = BG2 – BL2 + LC2.

= BG2 + (LC+BL) (LC-BL) = BC2 +BC (LC-BL)

CL = (CG) 2 /2BC

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 G

B L C

b. When the point G is inaccessible

Method –1

 Select any point B and C on the chain line

 Drop perpendiculars from point the chain line BG from C and CG from B.
 Locate Their points or intersection F
 Produce GF to L
G

x y
D E
F

B C
L

Obstacles in Chaining
Various types of obstacles generally met during chaining may be overcome by one of the following
methods.
Obstacles in chaining are not the following types.
1. Obstacles which obstruct ranging but of chaining
In this case the ends of chain lines are not visible such obstacles are generally get in undulated ground
where it is consists of rising ground interlining hill. Two cases may occur.
a. When ends are visible from intermediate points on the chair line.
b. When ends are not inter visible from any intermediate points on the chair line.

2. Obstacles, which obstruct chaining but not ranging

Typical obstructions are –large water bodies like lake, ponds. Here we might want to know the distance
between two convenient points on either side of obstacles on the chair line.
Two cases are discussed below
a. It is possible to chair round the obstacle
b. It is not possible to chair round the obstacle
Case-1 when chaining round an obstacle is possible

Method-1 by constructing rectangles

Length of AD = BC
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 Chain line D
A

L1 L1

B C

Method-2 by constructing right-angled triangle

Required to know the length AB along the pond

A B

L1
L2

Method –3 by constructing similar triangle

Required to know length of AB
Length of AB = length of ED

A B

O SAS similarity
C
O

E D

Case II when chaining round an obstacle is not possible

Typical examples of such conditions are crossing a big river by chain surveying. There are a number of
methods to overcome this problem.

Method –1 by constructing similar triangle

B

E D
L2
L2
A C
L1 F

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* Measure ED, EA, & AC
BAC DFC

AB = EA. AC

AC. ED
B

C L1
A L1 D

 Set out perpendicular AD

 Set C at mid point
 Set out perpendicular DE , such that E is on the line of sight of CB

Then AB = DE
Tape Errors and Corrections

For general occurrence the steel band or tape are graduated in millimeter. They are standardized so that
they measure their nominal length when temperature is 20°c and the applied tension is between 50N to
80N. This information is printed on two zero end of the tape.
Tape measurements require certain corrections to be applied to the measured distance depending upon the
conditions under which the measurements have been made. These corrections are discussed below.

Correction for Absolute Length

Due to manufacturing defects the absolute length of the tape may be different from its designated or
nominal length. Also with use the tape may stretch causing change in the length and it is imperative that
the tape is regularly checked under standard conditions to determine its absolute length. The correction
for absolute length or standardization is given by

Where c = the correction per tape length,

l = the designated or nominal length of the tape, and
L= the measured length of the line.
If the absolute length is more than the nominal length the sign of the correction is positive and vice versa.

Correction for Temperature

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If the tape is used at a field temperature different from the standardization temperature then the
temperature correction to the measured length is

Where α = the coefficient of thermal expansion of the tape material,

tm = the mean field temperature, and
t0 = the standardization temperature.
Note that the sign of the correction takes the sign of (tm- t0).

Correction for Pull or Tension

If the pull applied to the tape in the field is different from the standardization pull, the pull correction is to
be applied to the measured length. This correction is

where
P = the pull applied during the measurement,
P0 = the standardization pull,
A = the area of cross-section of the tape, and
E = the Young’s modulus for the tape material.
The sign of the correction is same as that of (P – P0)

Correction for Sag

For very accurate measurements the tape can be allowed to hang in catenary between two supports (Fig.
a). In the case of long tape, intermediate supports as shown in Fig. b, can be used to reduce the magnitude
of correction.

The tape hanging between two supports, free of ground, sags under its own weight, with maximum dip
occurring at the middle of the tape. This necessitates a correction for sag if the tape has been standardized
on the flat, to reduce the curved length to the chord length. The correction for the sag is

Where W = the weight of the tape per span length.(The sign of this correction is always -ve)
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If both the ends of the tape are not at the same level, a further correction due to slope is required. It is
given by

where α = the angle of slope between the end supports.

Correction for Slope
If the length L is measured on the slope , it must be reduced to its horizontal equivalent L cos θ. The
required slope correction is

Where θ = the angle of the slope, and

h = the difference in elevation of the ends of the tape.
The sign of this correction is always negative.

Correction for Alignment

If the intermediate points are not in correct alignment with ends of the line, a correction for alignment
given below, is applied to the measured length

Where d = the distance by which the other end of the tape is out of alignment.
The correction for alignment is always negative.

Reduction to Mean Sea Level (M.S.L.)

In the case of long lines in triangulation surveys the relationship between the length AB measured on the
ground and the equivalent length A'B′ at mean sea level has to be considered. Determination of the
equivalent mean sea level length of the measured length is known as reduction to mean sea level. The
reduced length at mean sea level is given by

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Where R = the mean earth’s radius (6372 km), and
H = the average elevation of the line.
When H is considered small compared to R, the correction to L is given as

The sign of the correction is always negative for points above the mean sea level.

4.2 TACHEOMETRIC OR OPTICAL METHOD

In stadia tacheometry the line of sight of the tacheometer may be kept horizontal or inclined
depending upon the field conditions. In the case of horizontal line of sight, the horizontal
distance between the instrument at A and the staff at B is

where
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k and c = the multiplying and additive constants of the tacheometer, and
s = the staff intercept,
= ST – SB, where ST and SB are the top hair and bottom hair readings, respectively.

Generally, the value of k and c are kept equal to 100 and 0 (zero), respectively, for making the
computations simpler. Thus
D = 100 s

The elevations of the points, in this case, are obtained by determining the height of instrument
and taking the middle hair reading. Let
hi = the height of the instrument axis above the ground at A,
hA, hB = the elevations of A and B, and

SM = the middle hair reading

then the height of instrument is
H.I. = hA + hi
and hB = H.I. – SM
= hA + hi – SM

In the case of inclined line of sight, the vertical angle α is measured, and the horizontal and
vertical distances, D and V, respectively, are determined from the following expressions.

The elevation of B is computed as below.

hB = hA + hi + V – SM

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4.3 EELECTROMAGNETIC DISTANCE MEASUREMENT (EDM)
The EDM equipments which are commonly used in land surveying are mainly electronic or
microwave systems and electro-optical instruments. These operate on the principle that a
transmitter at the master station sends modulated continuous carrier wave to a receiver at the
remote station from which it is returned. The instruments measure slope distance D between
transmitter and receiver. It is done by modulating the continuous carrier wave at different
frequencies and then measuring the phase difference at the master between the outgoing and
incoming signals. This introduces an element of double distance is introduced. The expression
for the distance D traversed by the wave is

where
= the measured phase difference,
λ = the modulated wavelength,
n = the number of complete wavelength contained within the double distance (an unknown),
and
k = a constant.
To evaluate n, different modulated frequencies are deployed and the phase difference of the
various outgoing and measuring signals are compared.
If c0 is the velocity of light in vacuum and f is the frequency, we have

where n is the refractive index ratio of the medium through which the wave passes. Its value
depends upon air temperature, atmospheric pressure, vapor pressure and relative humidity. The
velocity of light c0 in vacuum is taken as 3 × 108 m/s.
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The infrared based EDM equipments fall within the electro-optical group. Nowadays, most local
survey and setting out for engineering works are being carried out using these EDM’s. The
infrared EDM has a passive reflector, using a retrodioptive prism to reflect the transmitted
infrared wave to the master. The distances of 1-3 km can be measured with an accuracy of ± 5
mm. Many of these instruments have microprocessors to produce horizontal distance, difference
in elevation, etc. Over long ranges (up to 100 km with an accuracy of ± 50 mm) electronic or
microwave instruments are generally used. The remote instrument needs an operator acting to the
instructions from the master at the other end of the line. The signal is transmitted from the master
station, received by the remote station and retransmitted to the master station.

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