2023/11/1

Unit operations in food processing.

Flow sheeting.

The flowsheet is the key document in process design. It is a diagrammatic model of the process.
It shows,
• The arrangement of the equipment selected to carry out the process
• The stream connections
• Stream flow-rates and compositions
• The operating conditions.
The flow-sheet is drawn up from material balances made over the complete process and each
individual unit.
Energy balances are also made to determine the energy flows and the service
requirements.
Flow Sheet Presentation
As the process flow-sheet is the definitive document on the process, the presentation must be
clear, comprehensive, accurate and complete.
The various types of flow-sheets are discussed below.
▪ Block Diagrams
▪ Process Flow Diagram
▪ Piping & Instrumentation Diagram

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Block diagram.
A block diagram is the simplest form of presentation. Each block can represent a single
piece of equipment or a complete stage in the process.
They are useful for showing simple processes.
With complex processes, their use is limited to showing the overall process, broken down
into its principal stages.
Block diagrams are useful for representing a process in a simplified form in reports and
textbooks, but have only a limited use as engineering documents.
The stream flow-rates and compositions can be shown on the diagram adjacent to the
stream lines, when only a small amount of information is to be shown or tabulated
separately.
The blocks can be of any shape, but it is usually convenient to use a mixture of squares
and circles, drawn with a template.

block diagram.

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Process Flow Diagram (PFD)

A process flow diagram (PFD) is a type of flowchart that represents the integrity of equipment
and plant operations. This graphic chart depicts a link among the principal equipment of a
facility. Nevertheless, it does not cover minor details such as designations and plumbing.
Process flow diagrams are technical flowcharts. It assists managers and designers in their process
arrangements, ensuring straightforward outputs. A typical process flow diagram would
incorporate significant datasets. They contain information about mechanical equipment,
operating data, and interconnections to other systems. Equipment should be drawn
approximately to the scale (mainly principal equipment) and all equipment should be labeled.
Usually include auxiliary services to the process, circulating oil, air, water, steam, flue gas,
refrigeration etc.
On the other hand, these charts do not concern minor details, such as pipeline codes or control
valves.
PFDs are a must-have during project explanations and walkthroughs. Their clean-cut designs
enhance illustrations of certain phases in a process. They come in several structures, suitable for
distinct purposes.

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Process flow diagrams.

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Piping & Instrumentation Diagram
The Piping and Instrument diagram (P and I diagram or PID) shows the engineering details of
the equipment, instruments, piping, valves and fittings; and their arrangement. It is often called
the Engineering Flow-sheet or Engineering Line Diagram.
In both diagrams arrows show the flow of material and symbols show tanks, valves, and other
equipment. The symbols used vary somewhat from organization to organization. So you may see
several different symbols that all represent a motor
The P and I diagram shows the arrangement of the process equipment, piping, pumps,
instruments, valves and other fittings.
It should include:
1. All process equipment identified by an equipment number. The equipment should be
drawn roughly in proportion, and the location of nozzles shown.
2. All pipes, identified by a line number. The pipe size and material of construction should
be shown. The material may be included as part of the line identification number.
3. All valves, control and block valves, with an identification number. The type and size
should be shown. The type may be shown by the symbol used for the valve or included in
the code used for the valve number.
4. Ancillary fittings that are part of the piping system, such as inline sight-glasses, strainers
and steam traps; with an identification number.
5. Pumps, identified by a suitable code number.
6. All control loops and instruments, with an identification on number.

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.
Piping and instrumentation diagram.

process flow valves.

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Uses of Flow Sheets

✓ Useful in studying the dynamics of the process, process optimization, as well as for
designing an efficient control system.

✓ Useful in designing piping, instrumentation, equipment and plant layout.

✓ Useful in preparation of operating manuals.

✓ Use for operator training.

✓ During plant startup and subsequent operation flow sheets forms a basis for comparison
of operating performance with design

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conduction, convection and radiation
conduction.
Conduction is the process by which heat energy is transmitted through collisions between
neighboring atoms or molecules.
Heat conduction can be understood, on the atomic level, as particles physically transferring heat
energy as they come into physical contact with neighboring particles.
This is similar to the explanation of heat by the kinetic theory of gases, though the transfer of
heat within a gas or liquid is usually referred to as convection.
The rate of heat transfer over time is called the heat current, and it is determined by the thermal
conductivity of the material, a quantity that indicates the ease with which heat is conducted
within the material.
For example, if an iron bar is heated at one end, as shown in the image above, the heat is
understood physically as the vibration of the individual iron atoms within the bars.
The atoms on the cooler side of the bar vibrate with less energy. As the energetic particles
vibrate, they come into contact with adjacent iron atoms and impart some of their energy to those
other iron atoms.
Over time, the hot end of the bar loses energy and the cool end of the bar gains energy, until the
entire bar is the same temperature. This is a state known as thermal equilibrium.

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Convection.

Convection heat transfer is the transfer of energy by the mass movement of groups of molecules.
It is restricted to liquids and gases, as mass molecular movement does not occur at an
appreciable speed in solids.
Convection coefficients will be studied under two sections.
[Link] convection.
[Link] convection.

Natural convection.
Heat transfer by natural convection occurs when a fluid is in contact with a surface hotter or
colder than itself. As the fluid is heated or cooled it changes its density. This difference in
density causes movement in the fluid that has been heated or cooled and causes the heat transfer
to continue.
There are many examples of natural convection in the food industry. Convection is significant
when hot surfaces, such as retorts which may be vertical or horizontal cylinders, are exposed
with or without insulation to colder ambient air.

Nusselt number.
Ratio between convection and conduction heat transfer.
Nusselt number (Nu)- (heD/k)

Prandtl number.
It indicates thermal boundry.
Prandtl number (Pr)- (cpu /k)

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Grashof number (Gr)
Grashof number (Gr) -
and in some cases a length ratio (L /D).

Forced Convection

When a fluid is forced past a solid body and heat is transferred between the fluid and the body,
this is called forced convection heat transfer. Examples in the food industry are in the forced-
convection ovens for baking bread, in blast and fluidized freezing, in ice-cream hardening rooms,
in agitated retorts, in meat chillers. In all of these, foodstuffs of various geometrical shapes are
heated or cooled by a surrounding fluid, which is moved relative to them by external means.

Reynolds number.

✓ If the Prandtl number is lower than one heat is lazy.

Forced convection examples.

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Radiation.
Radiation heat transfer is the transfer of heat energy by electromagnetic radiation. Radiation
operates independently of the medium through which it occurs and depends upon the relative
temperatures, geometric arrangements and surface structures of the materials that are emitting or
absorbing heat.

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