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Sustainable concrete production: the role of ceramic waste as a partial
coarse aggregate substitute
Blasius Henry Ngayakamo1
Received: 21 October 2024 / Accepted: 13 February 2025
© The Author(s) 2025 OPEN
Abstract
The increasing global demand for sustainable construction materials has led to the exploration of alternative resources
in concrete production. This study investigated the potential of using crushed ceramic waste as a partial replacement for
conventional aggregates to reduce environmental impact, minimize waste, and enhance resource efficiency. Concrete
mixtures were prepared with ceramic waste replacing natural coarse aggregates at 0%, 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, and 25%
by weight. The compressive strength, split tensile strength, water absorption, and bulk density of the concrete were
assessed at curing ages of 7, 14, and 28 days. The results show that replacing up to 20% of natural aggregates with ceramic
waste improves the mechanical properties of concrete. At 28 days, compressive strength increased by 22% (from 27.27
to 33.27 MPa), and split tensile strength reached a maximum of 4.20 MPa with 20% ceramic waste. However, beyond
20%, performance declined, with compressive and tensile strengths dropping at 25% ceramic waste. Water absorption
increased, and bulk density decreased with higher ceramic waste content. These findings suggest that while ceramic
waste enhances concrete strength up to 20%, higher replacement levels lead to poor bonding and reduced performance.
This research supports the use of ceramic waste as an eco-friendly alternative for sustainable concrete production, pro-
moting a circular economy and environmentally conscious construction practices.
Keywords Ceramic waste · Recycled aggregate · Sustainable concrete · Circular economy of materials
1 Introduction
The construction industry is one of the largest consumers of natural resources, contributing significantly to environmental
degradation through resource depletion and waste generation. As urbanization accelerates globally, the demand for
concrete a key material in construction continues to rise, leading to increased extraction of raw materials and height-
ened carbon emissions [1, 2]. Traditional concrete production heavily relies on natural aggregates, the extraction of
which contributes to resource depletion and environmental degradation [3–5]. Simultaneously, the rising volume of
construction and demolition waste, particularly ceramic wastes from discarded tiles and sanitary ware, poses a signifi-
cant environmental challenge [6, 7].
Ceramic wastes are by-products or unusable remnants generated from the production and use of ceramic materials
[8]. These wastes are predominantly sourced from construction and demolition activities [9, 10]. The disposal of ceramic
waste poses significant environmental challenges due to its non-biodegradable nature, and accumulation in landfills
hence contributing to land degradation and loss of usable land space biodegradable [10, 11]. Additionally, the mining of
* Blasius Henry Ngayakamo, [email protected]; [email protected] | 1Department of Civil Engineering, Dar Es Salaam
Institute of Technology, P.O. Box 2958, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.
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raw materials for ceramic production consumes large amounts of energy, and improper disposal of ceramic dust during
manufacturing can lead to air pollution [8]. Recycling ceramic waste has gained attention as a sustainable solution for
reducing its environmental footprint [12, 13]. Ceramic wastes can be ground into fine particles and used as aggregate
in concrete, enhancing the material’s strength and durability [14, 15]. Using ceramic wastes in green construction has
proven highly beneficial [15–17]. In sustainable building practices, ceramic waste may be incorporated into concrete
and mortar mixes, reducing the need for virgin raw materials like gravel and sand [18–20].
As urbanization accelerates globally, the construction industry faces mounting pressure to adopt sustainable practices
while meeting the ever-increasing demand for concrete [18]. This scenario presents an opportunity to explore innovative
solutions that not only mitigate waste but also enhance the sustainability of concrete. Utilizing crushed ceramic waste as
a partial replacement for conventional coarse aggregates has emerged as a promising avenue for researchers and practi-
tioners alike [21–25]. Not only does this approach address the environmental concerns associated with landfill disposal of
ceramic waste, but it also has the potential to improve certain mechanical properties of concrete. Consequently, several
studies have highlighted the potential of recycling waste materials to create eco-friendly construction products [26].
From the literature, it is obvious that crushed ceramic waste has emerged as a promising alternative material due
to its abundance and distinct properties. Hence, this study investigated its innovative use as a partial replacement for
traditional coarse aggregates in concrete production, aiming to enhance mechanical performance while mitigating
the environmental impacts of conventional aggregate extraction and disposal. The research assessed both the physical
and mechanical properties of the resulting concrete, comparing it to standard mixtures, and evaluating the sustainabil-
ity benefits. Ultimately, the findings aimed to promote greener construction practices and support adopting circular
economy principles in the industry.
2 Experimental procedure
2.1 Raw materials collection
Several construction sites across Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, served as the source for the ceramic waste used in this study.
The collected raw materials underwent thorough cleaning to ensure they were free from contaminants such as clay
lumps, organic matter, vegetable matter, and fine dust, which could otherwise interfere with the adhesion of coarse
aggregates and weaken the concrete’s structural integrity. To prepare concrete samples, Twiga Ordinary Portland Cement
(grade 42.5) was utilized as a binder. This cement was purchased from official distributors of Twiga Cement Company
Limited in Dar es Salaam. Fine and coarse aggregates, sourced from the Lugoba quarry in Bagamoyo, Tanzania, were also
used. Aggregates larger than 4.75 mm were categorized as coarse aggregates, while those smaller than 4.75 mm were
classified as fine aggregates. Both types were carefully cleaned to eliminate any traces of clay or organic contamination.
2.2 Raw materials preparation
The strength of concrete is influenced by the size of the aggregates (both fine and coarse) used in its formulation and
production. To optimize this, the collected ceramic waste was crushed into smaller particles using a jaw crusher. These
particles were then sieved using a sieve shaker to achieve proper grading. After sieving, the graded particles were dried
for 24 h to eliminate residual moisture. The properties of natural and ceramic aggregates are presented in detailed
Table 1. In the context of concrete production, a sieving analysis was conducted to ensure that uniform particle sizes of
aggregates were obtained, which would influence the workability, compaction, and strength of the final concrete mix.
2.3 Batch formulation and production
The concrete mix design for grade C-20 (1:2:4) was developed using Twiga 42.5N grade Ordinary Portland Cement
and a water-cement ratio of 0.5, as shown in Table 2. The coarse aggregate used had particle sizes ranging from 16
to 10 mm, while the fine aggregate ranged from 4.75 to 1.18 mm. Crushed waste (CW) was used to partially replace
natural coarse aggregates in varying proportions of 0%, 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, and 25 wt.%. The mix was then poured
into plastic molds measuring 100 mm × 100 mm × 100 mm to cast concrete cubes. Before casting, the inner surfaces
of the molds were thoroughly oiled to ensure easy demolding. Fresh concrete was placed into the molds in three
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Table 1 Properties of natural Property Natural aggregate Ceramic
and ceramic waste aggregates waste aggre-
gates
Water absorption (%) 0.24 0.18
Aggregate crushing value (%) 14 22
Aggregate impact value (%) 11.4 19.98
Specific gravity 2.56 2.15
Table 2 Concrete batch % of the ceramic w/c ratio Cement Water content Fine aggre- Coarse aggre- Ceramic
formulation aggregate content (g) (cm3) gate (g) gate (g) waste (g)
0 0.5 400 200 800 1600 0
5 0.5 400 200 800 1520 80
10 0.5 400 200 800 1440 160
15 0.5 400 200 800 1360 240
20 0.5 400 200 800 1280 320
25 0.5 400 200 800 1200 400
Fig. 1 Flow diagram for pro-
duction of concrete samples Raw Materials
Natural Aggregates Ceramic waste Portland cement
Mixing and Production
Curing and drying
layers, compacted, and then left undisturbed for 24 h. After demolding, the cubes were submerged in water for cur-
ing periods of 7, 14, and 28 days as shown in Fig. 1.
Water curing promotes concrete strength by facilitating hydration and pozzolanic reactions, which generate
calcium silicate hydrate (C–S–H). This compound fills internal voids, consolidating the structure and enhancing
strength [27]. The formation of C–S–H gel is crucial in strengthening concrete and reducing porosity during cement
hydration [28, 29]. The role of water curing in improving concrete strength has been extensively discussed by previ-
ous researchers, including [30, 31].
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2.4 Physical–mechanical analysis of fresh and hardened concrete samples
The workability of fresh C-20 grade concrete was done according to ASTM-C143 standard for the slump test. The slump
test was done as ceramic waste replaced natural coarse aggregate at an interval of 5% up to 30%. The water absorption
and bulk density of hardened concrete tests were done according to ASTM C642 and C138 standard codes respectively.
Water absorption (A) was calculated by dividing the mass of water absorbed ( Ws) and the mass of the dry specimen(Wd).
The bulk density, B (Kg/m3) of the specimen was calculated after measuring the dimensions of the concrete sample to
calculate its volume and weighing it to determine its mass. The ASTM C39 standard test method was used for determining
the compressive strength of the C-20 Concrete specimens. The cube specimens typically 100 mm 100 mm × 100 mm were
prepared. The compressive strength testing was done at a displacement rate of 1.25 mm/s and a loading rate of 50 kN/s.
The concrete samples were deformed monotonically to failure the load measurements in the form of kN were be taken
and the compressive strength of concrete samples at failure was computed. The ASTM C496 standard test method was
used to determine the splitting tensile strength of the C-20 Concrete specimens. The cylindrical concrete specimens,
typically with a diameter of 100 mm and height of 300 mm were prepared. The tensile splitting strength was performed
using a 500 kN-press machine. The split tensile test (Ts) was calculated using the formula
2P
Ts =
𝜋 ld
where P = Maximum load at failure kN, L is the length of the specimen in (mm) and D is the diameter of the specimen
(in mm).
3 Results and discussion
3.1 Slump test
The slump test was performed to evaluate the workability of freshly mixed concrete. The slump values of fresh con-
crete were found to increase with an increase of ceramic waste addition from 0%, 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, and 25% wt.
as coarse aggregate in C-20 grade concrete. The increasing trend in slump values might have been influenced by the
finer texture and irregular shape of ceramic particles might have led to a better packing arrangement in the concrete
mix, thus increasing the ease of flow without segregation. In addition, the higher slump values could be due to the
smoother surface texture of ceramic particles which reduced internal friction and interaction with the cement paste
[22]. Hence, replacing natural coarse aggregates with ceramic waste in C-20 concrete progressively increases the
slump values as shown in Fig. 2. While this makes the concrete easier to work with, especially at higher replacement
percentages, care must be taken to control potential issues such as segregation and loss of cohesiveness.
Fig. 2 Variation of slump
values with CW addition
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Fig. 3 Relationship between
water absorption and increas-
ing crushed ceramic waste
(CW) content
Fig. 4 Relationship between
bulk density and increasing
crushed ceramic waste (CW)
content
3.2 Water absorption of concrete samples
The water absorption values were found to increase as ceramic waste content rose from 0 to 20% as shown in Fig. 3.
This indicates that, the incorporation of ceramic waste tends to increase the porosity of the concrete, allowing
more water to penetrate, especially at 15% and 20% levels. An increase in porosity, led to higher water absorption,
especially around 20% replacement. This could have been attributed to less bonding of ceramic waste with the
cementitious material at this level, causing increased voids [22]. However, at 25% ceramic waste addition, there was
an unexpected drop in water absorption, particularly at 14 days, which could suggest densification or improved
packing of the ceramic particles at higher replacement levels, reducing permeability at this point. In summary, the
water absorption values generally increased as the curing time increased from 7 to 28 days. This might be due to the
reason that, as concrete cures, its pore structure evolves which can affect its capacity to absorb water.
3.3 Bulk density of concrete samples
On the other hand, there was a decreasing trend in the bulk density of concrete with an increase in ceramic waste
as shown in Fig. 4. Across all curing times (7, 14, and 28 days), the percentage of ceramic waste increased from 0
to 25%, the bulk density of the concrete decreased. This suggests that the incorporation of ceramic waste reduces
the overall density of the concrete mix [32, 33]. For example, at 7 days of curing, the bulk density decreases from
2537 kg/m3 at 0% ceramic waste to 2429 kg/m3 at 25% ceramic waste. This reduction can be attributed to the fact
that ceramic waste typically has a lower density compared to the traditional aggregates used in concrete [34]. When
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ceramic waste replaces part of the aggregate, it lowers the overall mass per unit volume, leading to a decrease in
bulk density. The decline of the bulk density was obvious in concrete samples with higher percentages of ceramic
waste. The use of high-percentage ceramic waste concrete has significant implications for structural applications
and design considerations. In high-stress scenarios involving load-bearing elements such as columns, beams, and
slabs, the potential reduction in strength must be taken into account to ensure safety and performance. Structural
designs need to incorporate adjustments to compensate for these potential reductions. However, concrete with
reduced density due to ceramic waste is well-suited for lightweight and non-load-bearing structures. This makes it
ideal for non-structural components, insulation layers, and lightweight structures such as precast panels. However,
the bulk density was found to increase over time as curing progressed, reflecting the ongoing hydration process in
the concrete samples as reported by [35].
3.4 Mechanical properties of hardened concrete samples
3.4.1 Compressive strength
During compressive analysis, for all ceramic waste percentages (0–25%), the compressive strength was observed to
increase with the curing duration (from 7 to 14 to 28 days). This is typical for concrete as hydration continues, leading
to the formation of more binding compounds like calcium silicate hydrate that enhance strength. At 0% ceramic waste,
the compressive strength values are 18.63, 24.27, and 27.27 MPa at 7, 14, and 28 days, respectively. These serve as the
baseline values for comparison. However, at 5–20% ceramic waste addition the compressive strength gradually increases
at each curing stage. The strength gain becomes more significant at 20% ceramic waste, reaching 33.27 MPa at 28 days,
which is a notable 22% increase over the control (27.27 MPa at 0% waste). On the other hand, at 25% ceramic waste, the
compressive strength drops drastically compared to the control and other percentages. The values (15.36 MPa at 7 days,
20.27 MPa at 14 days, and 20.48 MPa at 28 days) are significantly lower than the control values. This suggests that 25%
replacement exceeds the optimal threshold for ceramic waste addition, leading to a reduction in compressive strength
as indicated in Fig. 5. In summary, up to 20% ceramic waste improves compressive strength, but 25% replacement results
in a significant loss in strength, suggesting that the optimum percentage of replacement is 20% for ceramic waste utiliza-
tion in concrete production. The reduction in compressive strength observed at higher ceramic waste contents can be
attributed to several key mechanisms such as the poor bonding between ceramic particles and the cement matrix impairs
the development of a strong interfacial transition zone (ITZ), weakening the overall structure[15, 36]. Furthermore, the
increased porosity resulting from the incorporation of ceramic waste particles creates voids within the matrix, further
compromising its integrity [37]. The higher ceramic content might have led to inadequate hydration, as ceramic waste
does not actively participate in the hydration process, reducing the formation of essential binding compounds such as
calcium silicate hydrate (C–S–H). Collectively, these factors might have reduced the structural integrity of the concrete,
increasing its vulnerability to failure under stress and contributing to the observed decline in compressive strength at
higher percentages of ceramic waste.
Fig. 5 Relationship between
compressive strength and
increasing crushed ceramic
waste (CW) content
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3.4.2 Split tensile strength
The split Tensile Strength of concrete was found to increase up to 20% of ceramic waste addition as shown in Fig. 6. Across
all curing periods and up to 20% ceramic waste replacement, there was a consistent increase in split tensile strength. This
suggests that ceramic waste is beneficial up to this threshold, likely because the ceramic material fills voids, improves the
interfacial transition zone (ITZ), and contributes to the pozzolanic reaction, which enhances concrete strength [38–40].
However, at 25% replacement, the split tensile strength of the concrete started to decline at all curing times. This could be
due to several factors such as excessive ceramic waste which acted more as filler materials and reduced concrete’s cohe-
siveness [41]. Besides, the excessive addition of ceramic waste could have weakened the bond between the cement paste
and aggregates and reduced the workability which led to potential voids during compaction in the concrete matrix[42].
In summary, the addition of ceramic waste up to 20% enhanced the split tensile strength of concrete significantly, with
the best performance of 4.20 MPa at 20% ceramic waste replacement after 28 days of curing which is similar to the study
of [23]. However, beyond 20% of the ceramic waste addition, the splitting tensile strength declined, indicating that there
is an optimal replacement level should be observed. This suggests that while ceramic waste has the potential to be a
beneficial additive for enhancing the tensile strength of concrete, it should be limited to around 20% for optimal results.
4 Conclusion
The study demonstrates that the incorporation of ceramic waste into concrete has demonstrated significant potential
in enhancing the mechanical and physical properties of concrete, with an optimal replacement level of 20%. Up to this
threshold, the compressive strength of concrete increased by 22%, from 27.27 MPa (at 0% ceramic waste) to 33.27 MPa
(at 20% ceramic waste) after 28 days of curing. Similarly, the split tensile strength improved, reaching a peak of 4.20 MPa
at 28 days with 20% ceramic waste replacement, compared to a baseline of 3.10 MPa at 0% ceramic waste. In con-
trast, higher ceramic waste percentages, particularly at 25%, led to a decline in both compressive and tensile strengths.
The compressive strength decreased to 20.48 MPa at 28 days for 25% ceramic waste, a significant reduction from the
27.27 MPa at 0%. Likewise, the split tensile strength decreased to 3.30 MPa at 28 days for 25% replacement, compared
to 4.20 MPa at 20% replacement.
On the other hand, water absorption increased with the rising ceramic waste content, peaking at 20%, while bulk den-
sity decreased from 2537 (at 0% ceramic waste) to 2429 kg/m3 (at 25% ceramic waste) at 7 days. These findings suggest
that the incorporation of ceramic waste up to 20% improves the strength and durability of concrete, making it a viable
alternative for sustainable concrete production. However, exceeding this optimal level (beyond 20%) can compromise
the concrete’s structural integrity, primarily due to poor bonding, increased porosity, and inadequate hydration. There-
fore, the study concludes that a 20% replacement of natural aggregates with ceramic waste is optimal for improving the
mechanical properties of concrete while maintaining its performance and durability. The integration of ceramic waste
as a coarse aggregate not only aids in waste management and resource conservation but also aligns with the broader
Fig. 6 Relationship between
split tensile strength and
increasing crushed ceramic
waste (CW) content
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goals of sustainable construction, promoting more eco-friendly practices in the industry. By embracing such approaches,
we can actively address environmental challenges and contribute to a greener future.
4.1 Recommendations for future research
This study has highlighted the potential of ceramic waste in concrete, but several areas need further investigation for
optimization and broader application:
i. Future research should assess the long-term performance of ceramic waste concrete, focusing on resistance to
freeze–thaw cycles, chemical attacks, and abrasion to determine its durability in harsh environmental conditions.
ii. While 20% ceramic waste is optimal, further studies should explore different types of ceramic waste (e.g., tile, porce-
lain) and particle sizes. Additionally, microstructural analysis (e.g., SEM) should be conducted to better understand
the bonding mechanisms between ceramic waste and the cement matrix, which could lead to improved concrete
formulations.
iii. At higher ceramic waste contents (e.g., 25%), workability decreases thus research should focus on using admixtures
or superplasticizers to enhance workability and overcome compaction issues. Additionally, life cycle assessments
(LCA) and carbon footprint analysis could provide insights into the environmental benefits of using ceramic waste,
supporting its adoption as a sustainable alternative to natural aggregates.
Addressing these areas in future studies will unlock the full potential of ceramic waste in concrete production, advanc-
ing sustainable construction practices and reducing environmental impact.
Author contributions BN. Blasius Ngayakamo: Conceptualization, Writing-original draft preparation, Formal analysis, Software, Methodology
and Investigation.
Funding The author declares that no funds, grants, or other support was received during the preparation of this manuscript.
Data availability All data generated or analyzed during this study are included in this published article.
Declarations
Ethics approval and consent to participate Not applicable.
Consent for publication Not applicable.
Competing interests The authors declare no competing interests.
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