Social Identity Theory Literature Summary

Clarification:In the summary below, bolded parts highlight content that may help

explain phenomena mentioned by Chinese NFL fans, while yellow highlighted

parts may potentially challenge aspects of Social Identity Theory (SIT). My

summary is extracting potentially useful points from the articles and briefly noting

how they might apply to my study, but it lacks an overall synthesis of each

article’s main argument.

1. Nicholls, S. B., & Rice, R. E. (2017). A dual-identity model of responses to

deviance in online groups: Integrating social identity theory and expectancy

violations theory. Communication Theory, 27(3), 243–268.

https://doi.org/10.1111/comt.12113

Summary： Social Identity Approach = SIT + Self Categorization Theory,

meaning that individuals derive a portion of their self-concept from the social

groups and categories to which they belong (Hogg & Reid, 2006, p. 9), one’s

behaviors, cognitions, and emotional responses are filtered through the lens of

their group memberships. The point can be used for my research: deviant

behavior is not always regarded as negative (Hutchison, Jetten, & Gutierrez,

2011), and it shows the allowing for fluidity and change within group

structure (Jetten & Hornsey, 2014). In a Chinese sports environment that

favors non-confrontational sports, American football still has some fans.

Because responding to group members who transgress may be seen as aggressive

or confrontational itself, members who are unsure they are able to successfully
 confront the deviant may choose instead to remain silent, or, in the extreme, de-

identify with or leave the group (see also Eidelman & Biernat, 2003). Some NFL

fans withdraw from their team because of the internal conflicts or

competition, or embezzlement of team funds. This study concluded that people

judge deviant behavior depends on situation —— If group identity is strong,

members will react more negatively to someone who breaks the rules; but if

personal identity matters more, or the deviant behavior is unclear, then people care

more about how likable or valuable the person is.

2. Todd, S., & Kent, A. (2009). A social identity perspective on the job attitudes of

employees in sport. Management Decision, 47(1), 173–190.

https://doi.org/10.1108/00251740910929777

Summary：SIT is based on 3 psychological mechanisms: Categorization – People

will augment perceived similarities or differences between themselves and others;

Comparisons – when they compare their group identity with others, they

often strengthening their rational for group membership (Hogg and Terry,

2001); Self esteem – confidence from their group. SIT is the belief that

individuals identify with sth, like self-esteem(Hogg and Turner, 1985). Some

participants show their pride of their personality, like being outgoing, like trying

sth new. A term, “Basking in reflected in glory” was created by Cialdini et al.

(1976) like my “proud marginalization”, saying that people have to associate

with success and make others see their accomplishments. People tend to
 proclaim their affiliation with a successful source even when they had no personal

role in it in order to positively associate with sth value. Funk et al. (2000, p. 132)

reiterated that social identification was an antecedent of attitude importance in

fanship for team sports, and that it “may motivate individuals to become

personally invested in particular teams as well as related information and

activities”. Positive social identity is derived from certain elements of

organizational prestige and member attraction (Fans take some football traits as

their own personal traits) . SIT also has 3 dimensionalities: cognitive component

(a cognitive awareness of one's membership in their group – self-

categorization) (group traits can be seen as a part of membership own trait),

an evaluative component (a positive or negative value attached to group

membership – group self-esteem), and an emotional component (a sense of

emotional involvement with the group – affective commitment) (Ellemers et al.,

1999, p. 372).

3. Brown-Devlin, N., Devlin, M. B., Billings, A. C., & Brown, K. A. (2021). Five

rings, five screens? A global examination of social TV influence on social

presence and social identification during the 2018 Winter Olympic Games.

Communication & Sport, 9(6), 865–887.

https://doi.org/10.1177/2167479519899142

Summary: Individuals self-categorize and seek out membership with social groups

based on their original characteristics (Tajfel & Turner, 1986). Wann (2006)
 extended social identity theory to a sporting context through his work on team

identification. He defines team identification as “the extent to which a fan feels a

psychological connection to a team and the team’s performances are viewed a

self-relevant.” (Wann, 2006, p. 332). Although membership feeling of self-esteem

can be increased by group, the self-esteem is often tied to team performance

(Wann, 2006). This can explain why some participants think they are

marginalized, since football is a minority sport. This research concluded that fan

identity is built more through network interaction and shared purposes than

through the mere feeling of virtual co-viewing. (This can explain why some

participants who joined team training are more likely to be group leaders

than those who only joined in online NFL social groups)

4. Davis, W. M., & Riles, J. M. (2020). Grappling with race: The performance of

identity in prizefighting promotion. Communication & Sport, 10(6), 1092–1112.

https://doi.org/10.1177/2167479520950767

Summary: People are prone to perceive the behavior of relevant ingroups in the

ways that benefit their self-esteem(Turner, Brown, & Tajfel, 1979). People are

born to want to let others think they are good or respected, which is called

positive distinctiveness. To achieve this, people may act hostile or dominate to

show they are better than others. This can explain why some participants said

they are not like traditional Chinese who prefer peaceful or skillful sports.
5. Kim, B., & Kim, Y. (2019). Growing as social beings: How social media use for

college sports is associated with college students’ group identity and collective

self-esteem. Computers in Human Behavior, 97, 241–249.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2019.03.016

Summary: Students who often use social media to talk about sports tend to

communicate with various and heterogeneous people in campus life, which leads

them to feel greater levels of college group identity and collective self-esteem.

Individuals develop themselves to be a member of a certain group and become

more socialized in a social group as they routinely communicate with diverse

people within the social group (Tajfel & Turner, 1986). The core idea of social

identity theory is that individuals originate a part of their self-conception from

certain social group(s) they belong to (Hogg & Reid, 2006)—for example, this

theory explains how people describe themselves in terms of shared social

identities (Hoffner & Rehkoff, 2011). SIT emphasizes that individuals are

motivated to sustain a high level of group self-esteem, which is developed by

Luhtanen and Crocker (1992) to be collective self-esteem. Tajfel and Turner

(1986) demonstrate that an individual's psychological affiliations increase self-

esteem and encourage people to perceive their in-group more positively than

out-groups. Collective self-esteem therefore, indicates “the extent to which

individuals generally evaluate social groups positively” (Crocker & Luhtanen,

1990, p. 60). The concept of collective self-esteem is thus different from

perceived personal self-esteem that highlights one's feelings of self-worth and

 self-respect (Rosenberg, 1979).” It seems that Chinese NFL fans have lower

collective self-esteem because football is not very popular in China and due to

some internal conflicts, but they have high personal self-esteem due to the

characteristics of football (margin – low collective self-esteem, pride – high

personal self-esteem)

6. Shuv-Ami, A., & Toder Alon, A. (2023). How do you categorize yourself as a

sports fan?: A new scale of sports fan social–personal identity salience (FSPIS)

and its consequences. Communication & Sport, 11(1), 28–52.

https://doi.org/10.1177/2167479520967278

Summary: The current study argues that while identity salience may be

context-related (Turner et al., 1994), sports fans also exhibit dispositional

tendencies toward self-definition as either individual, distinct sports fans. (I

belong to the group, but I am a special member, I have my own fans ways) .

The optimal distinctiveness model (Brewer, 1991) shows that individuals are

characterized by two opposing needs that govern the relationship between self-

concept and membership in social groups. The first is the need for assimilation

and inclusion, the desire for belonging that motivates immersion in social groups.

The second is the need for differentiation from others, which operates in

opposition to the need for immersion. Vignoles et al. (2000) maintain that “a

pervasive human motivation exists to see oneself as distinctive, which derives

from the importance of distinctiveness for meaningful self-definition” (p. 346).

 This can be used to explain that participants who said they are different from

traditional Chinese. In the sports fan literature, researchers have used the term

“team identification” to signify two theoretically different concepts: “fanship,”

which refers to a fan’s sense of personal connection with a sports team, and

“fandom,” which refers to a fan’s connection with other fans as a group (Reysen

& Branscombe, 2010). Thus, as Reysen and Branscombe (2010) have suggested,

while the term “fanship” is comparable to the term “team identification,”

defined as “the extent that a fan feels psychologically connected to a team”

(Wann, 1997, p. 331), the term “fandom” is similar to social identity, defined as

“that part of an individual’s self-concept which derives from his knowledge of

his membership of a social group together with the value and emotional

significance attached to that membership” (Tajfel, 1978, p. 63). Thus, these two

terms distinguish between personal identity and social identity salience (Turner et

al., 1987).” Traditional SIT and self-categorization theory often saw identity as

either group-based (social) or individual-based (personal), but not both. This

expands SIT from focusing only on group belonging to also including individual

expression within the group.

7. De Grove, F., Courtois, C., & Van Looy, J. (2015). How to be a gamer! Exploring

personal and social indicators of gamer identity. Journal of Computer-Mediated

Communication, 20(3), 346–361. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcc4.12114

Summary: The activation of a social identity in specific social situations is

associated with the degree to which that identity is embedded in one’s social

structure (Stets & Burke, 2000; Stryker & Burke, 2000)” But in China, under the

environment of lacking of football resources, NFL fans grow up difficultly. Self-

categorization theory extends social identity theory and is considered to provide a

more general theory on social identity (Hogg & Abrams, 1998; Hogg & Terry,

2000). More specifically, self-categorization theory focuses on how the process of

self-categorization works as a cognitive basis for group behaviors. It

conceptualizes personal and social identity as two different aspects of the self,

arising from different levels of self-categorization (Ashforth & Mael, 1989; Hogg

& Terry, 2000; Tajfel & Turner, 1986). When a social identity becomes salient

(i.e., activated), self-conceptualization tends to shift from the personal to the

social identity (depersonalization) which in turn leads to cognitions, perceptions,

attitudes, and behaviors conforming to prototypical group characteristics (Turner,

1987; Turner, Oakes, Haslam, & McGarty, 1994). An important aspect of the

theory is that self-categories become salient by the interaction with the immediate

social context (Ellemers, Spears, & Doosje, 2002). Indeed, self-categorizing is not

fixed and enduring but fluid, variable and highly context-dependent (Turner et al.,

1994). Whether a self-category becomes relevant is dependent on its

accessibility and fit with the social situation (Turner, 1987). Accessibility

refers to the “readiness” of the perceiver in terms of individual

characteristics (e.g., previous uses, importance and value of the category) in

 relation to the specific situation. Fit concerns the match between the category

and the social situation in terms of similarities and differences between

people (comparative fit) and whether the behavior and attributes of those

present fit the expected content of. In China, these two dependent reasons is

not suitable since individuals become NFL fans although the NFL

accessibilities are not good enough and they are a minority (lack of fit) .

Drawing on self-categorization theory, several researchers have shown that a

social identity can, to a certain extent be integrated in the self-concept (Spears,

Doosje, & Ellemers, 1997; Tropp & Wright, 2001; Turner, 1987; Tyler, Kramer, &

John, 1999). This can explain why participants regard football spirit as their own

personalities.

8. Statz, T. M., Delia, E. B., & Gordon, B. S. (2022). Identification in sport and

religion: Exploring the overlap between two group identities. Journal of Sport

Management, 36(5), 431–443. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsm.2021-0133

Summary: Sport fan identity was not isolated; it functioned as part of a broader

identity system co-constructed with other salient identities like religious

affiliation. What I want to explore is that when two identities are conflict with

each other, how will individuals react? Individuals are members of multiple

groups and possess multiple group identities (Turner et al., 1987; Roccas &

Brewer, 2002). Social identity complexity recognizes that individuals possess

identities pertaining to multiple groups (Roccas & Brewer, 2002). This theory
suggests that, depending on context, one’s multiple group identities can overlap to

varying degrees, from complete convergence of identities into a singular identity

to acknowledgement of each unique identity with no overlap (Roccas & Brewer,

2002). Social identity becomes more complex as the overlap between one’s

multiple group identities decreases (Roccas & Brewer, 2002). Lock and Funk

(2016) created a multiple in-group identity framework (MIIF), which

emphasizes that an individual possesses a superordinate identity that reigns

supreme and influences consumer behavior and the superordinate identity is

grounded in multiple, complementary group identities. In this research,

participants religion identity is the dominant one and it is prior to their

fandom identity. But I am not sure how to use this model in my research

(Chinese vs. NFL fans). Heere and James (2017) stated that a complementary

fit tends to exist between identities and team identity with regard to other

group identities and showed that team identity was positively influenced by

other group identities. But in my research, the identities are opposite to each

other. The value of the collective group lies in a personal attraction to the group’s

characteristics (e.g., an individual may be a fan of the New York Yankees because

of a personal interest in the team’s storied history; Prentice et al., 1994). Some

participants said that they were attracted by the celebrity who is related NFL has

good value (like Black matters).

9. Oja, B. D., Bass, J. R., & Gordon, B. S. (2020). Identities in the sport workplace:

Development of an instrument to measure sport employee identification. Journal

of Global Sport Management, 5(3), 262–284.

https://doi.org/10.1080/24704067.2018.1477521

Summary: The lower the discrepancy between individual and group the more

salient the membership is to the individual (Tajfel, 1978), there is a shared fate

between member and organization (Ashmore et al., 2004; Stoner, Perrewe, &

Hofacker, 2011). Furthermore, Funk and James (2001) asserted that for an

identified fan, ‘the team is important, the team is representative of personal beliefs

and values’ (p. 104). Identified fans, although not formal members of the

organization, feel a strong association with their favorite team (e.g. Wann et al.,

2017). The link between fan and sport organization can be strong enough for

fans to construe the victories or defeats of their favorite team to be their own

achievements or failures (i.e. shared fate; Hirt, Zillmann, Erickson, &

Kennedy, 1992). (like NFL fans think they have similar spirit with football,

but they would feel upset when they feel football is minority) . Conversely, as

the discrepancy grows the rift between the individual and the group might reach

the level of separation. The significance of the separation process is that it creates

the notion of us and them (Tajfel, 1978). The removal of individuality and

escalation of the collective is how Burke and Stets (2009) viewed SIT,

individuals are willing to forgo their individuality in exchange for a

heightened sense of collectiveness as a source for their self-definition. But

 when people in different group (like Chinese and NFL fans), their small

group identity (more individuality) remove their big group identity (more

collective).

10. Guan, M., & So, J. (2016). Influence of social identity on self-efficacy beliefs

through perceived social support: A social identity theory perspective.

Communication Studies, 67(5), 588–604.

https://doi.org/10.1080/10510974.2016.1239645

Summary: This study demonstrated how social identity indirectly enhances self-

efficacy through increased support, the study bridges SIT with health behavior

theories like the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB), extending SIT’s explanatory

scope beyond group behavior to cognitive belief formation in health

communication contexts. The social aspects of our lives not only shape who we

are but also guide how we think and what we do (Haslam, Jetten, Postmes, &

Haslam, 2009). Through communicating with others, individuals express their

belonging to various groups, assess group image and reputation (Dutton,

Dukerich, & Harquail, 1994) and use the defined identity to navigate their lives

(Ashforth, Harrison, & Corley, 2008). More relevant to the current article,

when individuals identify with a particular group, they value and emulate the

characteristic attributes of the group. Social identity serves as the basis for

linking individuals’ group membership to concrete group-approved behaviors

(e.g., Ellemers, Spears, & Doosje, 1999; Tajfel & Turner, 1979).Check out if
 there is participant who become more active or outgoing due to being NFL

fans. Haslam et al. (2005) found a positive correlation between social identity

and perceived social support: The more strongly one identified with a given

group (i.e., family or workgroup), the more social support one perceived to have

received.

11. Ma, L. (2023). Investigating stakeholders’ reactions to crises in the nonprofit

sector through the lens of social identity theory. Journal of Public Relations

Research, 35(2), 113–133. https://doi.org/10.1080/1062726X.2023.2166940

Summary: People identify with an organization because it fulfills one or more of

their self-definitional needs and helps them answer the question, “Who am I?”

(Bhattacharya & Sen, 2003; Johnson et al., 2011). When stakeholders perceive

that an organization’s identity “matches their own sense of who they are”

(Bhattacharya & Sen, 2003, p. 80), the organization’s identity is more attractive

because it fulfills stakeholders’ need for self-continuity; consequently,

organizational identification occurs. To sum up, identity similarity increases

identity attractiveness, which then increases organizational identification.

Identity threat is a concept from SIT research used to examine how

organizational identities affect employees’ reactions to an organization’s

difficult times (e.g., Elsbach & Kramer, 1996; Petriglieri et al., 2016), and the

threat posed by the organization’s difficult times spills over from

organizational identity to organizational members’ self-concept (see Piening

 et al., 2020). Can this point be used to explain the conflict between

participants traditional Chinese identity and NFL fans?

12. Lee, W., Jones, G. J., & Wegner, C. (2024). It’s all relative: Examining the

influence of social identity on sport-based youth development. Sport Management

Review, 27(3), 323–343. https://doi.org/10.1080/14413523.2023.2285488

Summary: As individuals attach themselves to teams, their beliefs, attitudes, and

behaviors all begin to align with those associated with the team, which has been

associated with higher levels of consumption and loyalty (e.g., Yoshida et al.,

2015). This connection also has implications for self-concept, as the presence

of an in-group with shared meaning has been shown to create positive

individual outcomes including increased well-being (Wann et al., 2011),

higher levels of sociability (Wann et al., 2004), and lower levels of loneliness

and depression (Wann et al., 2003). Scholars are careful to point out that

identification with a team does not develop or manifest in isolation and exists

within a hierarchy of identities that may clash, mix, and interact with other

identities and demographic factors to inform behavior (Katz & Heere, 2016).

The primary socialization that occurs within sport settings is heavily influenced by

the value system perpetuated by the organization, which shapes the collective

identity formed and shared by participants. Positive social influences stemming

from sport participation are often observed when the socialization that

occurs through sport activities sets norms and expectations regarding

 personal conduct that reinforce pro-social behaviors (Bruner et al., 2018).

But in my research, when sport spirit is different from social spirit, it will

weaken pro-social behaviors. On the other side, negative social influences can

also lead to risky behaviors such as aggression and alcohol consumption (Conroy

et al., 2001; Kwan et al., 2014), with Sønderlund et al. (2014) linking such

behaviors to social identities formed through group norms and values tied to toxic

sport environments (e.g., a jock image, hyper masculinity, approval of aggressive

behavior). This can be used to explain female disadvantaged position in football

fandom. Relationships formed with coaches facilitate positive socialization

around defined norms and values (Coalter, 2013), with scholars outlining the

role of coaches in fostering social bonding among participants (Bruner et al.,

2017), enhanced motivation (Lee et al., 2021), effective program delivery

(Olushola et al., 2013) and program retention (Anderson-Butcher et al.,

2022). So in my research, some participants withdrew from the team because

of non-supportive coaches or leaders. Program-Based Social Identity may have

a compensatory effect for youth who lack strong family or peer-based support

networks -- compensatory effect of PBSI.

13. Slater, M. J., Coffee, P., Barker, J. B., & Evans, A. L. (2014). Promoting shared

meanings in group memberships: A social identity approach to leadership in sport.

Reflective Practice, 15(5), 672–685.

https://doi.org/10.1080/14623943.2014.944126
Summary: When individuals feel a meaningful attachment to a group their thought

processes and actions may attune to their social identity (Adarves-Yorno, Postmes,

& Haslam, 2006). Social identities occur at multiple levels as individuals are

members of numerous groups from specific associations with sports groups

(e.g., sport fan behaviour; Wann, Hunter, Ryan, & Wright, 2001), through

business organisations (e.g., De Cremer et al., 2006), to broad attachments to

nations (e.g., Reicher & Hopkins, 2001). What would happen if the identity of

a sports group conflicts with the nation's identity? Morgan, Fletcher, and

Sarkar (2013) identified group identity as a characteristic of resilient teams,

which helped to guard against the potentially negative effects of stressors.

This can explain why participants can stick to be NFL fans though they are

minority groups or lack of football resources. This study extends SIT into the

domain of leadership by introducing the Social Identity Leadership model,

particularly within sport contexts. Rather than viewing leadership as a function of

personal traits or charisma, the study argue that effective leadership emerges

from a leader’s ability to represent, construct, and embed a shared group

identity. It explained who can be leader, which can be used to explain why

some deep participate into football teams interviewees can be football team

leader.
14. Makarovs, K., & Allum, N. (2023). Social identity and racial disparities in science

literacy. Public Understanding of Science, 32(3), 373–388.

https://doi.org/10.1177/09636625221141378

Summary: Not every identity is equally important. The concept of ‘master

statuses’ (Jaret and Reitzes, 1999: 716–717; see Rosenblum and Travis, 1996)

refers to those substantial characteristics (race, gender, class, and sexual

orientation are examples) that overwhelm other identities in structuring

social situations. But national identity may lower than sport fan identity in

some dimension.

15. Ruelle, O., & Peverelli, P. (2017). The discursive construction of identity through

interaction on social media in a Chinese NGO. Chinese Journal of

Communication, 10(1), 12–37. https://doi.org/10.1080/17544750.2016.1217899

This research looks like not very helpful for my research.

16. Choi, W., Chung, K.-S., & Min, S. D. (2025). The social exchange process of

sport event participants and the mediating role of ethnic identity: The case of

Korean American sports festivals. Managing Sport and Leisure.

https://doi.org/10.1080/23750472.2025.2494553

Summary: Racial/ethnic immigrant groups in multicultural societies tend to

participate in sports with others from similar cultures (e.g. Seo et al., 2017), as the

meaning and choice of sports are often aligned with their original culture and
 distinct from the host culture (Pons et al., 2001). In my research, NFL fans

are interested in the sports which is different from their original culture.

17. Ferrucci, P., & Tandoc, E. C. (2018). The spiral of stereotyping: Social identity

theory and NFL quarterbacks. Howard Journal of Communications, 29(2), 107–

125. https://doi.org/10.1080/10646175.2017.1315693

Summary: By distinguishing between members of their own group and

nonmembers, individuals can maintain a sense of superiority that then bolsters

self-esteem (Tajfel, 1982; Tajfel & Turner, 1979). People who see themselves as

part of some group often form a heightened awareness of the differences between

the members of their group, the in-group, and everyone else, which is considered

the out-group (Gardikiotis, 2008). Once people have determined members of

their in-group and the out-group, they stereotype based on this lack of

membership: They often stereotype the out-group (Linville & Fischer, 1993).

So some participants mentioned that traditional Chinese people prefer

peaceful sports and that is the reason why others do not like American

football. This study found that when stereotypes are repeated often enough,

minority group members may start to believe these stereotypes, and even use

them to judge themselves. This process is called self-stereotyping, like a loop

where people are labeled, then internalize the label, and eventually act in

ways that reflect it.

18. Donohue, W. A. (2011). Tuning in to the RTLM: Tracking the evolution of

language alongside the Rwandan genocide. Journal of Language and Social

Psychology, 30(1), 13–35. https://doi.org/10.1177/0261927X10387280

Summary: One of the propositions derived from SIT and supported by numerous

empirical investigations (e.g., Hertel & Kerr, 2001; Lemyre & Smith, 1985;

Sherif, 1966; Tajfel, 1970; Tajfel, Billig, Bundy, & Flament, 1971) is that when

intergroup goals are in conflict with one another social categorization leads

people to demonstrate favoritism toward in-group members and ignore or

even disparage out-group members. The meta-contrast principle is

considered to be the mental process that motivates these actions (Tajfel,

1959). Specifically, the function of this principle is to “maximize the ratio of

perceived intergroup differences to intra-group differences and thus

accentuates similarities within groups and differences between groups”

(Hogg, 2006, p. 118). Psychologically, Abrams and Hogg (1988) assert that

creating a sharp contrast between in-groups and out-groups functions to

enhance self-esteem by fostering a perception that one’s ingroup is better and

more desirable than other social groups (out-groups), or stated differently,

that out-groups are inferior to one’s in-group (Tajfel, 1972). This can explain

how the participants describe the difference between their fandom identity

and Chinese people who do not like football. In situations where the goals of

different groups are incongruous, such as the fight for political power or

limited resources, the meta-contrast principle is exploited because

 maximizing the differences between groups becomes increasingly important

as intergroup relations become increasingly antagonistic (Ashmore, Jussim,

& Wilder, 2001; Tajfel, 1981; Tajfel et al., 1971). Thus, with the negative

characterization of the out-group the meta-contrast principle ensures that in-

group members are automatically awarded a positive characterization and a

built-in justification for future actions against the outgroup (Stanton, 2004).

What about when there are cross identities?

19. Zeng, J., & Schäfer, M. S. (2023). When national identity meets conspiracies: The

contagion of national identity language in public engagement and discourse about

COVID-19 conspiracy theories. Social Science Computer Review, 41(2), 533–552.

https://doi.org/10.1177/08944393221083645

Summary: When discussing public issues on social media, individuals tend to

invoke social identity over individual identity. However, in doing so, “individuals

do not lose all sense of self; rather, they shift from the personal to the social level

of identification” (Reicher et al., 1995, p. 177). Classic works in social

psychology have explained the formation of in-group identification and outgroup

derogation as forces that can drive individuals to affirm and defend their views

(Tajfel, 2010; Turner & Reynolds, 2012). That is why although NFL fans are

minority in China, the fans still stick to it. Out-group hostility language can

threaten social identity, and the SIDE model suggests that individuals will invoke
 social identity over individual identity as a strategic way of resisting the out-

group.

20. Burns, E. B. (2014). When the Saints went marching in: Social identity in the

world champion New Orleans Saints football team and its impact on their host

city. Journal of Sport and Social Issues, 38(2), 148–163.

https://doi.org/10.1177/0193723513499920

Summary: Hargie, Dickson, Mallett, and Stringer (2008) pointed out that the

tendency to favor the in-group over the out-group accentuates the differences

between groups as well as the similarities within groups. At times, a perceived

inferior position of the in-group can lead to negative social identity that can

trigger an attempt to move status position. However, although Chinese NFL

fans are minority, their inferior position looks like strengthen their fandom

identity. These researchers have identified three factors that affect the preference

for identity management: perceptions of stability of the group, legitimacy of the

status inferiority, and the permeability of the boundaries between groups. Based

on these factors, people are more or less willing to engage in individual or

collective modes to change their present situation. In my research, when the

NFL fan identity can be self-consistent (legitimacy), though it is at inferior

position, fans can still stick to it. Mummendey, Kessler, Klink, and Mielke

(1999) listed six identity management strategies individuals and groups use to

handle negative social identity. The last two are creative methods, preference
for temporal comparison and re-evaluation of the material dimension,

whereby groups will choose another comparison point (instead of a higher

status out-group) that gives them a higher status or devalue the comparison

with the out-group as unimportant to increase their positive social identity

(Hargie et al., 2008; Mummendey et al., 1999). This can be used to explain

why they are a minority, they still proud of their NFL fan identity – they can

focus on the positive spirit of football rather than football’s minority. Media

discourse played a key role in reinforcing symbolic group identity, but in

China, football is lack of being covered, that is a negative factor of NFL fans’

development.