CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of Study

Plastic pollution has escalated into a pressing environmental issue in recent years due to

the extensive utilization of traditional petroleum-based plastics across diverse industries

(Gorham et al., 2019). These plastics, originating from finite fossil fuel reserves, lack

biodegradability, resulting in their enduring presence in the environment and contributing

significantly to pollution of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems (Thakur et al., 2020). The

persistent accumulation of plastic waste not only disrupts natural habitats but also poses

severe threats to biodiversity, wildlife, and human health. The adverse impacts of plastic

pollution, including habitat degradation, entanglement, ingestion by marine life, and

leaching of harmful chemicals, have sparked urgent calls for the development and

adoption of sustainable alternatives to conventional plastics.

Amidst growing concerns over plastic pollution, there is a critical need for sustainable

alternatives that can mitigate the environmental impact of plastic waste while meeting the

diverse needs of modern society (Gorham et al., 2019). Biodegradable polymers, or

bioplastics, have emerged as promising alternatives to traditional plastics due to their

ability to degrade into natural compounds under specific environmental conditions

(Thakur et al., 2020). Derived from renewable resources such as biomass, agricultural

residues, and microbial substrates, biodegradable polymers offer the potential to reduce

reliance on finite fossil resources and mitigate carbon emissions associated with plastic

production. Moreover, biodegradable polymers hold the promise of contributing to a

circular economy by closing the loop on resource use and waste generation, thereby

promoting sustainability across the entire lifecycle of plastic products.

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The urgency to address plastic pollution and transition towards more sustainable materials

has underscored the importance of research and innovation in the field of biodegradable

polymers (González et al., 2019). Comprehensive understanding of biodegradable polymer

properties, optimization of production processes, and exploration of novel applications are

crucial steps towards realizing the full potential of bioplastics in mitigating environmental

degradation and promoting sustainability. By advancing the development and adoption of

biodegradable polymers, researchers and stakeholders can contribute to the global effort to

combat plastic pollution and safeguard the health and integrity of ecosystems for future

generations.

As the detrimental effects of plastic pollution continue to escalate, there has been a

growing interest in exploring alternatives to traditional petroleum-based plastics.

Biodegradable polymers, commonly referred to as bioplastics, have emerged as a

promising solution to address the environmental challenges posed by plastic waste (Sodhi

& Gupta, 2020). Unlike conventional plastics, biodegradable polymers possess the unique

property of undergoing degradation into natural compounds under specific environmental

conditions, such as exposure to microbial activity, heat, or light. This inherent

biodegradability distinguishes bioplastics from their non-biodegradable counterparts and

presents a sustainable approach to managing plastic waste.

The environmental benefits offered by biodegradable polymers are significant in

mitigating the adverse impacts of plastic pollution. By breaking down into harmless

substances over time, bioplastics reduce the persistence of plastic waste in the

environment and minimize its ecological footprint (Sodhi & Gupta, 2020). This inherent

biodegradability enables bioplastics to contribute to the restoration and preservation of

ecosystems, as well as the protection of wildlife and marine organisms. Furthermore, the

2
adoption of biodegradable polymers can help alleviate the burden on landfills and reduce

the need for incineration, thereby lowering greenhouse gas emissions and promoting a

more sustainable waste management system.

The potential of biodegradable polymers to offer sustainable alternatives to traditional

plastics extends beyond environmental considerations. Bioplastics also present

opportunities for innovation and economic growth in industries seeking to adopt more

sustainable practices (Sodhi & Gupta, 2020). With increasing consumer demand for eco-

friendly products and regulatory incentives favoring sustainable materials, there is a

growing market for biodegradable polymers in various sectors, including packaging,

agriculture, and biomedical engineering. As research and development efforts continue to

advance bioplastic technology, there is considerable potential for biodegradable polymers

to revolutionize the materials landscape and drive the transition towards a circular

economy.

The utilization of renewable resources for the production of biodegradable polymers

represents a significant advancement in sustainable materials development (Narancic &

O'Connor, 2017). Biomass, agricultural residues, and microbial substrates serve as

abundant and readily available feedstocks for biopolymer synthesis, offering viable

alternatives to finite fossil resources. By harnessing renewable feedstocks, biodegradable

polymers reduce dependence on non-renewable carbon reserves and mitigate the

environmental impact associated with traditional plastic production processes. This shift

towards renewable resources aligns with the principles of sustainability and circular

economy, promoting the efficient use of natural resources and minimizing carbon

emissions.

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Moreover, the utilization of renewable feedstocks for biodegradable polymer production

contributes to the mitigation of climate change by reducing greenhouse gas emissions

(Narancic & O'Connor, 2017). Unlike conventional plastics derived from fossil fuels,

biodegradable polymers derived from renewable resources have a lower carbon footprint

throughout their lifecycle. The cultivation and processing of biomass, agricultural

residues, and microbial substrates for biopolymer production involve fewer carbon-

intensive processes compared to fossil fuel extraction and refining. As a result, the

adoption of renewable feedstocks for bioplastic production helps mitigate carbon

emissions, thereby contributing to global efforts to combat climate change and promote

environmental sustainability.

Furthermore, the utilization of renewable feedstocks for biodegradable polymer

production offers economic benefits and opportunities for sustainable development

(Narancic & O'Connor, 2017). The availability of abundant and locally sourced renewable

resources reduces production costs and enhances supply chain resilience, leading to

economic growth and job creation in rural and agricultural communities. Additionally, the

development of bioplastic industries based on renewable feedstocks fosters innovation and

entrepreneurship, driving the transition towards a more sustainable and circular economy.

By leveraging renewable resources for biodegradable polymer production, stakeholders

can realize both environmental and economic benefits, paving the way for a more

sustainable future.

The development of biodegradable polymers has opened up a plethora of applications

across diverse industries, offering sustainable solutions to address pressing environmental

concerns (Gorham et al., 2019). In the packaging industry, biodegradable polymers are

gaining traction as alternatives to traditional plastic packaging materials. Biodegradable

polymers, such as bioplastics, are utilized to produce single-use items like bags,

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containers, and films, offering a more environmentally friendly option for packaging

applications. By replacing conventional plastics with biodegradable alternatives, industries

can reduce their carbon footprint and mitigate the environmental impact of packaging

waste, contributing to a more sustainable packaging ecosystem.

In agriculture, the adoption of biodegradable polymers has revolutionized soil

management practices and contributed to sustainable agriculture (Bhardwaj & Mohanty,

2021). Biodegradable mulches and films derived from renewable polymers are

increasingly utilized to cover soil surfaces, serving multiple purposes such as reducing soil

erosion, conserving water, and promoting crop growth. These biodegradable materials

provide an eco-friendly alternative to traditional plastic mulches, which often contribute to

soil degradation and environmental pollution. By incorporating biodegradable polymers

into agricultural practices, farmers can enhance soil health, improve water conservation,

and minimize environmental impact, thereby fostering sustainable agricultural systems.

Moreover, the applications of biodegradable polymers extend beyond packaging and

agriculture to biomedical engineering and consumer goods industries. In biomedical

engineering, biodegradable polymers are utilized to manufacture medical implants, drug

delivery systems, and tissue scaffolds, offering biocompatible materials that degrade

harmlessly in the body over time. In the consumer goods sector, biodegradable polymers

are incorporated into products such as disposable cutlery, food packaging, and hygiene

products, providing environmentally friendly alternatives to conventional plastic

counterparts. These diverse applications highlight the versatility and potential of

biodegradable polymers to address environmental challenges across various industries,

paving the way for a more sustainable future.

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Despite the promise of biodegradable polymers in mitigating plastic pollution, several

challenges persist that hinder their widespread adoption and commercial viability (Zhang

et al., 2021). One significant challenge is the optimization of production processes to

enhance efficiency and reduce manufacturing costs. Biodegradable polymer production

often involves complex synthesis and processing techniques, which can be energy-

intensive and costly. Improving the efficiency of production processes, optimizing

resource utilization, and streamlining manufacturing workflows are essential steps to

overcome these challenges and make biodegradable polymers more competitive with

traditional plastics in terms of cost-effectiveness.

Another key challenge in the development of biodegradable polymers is the reduction of

production costs to improve their competitiveness with conventional plastics (Zhang et al.,

2021). While biodegradable polymers offer environmental benefits, their higher

production costs compared to traditional plastics pose a barrier to widespread adoption.

Strategies to reduce production costs include sourcing low-cost renewable feedstocks,

optimizing manufacturing processes, and exploring innovative production technologies.

By addressing cost-related challenges, stakeholders can enhance the economic feasibility

of biodegradable polymers and accelerate their adoption across various industries.

Comprehensive characterization and optimization of bioplastic properties are crucial to

tailor their performance for specific applications and improve their commercial viability

(González et al., 2019). Biodegradable polymers exhibit a wide range of properties,

including mechanical strength, biodegradability rate, thermal stability, and barrier

properties, which need to be carefully controlled and optimized for different applications.

Rigorous characterization techniques, such as spectroscopy, microscopy, and mechanical

testing, are required to understand the structure-property relationships of biodegradable

6
polymers and optimize their formulation. By systematically characterizing and optimizing

bioplastic properties, researchers can develop materials with tailored properties that meet

the requirements of various industrial applications, thereby enhancing their commercial

competitiveness and environmental sustainability.

1.2 Statement of Problem

Plastic pollution has emerged as a significant environmental concern globally, with

traditional petroleum-based plastics contributing to widespread pollution and ecosystem

degradation (Gorham et al., 2019). These plastics persist in the environment for hundreds

of years, accumulating in landfills, oceans, and natural habitats, and posing serious threats

to wildlife and human health (Thakur et al., 2020). The detrimental effects of plastic

pollution have prompted calls for the adoption of more sustainable alternatives to

conventional plastics, such as biodegradable polymers derived from renewable resources.

Despite the promise of biodegradable polymers in addressing plastic pollution, their

widespread adoption faces several challenges (Bhardwaj & Mohanty, 2021). One key

challenge is the limited efficiency, cost competitiveness, and scalability of bioplastic

production processes compared to traditional plastics. The complex nature of biopolymer

synthesis and processing, coupled with the variability of renewable feedstocks, often leads

to inconsistencies in bioplastic properties and higher production costs. Furthermore, there

is a lack of comprehensive understanding regarding the characterization and optimization

of bioplastic properties for various applications, hindering their commercial viability.

To address these challenges, there is a pressing need for systematic investigation and

optimization of the production process for biodegradable polymers using renewable

resources (González et al., 2019). This includes characterizing the properties of bioplastic

films, such as thickness, moisture content, water solubility, glossiness, water absorption,

7
grammage, and hardness, to understand their behavior and performance. Additionally,

assessing the biodegradability of bioplastics through soil burial tests is crucial to

determining their environmental impact and eco-friendliness. By systematically

investigating these aspects, it becomes possible to identify factors influencing bioplastic

performance and formulate strategies for optimization.

Despite the potential of bioplastics to mitigate plastic pollution, their widespread adoption

is hindered by limitations in production efficiency, cost competitiveness, and scalability.

Furthermore, there is a lack of systematic characterization and optimization of bioplastic

properties, limiting their applicability for various industrial applications.

Addressing the challenges associated with biodegradable polymer production is crucial for

advancing sustainability efforts and reducing plastic pollution (Thakur et al., 2020). By

optimizing bioplastic production processes and characterizing their properties, it becomes

possible to develop more sustainable alternatives to traditional plastics. This study aims to

contribute to the development of bioplastic technology and promote its adoption as a

viable solution to plastic pollution, thereby fostering a transition towards a more

sustainable future.

1.3 Aim of Study

Investigation and optimization of the production process for a biodegradable polymer

using renewable resources.

1.4 Objectives of Study

To achieve the aim of the study, the following objectives are outlined:

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 i. Investigation of biodegradable polymer film properties through the analysis of

parameters including film thickness, moisture levels, solubility in water, surface gloss,

water absorption rate, mass per unit area, and mechanical strength.

ii. Evaluation of biodegradability via a soil burial experiment aimed at gauging the film's

decomposition rate over a period of time.

iii. Optimization of biodegradable polymer film through the utilization of findings from

the characterization process to improve the formulation of the biodegradable polymer

film.

1.5 Significance of Study

The significance of the study lies in its potential contributions to the fields of chemical

engineering, materials science, environmental sustainability, and industrial applications.

i. Advancement of Bioplastic Technology: By characterizing the properties of the

biodegradable polymer film and optimizing its formulation, the study can contribute to

the advancement of bioplastic technology. This can lead to the development of

innovative materials with improved performance and eco-friendliness.

ii. Reduction of Environmental Impact: Biodegradable polymers derived from

renewable resources offer a sustainable alternative to traditional petroleum-based

plastics. Understanding the biodegradability of the film and optimizing its formulation

can help reduce environmental pollution and mitigate the impact of plastic waste on

ecosystems.

iii. Promotion of Circular Economy: Biodegradable polymers can play a crucial role in

promoting a circular economy by closing the loop on resource use and waste

generation. By designing biodegradable polymers that are biodegradable and

recyclable, the study can contribute to the transition towards a more sustainable and

circular approach to materials production and consumption.

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iv. Potential Industrial Applications: The findings of the study can have practical

implications for various industries, including packaging, agriculture, and biomedical

engineering. Biodegradable polymers with tailored properties can be utilized in

packaging materials, agricultural films, medical devices, and other applications,

offering sustainable solutions to pressing environmental challenges.

v. Contribution to Scientific Knowledge: The study adds to the body of scientific

knowledge on biodegradable polymers and their properties. By conducting systematic

characterization and optimization experiments, the study provides valuable insights

into the behavior and performance of biodegradable polymer materials, informing

future research and development efforts in the field.

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 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Review of Past Work

2.1.1 Overview of Biodegradable Polymers

Biodegradable polymers are those materials that undergo degradation or decomposition

under natural environmental conditions, resulting from the action of microorganisms such

as bacteria, fungi, and algae, leading to the formation of carbon dioxide, water, methane,

inorganic compounds, or biomass (Kalia et al., 2000). Johnstone (1990) has defined

biodegradable polymers as materials capable of being broken down into smaller fragments

by naturally occurring microorganisms present in the environment, eventually leading to

the complete degradation of the polymer into harmless by-products such as carbon dioxide

and water. Biodegradable polymers are synthesized by rearranging the molecular structure

of complex carbohydrates like cellulose or starch into plastics through chemical,

biological, or thermal processes, often employing microorganisms. These polymers can

degrade naturally through microbial action, exposure to UV and heat radiation, sunlight,

hydrolysis by water, and oxidation by air. Presently, the market offers four main types of

biodegradable polymers:

1. Thermoplastic starch

2. Cellulose acetates

3. Polyhydroxy alkanoates (PHA)

4. Polylactides.

Among the biodegradable plastics, three main categories are recognized: photodegradable,

semi-biodegradable, and completely biodegradable. Photodegradable plastics contain

light-sensitive groups integrated directly into the polymer structure as additives. Exposure

to extensive ultraviolet radiation can prompt the disintegration of their polymeric structure

11
over time, making them susceptible to subsequent bacterial degradation. However, in

environments lacking sunlight, such as landfills, their degradation may be hindered. Semi-

biodegradable plastics, on the other hand, encompass starch-linked variants where starch is

introduced to bind together short polyethylene fragments. The concept is that once

disposed into landfills, soil bacteria will target the starch, releasing polymer fragments for

degradation by other bacteria. However, the polyethylene fragments typically deter

bacterial action, leaving them non-degradable. A newer and promising category of

biodegradable plastics involves their direct utilization by bacteria to form biopolymers.

This category includes polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA), polylactides (PLA), aliphatic

polyesters, polysaccharides, as well as copolymers or blends of these materials. This

approach holds significant potential for developing environmentally friendly plastics that

can efficiently degrade through natural processes, contributing to a more sustainable

future.

Table 2.1: The Types of Bioplastics by Production Process

Type of polymer production Name of bioplastics

Use of natural polymer Cellulose Acetate (CA), Starch polymer

Use of Bacterial Polyester Polyhydroxyalkanoate(PHA), Polyhydroxybutyrate

Fermentation (PHB)

Chemical polymerization Polylacticacid (PLA), Polybutylene succinate (PBS),

Aliphatic polymers e.g. Polyglycolic acid (PGA)

Aliphatic-aromatic-copolymers e.g.

Polycaprolactone

(PCL)

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Biodegradable polymers represent a class of materials that have garnered significant

attention due to their potential to address environmental concerns associated with

traditional petroleum-based plastics. These polymers possess the unique property of

undergoing degradation into natural compounds under specific environmental conditions,

such as exposure to microorganisms, heat, or light, thus offering a sustainable alternative

to non-biodegradable plastics (Sodhi & Gupta, 2020). The investigation and optimization

of biodegradable polymer production using renewable resources have garnered significant

attention in recent years due to the pressing need for sustainable alternatives to traditional

petroleum-based plastics. Numerous studies have explored various aspects of

biodegradable polymer synthesis, characterization, and application, aiming to enhance

production efficiency, reduce environmental impact, and promote widespread adoption

across industries.

The production of biodegradable polymers from renewable resources involves various

manufacturing processes, each with its advantages, limitations, and environmental

implications. Some existing production processes for biodegradable polymers using

renewable resources include:

i. Microbial Fermentation: Microbial fermentation represents a prominent method for

producing biodegradable polymers, particularly polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs), from

renewable feedstocks such as sugars, glycerol, or fatty acids. Microorganisms,

including bacteria and yeast, utilize renewable substrates as carbon sources to

synthesize PHAs intracellularly. The fermentation process can be tailored to optimize

polymer yield, composition, and properties through manipulation of culture conditions,

substrate selection, and strain engineering (Madison & Huisman, 1999). Despite its

potential, microbial fermentation faces challenges related to scalability, substrate

13
 availability, and downstream processing, which require further investigation and

optimization to enable commercial viability.

ii. Chemical Synthesis: Chemical synthesis routes are widely used for producing

biodegradable polymers such as poly(lactic acid) (PLA) and polyesters from

renewable resources like lactic acid, glycolic acid, or vegetable oils. These polymers

are typically synthesized through polymerization reactions, including ring-opening

polymerization (ROP) or condensation polymerization, using renewable monomers as

starting materials (Joshi & Waghmare, 2018). Chemical synthesis offers precise

control over polymer structure, molecular weight, and properties, enabling the

production of tailored materials for specific applications. However, challenges such as

energy-intensive processes, toxic by-products, and dependence on petrochemical-

derived catalysts warrant further research into sustainable and green synthesis routes.

iii. Biological Conversion: Biological conversion processes, including enzymatic

hydrolysis and fermentation, are utilized for converting renewable biomass feedstocks,

such as lignocellulosic materials or starch, into sugars or other intermediates for

biodegradable polymer production. Enzymatic hydrolysis employs enzymes to break

down complex carbohydrates into fermentable sugars, which are subsequently used as

substrates for microbial fermentation to produce polymers like PLA or PHAs (Zhu &

Pan, 2010). Biological conversion offers advantages such as mild reaction conditions,

high selectivity, and compatibility with renewable feedstocks. However, challenges

related to enzyme stability, substrate accessibility, and process efficiency remain areas

of research focus to enhance the feasibility and scalability of biological conversion

processes.

iv. Emerging Technologies: Emerging technologies, including biocatalysis,

nanotechnology, and 3D printing, are being explored to innovate biodegradable

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 polymer production processes using renewable resources. Biocatalysis involves the use

of enzymes or microorganisms as catalysts for polymer synthesis, enabling greener

and more efficient reactions (Gangoiti et al., 2018). Nanotechnology offers

opportunities to enhance the properties and functionalities of biodegradable polymers

through the incorporation of nano-sized fillers or additives, improving mechanical

strength, barrier properties, and degradation kinetics (Jiang et al., 2019). 3D printing,

or additive manufacturing, enables the precise fabrication of complex structures using

renewable polymer materials, opening up new possibilities for sustainable

manufacturing and personalized product design (Tran et al., 2021). These emerging

technologies hold promise for advancing the production of biodegradable polymers

from renewable resources, addressing key challenges and driving innovation in the

field.

2.1.2 Classes of Biodegradable Polymers

Biodegradable polymers are a class of materials that undergo degradation through the

action of microorganisms present in the environment, leading to the breakdown of the

polymer chains into simpler compounds such as water, carbon dioxide, and biomass

(Gautam & Sharma, 2020). Unlike conventional polymers derived from petrochemical

sources, biodegradable polymers offer the advantage of environmental sustainability due

to their ability to degrade into non-toxic substances under appropriate conditions

(Jamshidian et al., 2010).

Biodegradable polymers represent a critical advancement in material science, offering a

sustainable alternative to conventional polymers derived from petrochemical sources.

Their unique ability to undergo degradation through microbial action distinguishes them

from traditional plastics, which persist in the environment for hundreds of years,

15
contributing significantly to pollution. This degradation process involves the enzymatic

breakdown of polymer chains by microorganisms present in soil, water, or compost,

leading to the conversion of the polymer into harmless substances such as water, carbon

dioxide, and biomass (Gautam & Sharma, 2020). As a result, biodegradable polymers hold

immense promise for mitigating the environmental impact of plastic waste by reducing the

accumulation of non-degradable materials in landfills, oceans, and ecosystems.

In contrast to conventional polymers, which often pose environmental hazards due to their

persistence and toxicity, biodegradable polymers offer a sustainable solution that aligns

with the principles of circular economy and resource conservation. By harnessing

renewable resources such as biomass, starch, cellulose, or lactic acid, these polymers can

be synthesized through eco-friendly processes that minimize reliance on finite fossil fuel

reserves (Jamshidian et al., 2010). Moreover, the ability of biodegradable polymers to

degrade into non-toxic substances under appropriate conditions ensures minimal

ecological harm, reducing the risk of harm to wildlife and ecosystems associated with

plastic pollution. This inherent eco-compatibility makes biodegradable polymers an

attractive choice for a wide range of applications, from single-use packaging to biomedical

implants, where environmental impact is a significant consideration.

The environmental benefits of biodegradable polymers extend beyond their end-of-life

disposal, encompassing their entire lifecycle from production to degradation. Unlike

conventional plastics, which generate greenhouse gas emissions during manufacturing and

incineration, biodegradable polymers derived from renewable resources have a lower

carbon footprint and contribute to mitigating climate change (Gautam & Sharma, 2020).

The cultivation of renewable feedstocks for biodegradable polymer production can have

positive environmental impacts by promoting sustainable agriculture, reducing

16
deforestation, and fostering rural development in regions rich in biomass resources. Thus,

the adoption of biodegradable polymers represents a holistic approach to sustainability that

addresses not only waste management but also resource efficiency and climate resilience.

In addition to their environmental advantages, biodegradable polymers offer diverse

functional properties that make them suitable for a wide range of applications across

industries. Through careful selection of monomers and processing techniques, the

mechanical, thermal, and barrier properties of biodegradable polymers can be tailored to

meet specific application requirements, ranging from flexible packaging films to rigid

structural materials (Rasal et al., 2010). Moreover, ongoing research and development

efforts are focused on enhancing the performance and versatility of biodegradable

polymers through innovations such as nanocomposites, copolymerization, and bio-based

additives, opening up new possibilities for sustainable material solutions in areas such as

healthcare, agriculture, and consumer goods.

One of the key characteristics of biodegradable polymers is their inherent ability to

decompose into natural components over time, thereby reducing environmental pollution

and minimizing waste accumulation (Auras et al., 2004). This property makes them highly

desirable for various applications where sustainability and eco-friendliness are prioritized,

such as in packaging materials, agricultural mulches, medical implants, and controlled-

release drug delivery systems (Jain et al., 2017).

Biodegradable polymers can be classified into two main categories based on their origin:

synthetic and natural. The classification of biodegradable polymers into synthetic and

natural categories offers insights into their origins, properties, and potential applications.

Synthetic biodegradable polymers, as the name suggests, are chemically synthesized from

renewable resources such as biomass, starch, cellulose, or lactic acid. These polymers are

17
typically produced through controlled polymerization reactions, enabling precise control

over molecular structure and properties (Joshi & Waghmare, 2018). Examples of synthetic

biodegradable polymers include poly(lactic acid) (PLA), poly(hydroxyalkanoates) (PHA),

and poly(caprolactone) (PCL), which have gained significant attention due to their tunable

properties and biodegradability. The synthetic nature of these polymers allows for

customization of properties such as mechanical strength, degradation rate, and thermal

stability, making them suitable for diverse applications ranging from packaging to

biomedical devices.

Poly(lactic acid) (PLA) stands out as one of the most widely used synthetic biodegradable

polymers, owing to its biocompatibility, processability, and versatility. PLA can be

derived from renewable resources such as corn starch or sugarcane through fermentation

processes, making it a sustainable alternative to petroleum-based plastics (Nair &

Laurencin, 2007). With its ability to degrade into non-toxic lactic acid under composting

conditions, PLA finds applications in various sectors, including food packaging, textiles,

and biomedical implants. Moreover, PLA can be easily processed into films, fibers, and

molded products using conventional polymer processing techniques, offering

manufacturers a cost-effective and environmentally friendly solution.

Poly(hydroxyalkanoates) (PHA) represent another class of synthetic biodegradable

polymers with significant potential for sustainable material applications. PHAs are

produced by microbial fermentation of renewable carbon sources, such as sugars or fatty

acids, by bacteria such as Cupriavidus necator or Ralstonia eutropha (Joshi & Waghmare,

2018). These polymers exhibit a wide range of properties, from elastomeric to rigid,

depending on the monomer composition and microbial strain used in their production.

PHAs have garnered interest in areas such as packaging, agriculture, and biomedical

18
engineering due to their biocompatibility, biodegradability, and mechanical properties

comparable to conventional plastics. Ongoing research efforts focus on optimizing PHA

production processes, improving material properties, and exploring new applications to

harness the full potential of these biodegradable polymers.

Poly(caprolactone) (PCL) is a synthetic biodegradable polyester that has found widespread

use in various applications, including drug delivery, tissue engineering, and 3D printing.

PCL is derived from the ring-opening polymerization of ε-caprolactone monomers, which

can be synthesized from renewable resources such as plant oils or animal fats (Joshi &

Waghmare, 2018). The slow degradation kinetics of PCL make it particularly suitable for

sustained drug release applications, where controlled release of therapeutics over an

extended period is desired. Additionally, the biocompatibility and mechanical flexibility of

PCL make it an attractive candidate for tissue engineering scaffolds and implants,

providing support for cell growth and tissue regeneration.

Natural biodegradable polymers, in contrast to their synthetic counterparts, are directly

sourced from renewable resources found in nature, such as plants, animals, or

microorganisms (Deng et al., 2016). These polymers offer inherent biocompatibility and

biodegradability, making them attractive for a wide range of applications, particularly in

biomedical and environmental fields. Examples of natural biodegradable polymers include

polysaccharides like cellulose and chitosan, proteins like collagen and gelatin, and

polyesters like polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB).

Cellulose, a polysaccharide abundant in plant cell walls, is one of the most widely studied

natural biodegradable polymers. It possesses excellent mechanical properties,

biocompatibility, and biodegradability, making it suitable for applications in packaging,

textiles, and tissue engineering. Chitosan, derived from chitin found in the exoskeletons of

19
crustaceans, is another natural polymer known for its antimicrobial properties and

biodegradability. It has found applications in wound dressings, drug delivery systems, and

agricultural films due to its versatility and biocompatibility.

Protein-based biodegradable polymers, such as collagen and gelatin, offer unique

advantages in biomedical applications due to their resemblance to natural extracellular

matrix components. Collagen, the most abundant protein in mammals, provides structural

support and promotes cell adhesion, making it ideal for tissue engineering scaffolds,

wound healing, and drug delivery systems. Gelatin, derived from collagen through partial

hydrolysis, exhibits similar properties and has been extensively used in pharmaceuticals,

food additives, and 3D bioprinting.

Polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB) is a natural polyester produced by bacteria as a carbon and

energy storage molecule. It is biodegradable and biocompatible, with properties similar to

conventional plastics like polypropylene. PHB has gained attention as a sustainable

alternative to petroleum-based plastics in applications such as packaging, disposable

utensils, and agricultural mulches. However, challenges related to cost and scalability have

hindered its widespread adoption, prompting research into improving production

efficiency and reducing production costs.

Natural biodegradable polymers offer significant potential for addressing environmental

and health challenges associated with conventional plastics. Their renewable origins,

biocompatibility, and biodegradability make them attractive candidates for sustainable

material solutions in diverse fields. Continued research and development efforts are

needed to optimize their properties, production processes, and end-of-life management,

ensuring their successful integration into various industries and contributing to a more

sustainable and environmentally friendly future (Ahn et al., 2018). In addition to their

20
environmental benefits, biodegradable polymers often possess desirable mechanical,

thermal, and barrier properties that make them suitable for a wide range of applications

(Rasal et al., 2010). However, challenges such as limited mechanical strength, processing

difficulties, and cost considerations remain areas of active research and development in the

field of biodegradable polymers (Lizundia et al., 2016).

2.1.3 Renewable Resources Commonly Used In Biodegradable Polymer Production

Biodegradable polymers offer a sustainable alternative to conventional plastics, with the

potential to reduce reliance on finite fossil fuel resources and mitigate environmental

pollution. One of the key advantages of biodegradable polymers is their ability to be

derived from renewable resources, such as biomass, agricultural crops, and organic waste

materials, which are abundant and can be replenished over time (Gautam & Sharma,

2020).

2.1.3.1 Biomass

Biomass, derived from organic materials such as plants, trees, and algae, serves as a

primary source of renewable carbon for biodegradable polymer production. Biomass

feedstocks include lignocellulosic materials (e.g., wood chips, agricultural residues),

dedicated energy crops (e.g., switchgrass, sugarcane), and algae biomass (e.g.,

microalgae). These feedstocks contain polysaccharides, such as cellulose and

hemicellulose, which can be converted into sugars through processes like enzymatic

hydrolysis or thermochemical treatments. These sugars can then serve as precursors for the

microbial fermentation or chemical synthesis of biodegradable polymers like poly(lactic

acid) (PLA) or polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs). Previous studies have demonstrated

various techniques for biomass conversion, including enzymatic hydrolysis and

21
thermochemical treatments, which efficiently break down complex carbohydrates into

monomeric sugars (Joshi & Waghmare, 2018).

The sugars derived from biomass serve as valuable precursors for the production of

biodegradable polymers through microbial fermentation or chemical synthesis routes.

Microbial fermentation involves the use of microorganisms, such as bacteria or yeast, to

convert sugars into biopolymers like poly(lactic acid) (PLA) or polyhydroxyalkanoates

(PHAs). These polymers offer advantages such as biocompatibility, biodegradability, and

tunable properties, making them suitable for a wide range of applications, from packaging

to biomedical devices. By utilizing sugars derived from biomass, researchers can develop

sustainable processes for biopolymer production that reduce reliance on non-renewable

resources and minimize environmental impact (Joshi & Waghmare, 2018).

Lignocellulosic materials, such as wood chips and agricultural residues, are particularly

promising biomass feedstocks due to their abundance and low cost. Previous studies have

explored various pretreatment methods to enhance the accessibility of cellulose and

hemicellulose fractions within lignocellulosic biomass, thereby improving sugar yields

and process efficiency. These pretreatment techniques include physical methods such as

milling and grinding, chemical methods such as acid or alkaline hydrolysis, and biological

methods such as fungal or bacterial pretreatment. By optimizing pretreatment conditions,

researchers aim to overcome challenges associated with biomass recalcitrance and

maximize the conversion of lignocellulosic biomass into fermentable sugars for

biopolymer production (Joshi & Waghmare, 2018).

Dedicated energy crops, including switchgrass and sugarcane, offer additional

opportunities for biomass-based biopolymer production. These crops are specifically

cultivated for their high biomass yield and suitability for bioenergy and bioproduct

22
applications. Sugarcane, in particular, is a well-established feedstock for the production of

sugar-based biopolymers like PLA, owing to its high sugar content and favorable

agronomic characteristics. Algae biomass, such as microalgae, represents another

promising feedstock for biopolymer production, offering rapid growth rates, high biomass

productivity, and the ability to grow in diverse environments. Algae-derived sugars can be

utilized for the production of biopolymers, biofuels, and other value-added products

through biochemical or thermochemical conversion processes (Joshi & Waghmare, 2018).

2.1.3.2 Starch

Starch, a carbohydrate polymer found in abundance in grains, tubers, and legumes, is

another widely used renewable resource in biodegradable polymer production. Starch can

be extracted from crops such as corn, wheat, potatoes, and cassava and processed into

biodegradable polymers like thermoplastic starch (TPS) or modified starch polymers. TPS

can be produced through melt processing techniques, blending starch with plasticizers and

additives to improve processability and mechanical properties. Starch-based polymers are

commonly used in packaging materials, disposable tableware, and agricultural mulches

due to their biodegradability and compatibility with existing manufacturing infrastructure

(Auras et al., 2004). Starch represents a valuable renewable resource for biodegradable

polymer production, offering numerous advantages in terms of availability,

biodegradability, and processability. As a carbohydrate polymer abundantly found in

grains, tubers, and legumes, starch can be readily extracted from crops such as corn,

wheat, potatoes, and cassava. This widespread availability makes starch a cost-effective

and sustainable feedstock for biopolymer synthesis, contributing to the development of

environmentally friendly materials. Furthermore, the renewable nature of starch aligns

with global efforts to reduce dependence on fossil-based resources and mitigate

environmental impact.

23
The versatility of starch-based polymers is demonstrated through the production of

thermoplastic starch (TPS) and modified starch polymers. TPS, in particular, has gained

significant attention in various industries due to its biodegradability, processability, and

compatibility with existing manufacturing infrastructure. Through melt processing

techniques, starch can be blended with plasticizers and additives to enhance its mechanical

properties and processability, allowing for the production of TPS-based films, coatings,

and molded products. This versatility enables the utilization of starch-based polymers in a

wide range of applications, including packaging materials, disposable tableware, and

agricultural mulches, where biodegradability and environmental compatibility are

paramount.

The production of starch-based polymers offers numerous environmental benefits

compared to conventional plastics derived from fossil fuels. Starch-based polymers are

inherently biodegradable, meaning they can be broken down into non-toxic substances by

microorganisms in the environment, reducing the accumulation of plastic waste in landfills

and oceans. Moreover, the use of renewable starch feedstocks helps to reduce greenhouse

gas emissions and mitigate climate change, as starch crops absorb carbon dioxide during

photosynthesis, thereby acting as carbon sinks. By transitioning towards starch-based

biopolymers, industries can contribute to sustainable resource management and

environmental conservation efforts on a global scale.

However, challenges such as mechanical strength, moisture sensitivity, and processing

limitations remain areas of concern in the development and commercialization of starch-

based polymers. Despite their biodegradability, starch-based materials may exhibit inferior

mechanical properties compared to conventional plastics, limiting their applicability in

certain high-performance applications. The hydrophilic nature of starch makes it

24
susceptible to moisture absorption, leading to degradation and loss of mechanical integrity

over time. Addressing these challenges requires ongoing research and development efforts

aimed at enhancing the mechanical properties, moisture resistance, and processing

characteristics of starch-based polymers through novel formulations, additives, and

processing techniques.

2.1.3.3 Lactic Acid

Lactic acid, a naturally occurring organic acid produced during fermentation processes,

serves as a key building block for the synthesis of biodegradable polymers such as

polylactic acid (PLA). Lactic acid can be derived from renewable feedstocks such as

sugars (e.g., glucose, sucrose) through microbial fermentation using lactic acid bacteria or

genetically engineered microorganisms. PLA is a versatile biopolymer with applications

spanning packaging, textiles, biomedical devices, and 3D printing, offering a sustainable

and biocompatible alternative to conventional plastics. The production of lactic acid

begins with the fermentation of renewable feedstocks such as sugars (e.g., glucose,

sucrose) using lactic acid bacteria or genetically engineered microorganisms. This

fermentation process yields optically active lactic acid isomers, namely l-lactic acid and d-

lactic acid, which serve as the precursor molecules for PLA synthesis (Nair & Laurencin,

2007).

The utilization of renewable feedstocks for lactic acid production aligns with the

principles of sustainability and resource conservation, as it reduces reliance on finite fossil

resources and mitigates environmental impact. By fermenting sugars derived from

renewable sources, such as agricultural crops or food waste, the production of lactic acid

offers a closed-loop approach to materials manufacturing, minimizing waste generation

and promoting circularity in the economy. Additionally, advancements in microbial

25
fermentation technologies, including strain development and process optimization, have

led to improved yields and cost-effectiveness in lactic acid production, further enhancing

its viability as a renewable building block for biodegradable polymers.

The optically active nature of lactic acid isomers, l-lactic acid and d-lactic acid, presents

opportunities for tailoring the properties of PLA-based materials to meet specific

application requirements. Through ring-opening polymerization or condensation reactions,

lactic acid isomers can be polymerized into PLA with distinct stereochemistry, resulting in

polymers with varying mechanical, thermal, and degradation properties. This versatility

allows for the customization of PLA-based materials for applications ranging from rigid

packaging to flexible textiles, enabling the development of innovative and sustainable

solutions across industries.

PLA offers several advantages over conventional plastics, including biodegradability,

biocompatibility, and renewability. PLA polymers can undergo degradation into non-toxic

compounds under appropriate conditions, reducing environmental pollution and promoting

ecosystem health. Additionally, PLA has found extensive use in biomedical applications,

such as sutures, implants, and drug delivery systems, due to its biocompatibility and

ability to degrade in the body without causing harm. As concerns over plastic pollution

and resource depletion continue to rise, PLA stands out as a promising alternative that

supports the transition towards a more sustainable and circular economy.

Despite its numerous advantages, challenges remain in the widespread adoption of PLA,

including cost competitiveness, mechanical properties, and end-of-life management.

Addressing these challenges requires continued research and development efforts to

improve production efficiency, enhance material performance, and establish infrastructure

for PLA recycling and composting. Moreover, collaboration among stakeholders,

26
including researchers, policymakers, and industry leaders, is essential to overcome barriers

to adoption and accelerate the transition towards a more sustainable materials economy

centered on biodegradable polymers like PLA.

2.1.3.4 Vegetable Oils

Vegetable oils, derived from oilseed crops such as soybean, palm, canola, and sunflower,

represent another renewable resource for biodegradable polymer production. These oils

contain triglycerides, which can be chemically modified or polymerized into

biodegradable polymers such as polyesters (e.g., poly(caprolactone), poly(lactic-co-

glycolic acid)) or polyurethanes. Vegetable oil-based polymers exhibit tunable properties

and biodegradability, making them suitable for applications in coatings, adhesives, foams,

and elastomers. Additionally, the use of vegetable oils in polymer production promotes the

utilization of agricultural by-products and supports sustainable farming practices (Gautam

& Sharma, 2020).

The tunable properties and biodegradability of vegetable oil-based polymers make them

suitable for a wide range of applications in various industries. These polymers exhibit

versatility in terms of mechanical strength, flexibility, and degradation rate, allowing for

customization to meet specific performance requirements. Vegetable oil-based polymers

have been utilized in coatings, adhesives, foams, and elastomers, offering eco-friendly

alternatives to conventional petroleum-derived materials. By replacing fossil-based

polymers with renewable alternatives, industries can reduce their environmental footprint

and contribute to the transition towards a more sustainable materials economy.

The use of vegetable oils in polymer production not only provides environmental benefits

but also promotes circularity in agricultural systems. Oilseed crops used for vegetable oil

production generate by-products such as meal and cake, which can be utilized as animal
27
feed or fertilizer, thus minimizing waste and maximizing resource efficiency. Furthermore,

the cultivation of oilseed crops supports sustainable farming practices, including crop

rotation, soil conservation, and reduced pesticide use. By integrating vegetable oil-based

polymers into agricultural systems, farmers can diversify their income streams and

contribute to the development of more resilient and sustainable food and energy systems.

Despite the numerous advantages of vegetable oil-based polymers, challenges remain in

their commercialization and widespread adoption. Issues such as cost competitiveness,

processing complexity, and performance limitations need to be addressed to overcome

barriers to market penetration. Additionally, concerns over land use change and

deforestation associated with oil palm cultivation highlight the importance of sustainable

sourcing practices and certification schemes to ensure the environmental integrity of

vegetable oil-based polymers. Collaborative efforts among stakeholders, including

researchers, policymakers, industry players, and consumers, are essential to overcome

these challenges and promote the sustainable utilization of vegetable oil resources in

polymer production.

2.1.4 Previous Studies on Biodegradable Polymer Production

Previous studies have evaluated a wide range of renewable feedstocks for biodegradable

polymer production, including biomass, starch, vegetable oils, and lactic acid. Research

has focused on characterizing the chemical composition, rheological properties, and

sustainability aspects of different feedstocks to assess their suitability for polymer

synthesis (Zhang et al., 2018). For example, studies have investigated the impact of

feedstock variability on polymer properties and processing behavior, highlighting the

importance of feedstock selection in achieving desired material performance (Yuan et al.,

2019).

28
Researchers have explored various synthesis methods for biodegradable polymer

production, including microbial fermentation, chemical synthesis, and enzymatic

polymerization. Studies have investigated process parameters, catalysts, and reaction

conditions to optimize polymer yield, molecular weight, and properties (Cruz-Maya et al.,

2020). For instance, research has focused on enhancing the efficiency and sustainability of

microbial fermentation processes through strain engineering, substrate optimization, and

bioreactor design (Chen et al., 2020). Similarly, studies have investigated novel catalysts

and green solvents for chemical synthesis routes to minimize environmental impact and

improve product quality (Li et al., 2021).

Previous research has employed a range of analytical methods to examine biodegradable

polymers and assess their characteristics. Techniques like Fourier-transform infrared

spectroscopy (FTIR), nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), and differential scanning

calorimetry (DSC) have been utilized to investigate aspects such as polymer structure,

composition, thermal properties, and mechanical behavior (Gorrasi & Pantani, 2013).

Additionally, studies have delved into comprehending how biodegradable polymers

degrade under various environmental circumstances, including composting, soil burial,

and aquatic conditions, aiming to gauge their biodegradability and potential ecological

consequences (Alvarez-Chavez et al., 2010).

Studies have explored a wide range of applications for biodegradable polymers across

various industries, including packaging, agriculture, biomedical, and automotive sectors.

Research has investigated the performance of biodegradable materials in packaging films,

food containers, mulching films, sutures, implants, and automotive components, among

others (Jamshidian et al., 2010). Additionally, studies have addressed challenges related to

end-of-life management, including recycling, composting, and waste valorization

29
strategies for biodegradable polymers, aiming to maximize resource efficiency and

minimize environmental impact (Restrepo-Flórez et al., 2014).

Some studies have conducted life cycle assessments (LCAs) and techno-economic

analyses (TEAs) to evaluate the environmental and economic sustainability of

biodegradable polymer production and utilization. LCAs have assessed the environmental

impact of different polymer production routes, considering factors such as energy

consumption, greenhouse gas emissions, and resource depletion (Cruz-Maya et al., 2020).

TEAs have evaluated the cost-effectiveness and market competitiveness of biodegradable

polymers compared to conventional plastics, considering factors such as raw material

costs, processing costs, and end-of-life management expenses (Pinto et al., 2019).

The optimization of reaction parameters is a crucial aspect of biodegradable polymer

production using renewable resources, as demonstrated by studies conducted by Smith &

Jones (2018) and Patel et al. (2017). These studies focused on parameters such as

temperature, pH, and substrate concentration, aiming to enhance polymer yield and

quality. By systematically varying these parameters and analyzing their effects on polymer

synthesis, researchers were able to identify optimal conditions that led to improved

production efficiency and sustainability. This optimization process is essential for

maximizing resource utilization, minimizing waste generation, and reducing the

environmental impact of biodegradable polymer production.

Nguyen et al. (2018) employed response surface methodology (RSM) to optimize process

parameters for biopolymer film production, further emphasizing the importance of process

optimization in achieving desirable material properties. RSM enables researchers to

systematically explore and optimize multiple process variables while minimizing the

number of experimental trials, thus saving time and resources. By utilizing RSM,

30
researchers were able to achieve enhanced film properties such as improved mechanical

strength, flexibility, and barrier properties. This approach highlights the significance of

employing advanced optimization techniques to fine-tune production processes and tailor

material properties for specific applications.

These studies collectively underscore the critical role of process optimization in

maximizing the efficiency and sustainability of biodegradable polymer production using

renewable resources. By systematically optimizing reaction parameters and employing

advanced optimization techniques such as response surface methodology, researchers can

achieve significant improvements in polymer yield, quality, and properties. These

advancements are essential for driving the widespread adoption of biodegradable polymers

as sustainable alternatives to traditional plastics and promoting a more environmentally

friendly and circular economy.

Wang & Chen (2019) conducted a comprehensive characterization of bioplastic films

derived from corn starch, analyzing key properties such as thickness, water solubility, and

mechanical strength. Understanding these fundamental properties is crucial for

determining the suitability of biodegradable polymers in applications such as packaging,

where properties like barrier performance and mechanical integrity are essential for

product protection and shelf life extension.

Kim & Lee (2019) explored the blending of biodegradable polymers with other materials

to enhance properties such as thermal stability and biodegradability. By incorporating

additives or blending polymers with complementary materials, researchers can tailor the

properties of biodegradable polymers to meet specific performance requirements. This

approach is particularly valuable in industries like agriculture, where biodegradable

mulches and films must withstand varying environmental conditions while promoting soil
31
health and crop growth. Through systematic blending and modification, biodegradable

polymers can be optimized to meet the diverse needs of various industrial sectors,

contributing to their widespread adoption and commercial viability.

Sharma & Gupta (2020) investigated the incorporation of nanofillers into biodegradable

polymers to improve mechanical properties and barrier properties. Nanofillers, such as

nanoparticles and nanoclays, offer unique opportunities to enhance the performance of

biodegradable polymers by reinforcing their structure and imparting desirable properties.

This research demonstrates the importance of leveraging advanced materials science

techniques to optimize biodegradable polymer properties for specific applications. By

incorporating nanofillers, researchers can address performance gaps and overcome

limitations associated with conventional biodegradable polymers, paving the way for their

increased utilization across industries ranging from packaging to biomedical engineering.

The studies conducted by Garcia et al. (2020), Chen et al. (2019), and Singh et al. (2018)

shed light on the diverse applications of biodegradable polymers, particularly in the field

of packaging. Garcia et al. (2020) delved into the effect of additives on biodegradable

polymer properties, aiming to improve their performance specifically in packaging

applications. By strategically incorporating additives, researchers sought to enhance

properties such as mechanical strength, flexibility, and barrier properties, thereby

optimizing biodegradable polymers for packaging materials. This research highlights the

versatility of biodegradable polymers and their potential to meet the stringent requirements

of packaging industries while offering sustainable alternatives to traditional plastic

packaging materials.

32
Chen et al. (2019) explored the production of biodegradable polymer foams tailored for

packaging and insulation purposes, utilizing renewable resources. By leveraging

renewable feedstocks, researchers aimed to develop lightweight and eco-friendly

packaging materials with thermal insulation properties suitable for various applications.

This approach not only addresses the environmental impact of conventional packaging

materials but also demonstrates the feasibility of utilizing biodegradable polymers in

innovative packaging solutions that prioritize sustainability and resource efficiency.

Singh et al. (2018) focused on the development of biodegradable polymer coatings

specifically for food packaging applications, with an emphasis on food safety and

sustainability. By engineering coatings that provide a protective barrier against external

contaminants while maintaining food quality and safety, researchers aimed to address

consumer concerns regarding food packaging materials. This research underscores the

importance of incorporating sustainability principles into food packaging design, ensuring

that packaging materials not only protect food products but also minimize environmental

impact throughout their lifecycle. Collectively, these studies showcase the versatility and

potential of biodegradable polymers in addressing a wide range of environmental and

industrial challenges, particularly in the context of sustainable packaging solutions.

Biodegradable polymers present a compelling solution to the environmental challenges

posed by traditional petroleum-based plastics. Unlike conventional plastics, which can

persist in the environment for hundreds of years without degrading, biodegradable

polymers have the inherent ability to undergo degradation into harmless compounds under

specific environmental conditions. This degradation process, facilitated by microbial or

enzymatic action, enables biodegradable polymers to break down into simpler compounds

such as carbon dioxide, water, methane, and biomass (Narancic & O'Connor, 2017). As a

33
result, biodegradable polymers offer a sustainable alternative to traditional plastics,

helping to mitigate the detrimental impact of plastic waste accumulation in landfills and

marine environments.

The biodegradability of polymers contributes to the reduction of plastic pollution and its

associated environmental consequences. Plastic waste accumulation in landfills and

oceans has become a significant global concern, with detrimental effects on ecosystems,

wildlife, and human health. Biodegradable polymers offer a promising solution by

providing a pathway for the efficient decomposition of plastic materials into non-toxic

substances over time. This degradation process helps alleviate the burden of plastic waste

on the environment, reducing the risk of pollution and supporting the restoration of natural

ecological balance (Gorham et al., 2019).

The adoption of biodegradable polymers aligns with broader sustainability goals aimed at

promoting resource conservation and reducing carbon emissions. By utilizing renewable

feedstocks and facilitating the decomposition of organic materials, biodegradable

polymers contribute to the efficient utilization of natural resources and the reduction of

greenhouse gas emissions associated with plastic production and disposal. Additionally,

the biodegradability of polymers supports the principles of a circular economy, where

materials are reused, recycled, or composted at the end of their lifecycle, minimizing

waste and maximizing resource efficiency (González et al., 2019). In this way,

biodegradable polymers play a vital role in advancing sustainable practices and mitigating

the environmental impact of plastic pollution.

The utilization of renewable feedstocks in the production of biodegradable polymers

represents a significant step towards sustainable resource management and environmental

stewardship. Biodegradable polymers are frequently derived from renewable resources

34
such as biomass, agricultural residues, or microbial substrates, which offer abundant and

sustainable alternatives to finite fossil resources. By relying on renewable feedstocks, the

production of biodegradable polymers reduces the dependency on non-renewable fossil

fuels, conserving valuable natural resources and mitigating environmental degradation

associated with their extraction and processing (Narancic & O'Connor, 2017). This shift

towards renewable feedstocks aligns with broader efforts to transition towards a more

sustainable and environmentally responsible economy.

Moreover, the use of renewable feedstocks in biodegradable polymer production

contributes to the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions and other environmental impacts

associated with traditional plastic production. Unlike petroleum-based plastics, which rely

on fossil fuels as their primary raw material, biodegradable polymers derived from

renewable feedstocks have a lower carbon footprint and environmental impact throughout

their lifecycle. The cultivation of biomass and agricultural residues for biodegradable

polymer production can also have positive environmental co-benefits, such as soil carbon

sequestration, biodiversity conservation, and sustainable land management practices

(Gorham et al., 2019). These environmental benefits further underscore the importance of

transitioning towards renewable feedstocks in polymer production.

The reliance on renewable feedstocks in biodegradable polymer production fosters

economic resilience and promotes sustainable development opportunities. By diversifying

the sources of raw materials used in polymer production, communities can reduce their

vulnerability to fluctuations in fossil fuel prices and supply chain disruptions.

Additionally, the cultivation and processing of renewable feedstocks for biodegradable

polymer production can create new economic opportunities in rural and agricultural areas,

supporting job creation, income generation, and rural development initiatives (González et

35
al., 2019). This holistic approach to biodegradable polymer production not only reduces

environmental impact but also contributes to the promotion of sustainable livelihoods and

economic prosperity.

Biodegradable polymers are generally biocompatible and non-toxic, making them suitable

for various medical and pharmaceutical applications. Unlike some conventional plastics,

biodegradable polymers do not leach harmful chemicals into the environment, contributing

to improved safety for both humans and wildlife (Gorham et al., 2019).

Biodegradable polymers offer versatility in terms of their chemical composition and

physical properties, allowing for customization to meet specific application requirements.

Researchers can tailor the properties of biodegradable polymers through formulation

adjustments, blending with other materials, or incorporating additives, enabling a wide

range of applications across industries (Sharma & Gupta, 2020).

Biodegradable polymers support the transition towards a circular economy by promoting

resource efficiency and waste reduction. Their ability to degrade into natural compounds

closes the loop on material use, facilitating the recycling of organic matter back into the

ecosystem without causing long-term environmental harm (Zhang et al., 2019).

2.2 Limitation of Past Work

While previous studies have made significant strides in advancing the understanding and

application of biodegradable polymers, they are not without limitations. Several factors

can impact the validity and generalizability of research findings, including methodological

constraints, sample size limitations, and inadequate consideration of real-world

applications.

36
One limitation of previous studies lies in the variability of methodologies employed for

assessing the properties and performance of biodegradable polymers. Different research

groups may utilize varying experimental setups, testing protocols, and analytical

techniques, making it challenging to compare results across studies. This variability can

introduce inconsistencies and uncertainties in the interpretation of findings, hindering the

establishment of standardized methods for evaluating biodegradable polymer materials

(Zhang et al., 2019).

Moreover, sample size limitations represent another constraint in previous research on

biodegradable polymers. Many studies may be constrained by small sample sizes due to

resource constraints or experimental limitations. Small sample sizes can reduce the

statistical power of studies, limiting the reliability and generalizability of findings.

Additionally, small sample sizes may not adequately capture the variability inherent in

biodegradable polymer materials, potentially leading to biased or inconclusive results

(Wang & Chen, 2019).

Previous studies on biodegradable polymers may suffer from a lack of consideration of

real-world applications and environmental conditions. Laboratory-based experiments often

simplify complex environmental interactions and conditions, which may not accurately

reflect the degradation behavior of biodegradable polymers in natural environments.

Factors such as temperature fluctuations, moisture levels, microbial activity, and exposure

to UV radiation can significantly influence the degradation kinetics and mechanisms of

biodegradable polymers but are often overlooked in controlled laboratory settings

(Narancic & O'Connor, 2017).

37
2.3 Current Work

This work centers around formulation of biodegradable polymers based on potato-starch.

One crucial aspect of the current work involves further optimizing the production process

parameters for biodegradable polymers. This optimization may entail fine-tuning factors

such as temperature, pH, reaction time, and the ratio of raw materials to enhance polymer

yield, quality, and consistency. By systematically varying these parameters and conducting

comprehensive optimization experiments, researchers can identify the optimal conditions

for maximizing production efficiency while minimizing environmental impact.

Thorough characterization and evaluation of the properties of the produced biodegradable

polymer films will be carried out. This characterization include assessing properties such

as thickness, moisture content, water solubility, glossiness, water absorption, grammage,

and hardness, as outlined in the objectives of the study. By conducting detailed property

evaluations, researchers can gain insights into the performance and suitability of the

biodegradable polymer films for various applications, such as packaging, agricultural

mulching, or biomedical materials.

Additionally, the current work involves evaluating the biodegradability of the produced

biodegradable polymer films through standardized degradation tests, such as soil burial

tests. By burying the polymer films in soil under controlled conditions and monitoring

their degradation over time, researchers can assess the rate and extent of biodegradation

and determine the environmental fate of the polymers. This assessment is crucial for

verifying the eco-friendliness and sustainability of the biodegradable polymer materials

and informing their potential applications in environmentally sensitive contexts.

38
2.4 Research Gap

After examining the literature, several areas lacking sufficient research attention within the

biodegradable polymers domain can be pinpointed. One area in need of further exploration

is the absence of standardized testing protocols for characterizing and evaluating

biodegradable polymers. Despite the crucial role of properties like mechanical strength

and biodegradability in gauging polymer performance, there exists no consensus on the

optimal testing methods and standards. Establishing standardized protocols would promote

consistency across studies and bolster the reliability and replicability of research

outcomes.

Moreover, while numerous studies delve into the short-term degradation kinetics of

biodegradable polymers under controlled laboratory conditions, there is a dearth of

understanding regarding their long-term degradation behavior in real-world environments,

such as soil or marine settings. Extensive investigations into prolonged degradation

patterns are pivotal for comprehending the durability and environmental implications of

biodegradable polymers over extended durations, thereby furnishing valuable insights into

their potential ramifications on ecosystems and waste management schemes.

Additionally, despite prior research exploring the influence of various additives and

processing conditions on biodegradable polymer properties, a gap remains in

comprehending the intricate interactions among different additives, processing parameters,

and polymer performance. Further inquiry is imperative to unravel the effects of additives

such as plasticizers, fillers, and compatibilizers on the mechanical, thermal, and

degradation attributes of biodegradable polymers across diverse processing conditions.

39
Furthermore, there is a scarcity of comprehensive life cycle assessment (LCA) studies

contrasting the environmental impacts of biodegradable polymers with those of traditional

petroleum-based plastics. Although biodegradable polymers are often heralded as more

environmentally sustainable alternatives, rigorous LCA examinations are indispensable for

evaluating their complete environmental footprint from raw material extraction and

production to utilization and disposal. Such analyses would furnish crucial insights into

the overall sustainability and eco-efficiency of biodegradable polymers vis-à-vis

conventional plastics.

Lastly, a gap exists in research dedicated to tailoring biodegradable polymers to specific

application requisites and contexts. Many studies concentrate on the general properties and

performance of biodegradable polymers without accounting for the distinct needs and

performance criteria of diverse applications, such as packaging, agriculture, or biomedical

sectors. Future investigations should strive to bridge this gap by formulating

biodegradable polymers optimized for particular applications, thereby maximizing their

efficacy and relevance in real-world scenarios.

40
 CHAPTER 3

MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1 Materials

The following materials were used to formulate potato-based biodegradable polymer:

i. Potato Starch:

Potato starch is a white, powdery substance extracted from potatoes. It consists

primarily of carbohydrates, mainly starch. is a versatile ingredient commonly used in

food processing, pharmaceuticals, and various industrial applications. In this

experiment, potato starch serves as the primary biopolymer for the production of

biodegradable plastic. Potato starch is widely used as a thickening agent in food

products such as soups, sauces, and gravies. It is also utilized in the manufacturing of

biodegradable packaging materials, biodegradable polymers, and as a binder in

pharmaceutical tablets.

ii. Citric Acid:

Citric acid is a weak organic acid found naturally in citrus fruits, such as lemons and

limes. It is commonly used as a food additive and acidity regulator. Citric acid is used

in the experiment to modify the properties of the potato starch-based biopolymer. It

helps improve the plastic's flexibility and biodegradability. Citric acid has a wide

range of applications, including food and beverage production, cosmetics,

pharmaceuticals, and household cleaners. In this experiment, it acts as a plasticizer,

enhancing the mechanical properties of the biodegradable polymer.

iii. Carboxymethyl Cellulose (CMC):

Carboxymethyl cellulose is a derivative of cellulose, a natural polymer found in plant

cell walls. CMC is modified by the addition of carboxymethyl groups to the cellulose

backbone. CMC is added to the biopolymer mixture to improve its mechanical strength

41
 and stability. It acts as a thickening agent and binder, enhancing the cohesion of the

biodegradable polymer. CMC is commonly used in food products as a thickener,

stabilizer, and emulsifier. It is also utilized in pharmaceuticals, personal care products,

and various industrial applications, including paper manufacturing and textile

processing.

iv. Glycerol:

Glycerol, also known as glycerin, is a colorless, odorless liquid derived from fats and

oils. It is a triol compound with three hydroxyl groups. Glycerol is added to the

biopolymer mixture as a plasticizer, improving its flexibility and elasticity. It helps

reduce the brittleness of the biodegradable polymer and enhances its processability.

Glycerol has numerous applications in industries such as food and beverage,

pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, and personal care products. It is commonly used as a

humectant, solvent, and sweetener. In this experiment, glycerol acts as a plasticizer to

modify the mechanical properties of the biodegradable polymer.

v. Polyvinyl Alcohol (PVA):

Polyvinyl alcohol is a synthetic polymer derived from polyvinyl acetate through

hydrolysis. It is water-soluble and forms a clear, colorless film when dried. PVA is

incorporated into the biopolymer mixture to improve its film-forming properties and

water resistance. It enhances the cohesion and adhesion of the biodegradable

polymer. PVA has diverse applications in industries such as textiles, adhesives,

coatings, and packaging. It is commonly used as a binder, emulsifier, and film-forming

agent. In this experiment, PVA contributes to the formation of a durable and water-

resistant biodegradable polymer film.

42
 vi. Distilled water:

Distilled water is water that has been purified through the process of distillation,

removing impurities and contaminants. Distilled water is used as a solvent in the

preparation of the biopolymer mixture. It serves as the medium for dissolving the solid

ingredients and facilitating the mixing process. Distilled water is commonly used in

laboratories, medical procedures, and various industrial applications requiring high-

purity water. In this experiment, it acts as a solvent for the other ingredients, ensuring

uniform mixing and dispersion.

vii. Teflon Sheet:

A Teflon sheet is a non-stick, heat-resistant sheet made from polytetrafluoroethylene

(PTFE), commonly known by the brand name Teflon. The Teflon sheet is used as a

substrate for casting the biopolymer mixture into a thin film. Its non-stick surface

prevents the biodegradable polymer from adhering to the sheet during drying. Teflon

sheets are widely used in cooking, baking, and various industrial applications requiring

a non-stick surface. In this experiment, it facilitates the production of a uniform and

easily removable biodegradable polymer film.

viii. Oil (for greasing):

Oil is a viscous liquid derived from plant, animal, or synthetic sources. It consists

primarily of triglycerides. A small amount of oil is applied to the Teflon sheet to

grease its surface, preventing the biodegradable polymer from sticking during drying.

It facilitates the easy removal of the dried biodegradable polymer film. Oil has

numerous culinary, industrial, and cosmetic applications. In this experiment, it serves

as a release agent, ensuring that the dried biodegradable polymer film can be easily

peeled off the Teflon sheet without damage.

43
3.2 Methods

3.2.1 Potato Starch Synthesis

4.5 grams of potato starch is measured out into a beaker, 1.3 grams of citric acid and 2

grams of Carboxymethyl Cellulose is added to the beaker. Approximately 3.3 grams of

glycerol and 1 gram of PVA is then incorporated into the mixture and all the ingredients

are thoroughly mix together to ensure homogeneity. 70 ml of distilled water is poured into

the beaker containing the mixture of starch and other additives and the mixture is stirred at

200 rpm to ensure proper dispersion and dissolution of the ingredients. The beaker is

placed on a hot plate set to 90 degrees Celsius and the mixture stirred continuously at 500

rpm for 30 - 40 minutes. The stirring and heating process helps in gelatinizing the starch

and forming a homogenous solution. Once the solution reaches the desired consistency,

resembling that of honey, the hot plate is turned off.

3.2.2 Film Preparation

Teflon sheet is greased with a small amount of oil to prevent sticking and the heated and

stirred mixture is transferred onto the greased Teflon sheet. A spatula or similar tool is

used to spread the mixture evenly across the surface of the sheet, to ensure that the

thickness of the spread mixture is uniform for consistent film formation. Teflon sheet is

inserted with the spread mixture into an oven set to 65 degrees Celsius, the mixture is

allowed to dry in the oven for 12 hours. The drying process facilitates the evaporation of

water, leaving behind a solid biodegradable polymer film. After 12 hours, the dried

biodegradable polymer film is carefully removed from the Teflon sheet. A scraping tool

is used to gently detach the film from the sheet.

By following these steps, the potato starch-based biodegradable polymer film can be

synthesized and prepared for further analysis or application in various industries.

44
3.3 Characterization of Biodegradable Polymer

The biodegradable polymer formulated above was tested for various parameters as

discussed below:

3.3.1 Thickness Measurement

The biodegradable polymer thickness was measured by using micrometer. By holding the

work piece between stylus and anvil, reading was directly measured.

Plate 3.1: Measurement of Thickness Using Micrometer

3.3.2 Test for Moisture Content

The moisture content was estimated by measuring the weight loss of films. The

biodegradable polymer samples were cut into square pieces of 2.0cm 2 and samples were

weighed accurately. The dry film mass was documented upon drying in an oven at 110°C

till a static dry weight was attained. The moisture content was measured with five

repetitions, of each film treatment:

(W i −W f )
Moisture Content (%)= × 100
Wi

Where, W i is the weight at the beginning and W f is the final weight.

45
 Plate 3.2: Moisture Content Measurement

3.3.3 Water Solubility Test

Cutting into square sections of 2.0cm2 of the film samples, and mass was weighed

accurately and recorded. The samples remained dip in 100ml distilled water and static

agitation at 180rpm was carried out for 6h at 25°C. The lasting portions of the film were

filtered after 6h. samples were dried in a hot air oven at 110°C until a final fixed weight

was found. The percentage of total soluble matter (% solubility) was calculated as:

(W 0−W f )
W s (%)= × 100
W0

Where, W s is solubility in water; W 0 is the weight at the beginning of the biodegradable

polymer; and W f is the final weight of the biodegradable polymer.

46
 Plate 3.3: Measurement of Solubility

3.3.4 Gloss Meter Test

An instrument which is used to measure the specular reflection (gloss) of a surface is

called a gloss meter. It is a tool with an incandescent light source and a photosensitive

receptor to reacts to visible light. However, it has reduce appearance quality such as haze

as the instrument is not sensitive to other common effects. Many global technical

principles are accessible that describe the usage and specifications for different types of

gloss meter used on different types of materials.

Plate 3.4: Gloss Test

47
3.3.5 Standard Test Method for Specular Gloss

This test method compare with visual observations of superficial glossiness made at the

corresponding angles. A black glass standard is used as a reference for comparing the

specular reflectance of specimen measured gloss ratings by this test. The measured gloss

ratings change as the surface refractive index changes since specular reflectance depends

also on the surface refractive index of the specimen.

3.3.6 Biodegradability Test - Soil Burial Test

For biodegradability test specimen is cut into pieces of 4.0 cm 2. Here soil that is near the

roots of plants considered rich in nitrogenous bacteria is used, 500g of soil that is bit moist

was collected and stored in a flask. Biodegradable polymer sample was submerged inside

the soil at a deepness of 2cm and other buried at a depth of 3cm for 15 days in atmospheric

conditions. The weight of the biodegradable polymer was measured before and after the

testing. The biodegradability test was measured by equation:

(W 0−W )
Weight Loss(%)= × 100
W0

Where W 0 and W are the weights of samples before and after the test.

Plate 3.5: Soil Burial Test

48
3.3.7 Water Absorption Test

For the calculation of the relative water absorption rate by plastics during immersion in

specified conditions Water Absorption test by ASTM D570 is used. Reasons disturbing

water absorption include the plastic form, temperature, additives used, and exposure

length. In ASTM D570 test method biodegradable polymer are dried for a specified time

at stated temperature and kept in a desiccator to cool for the ASTM D570 test. The

samples are measured instantly after cooling. Then the material is placed inside water at

23°C for 24 hours or until it reaches an equilibrium. Finally, the samples are removed

from the water, patted dry with a lint-free cloth, and weighed.

Plate 3.6: Water Absorption Test

Water absorption is expressed as an increase in weight percent.

(Wet Weight −Dry Weight )

49
3.3.8 Grammage Test

The samples are cut by choosing the appropriate stencil seeing the type of the sample. For

heavy paper (weighing above 100 GSM) stencil of the size 10 cm x 10 cm is taken and

hung on one of the arms of the device. Reading is taken straight on the scale ‘A’. If the

paper or paper board is lighter in weight and reading remains below 100 GSM then stencil

of size 10cm x 20cm is used to get more precise results and reading is taken on scale ‘B’.

At least 5 readings are taken and results are expressed in range as g/m 2. Suitable size of

paper is cut with a stencil and then weighed on a weighing balance. The weight is recorded

and converted in to g/m2 and expressed as grammage or GSM.

Plate 3.7: Grammage Test

3.3.9 Hardness Test

This is a measure of the resistance of a material to deformation, predominantly permanent

distortion, indentation, or scratching. Hardness is purely a comparative word and should

not be confused with wear and abrasion resistance of plastic materials. For example,

Polystyrene, has a high Rockwell hardness value but a poor abrasion resistance. Hardness

tests can distinguish the relative hardness of dissimilar grades of a specific plastic.

However, it is not useable for relating the hardness of different plastics built totally on one

50
type of test because elastic recovery along with hardness is involved (Shah 2007). Two of

the most commonly used tests for plastics are the Rockwell and the Durometer hardness

tests. The Rockwell test is used for relatively hard plastics such as acetals, nylons,

acrylics, and polystyrene. For softer materials such as flexible PVC, thermoplastic rubbers,

and polyethylene, a Durometer hardness test is utilized.

The Rockwell hardness test measures the net increase in depth impression as the load on

an indenter is increased from a fixed minor load to a major load and then returned to a

minor load. The hardness numbers derived are just numbers without units. Rockwell

hardness numbers are always quoted with a scale symbol representing the indenter size,

load, and dial scale used. The hardness scales in order of increasing hardness are the R, L,

M, E, and K scales. The higher the number in each scale, the harder the material.

Plate 3.8: Apparatus for Hardness Test.

51
 CHAPTER 4

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Results for Thickness Measurement

The measurement of thickness of the biodegradable polymers at five different places is

done using a micrometer, and the average is calculated.

Table 4.1: Values of Film Thickness

Replications Film thickness (mm)

S1 0.208

S2 0.223

S3 0.215

S4 0.118

S5 0.141

Average 0.181

Thickness

S5

S4

S3

S2

S1

0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25

52
 Figure 4.1: Thickness of the Biodegradable Polymer Replicates

The average of measured thickness of the biodegradable polymer is found to be 0.181 mm

(181 µ). The thickness of plastic bags should not be less than 50 microns, as per the

regulations of the Government. The results demonstrate that the prepared biodegradable

polymer has a thickness of 181 microns and, which is higher as per standards and hence,

can be used for making carry bags. However, several works have been reported on the

thickness of biodegradable polymers films.

4.2 Results for Moisture Content

Moisture content is a significant factor for food processing and is anticipated to remain

below the level specified level safe for storage. Five different replicas are tested by this

formula and an average is calculated.

Table 4.2: Value of Moisture Content

Replications Initial Weight Final Weight Moisture Content in

W i (in g) W f (in g) Percentage (%)

S1 0.230 0.161 21.99

S2 0.408 0.310 24.019

S3 0.337 0.263 22.955

S4 0.415 0.312 22.819

S5 0.220 0.185 18.91

Average 21.99

53
The moisture content for the various samples is calculated by using a formula:

(W i−W f )
Moisture Content in (%) = × 100 ,
Wi

Where, W i is the weight at the beginning and W f is the final weight

(0.230−0.161)
For S1, Moisture Content = ×100 = 21.99%
0.230

Similarly, the moisture content is calculated for the other replications and then an average

of all five replications are found out. An average Solubility is found to be 21.99%. This

suggests that the material retains a substantial portion of water even in its apparently dry

state. This is likely due to the porous nature of the biodegradable polymer, which can

allow water molecules to be absorbed and retained within its structure.

4.3 Results for Water Solubility

The main property that is able to differentiate the different type of starch though the film

formation methods, created on starch being associated with the amylose content in the

food is water solubility.

Table 4.3: Values of Water Solubility

Replications Initial weight Final weight Water solubility

W o (in grams) W f (in grams) in (%)

S1 0.510 0.268 47.62

S2 0.359 0.179 50.08

S3 0.363 0.207 42.61

S4 0.295 0.168 43.55

54
S5 0.498 0.245 50.53

Average 46.878

(W o−W f )
Solubility % is calculated by using a formula: W s= ×100,
Wo

Where W s is solubility in water; W o is the weight at the beginning of the biodegradable

polymers; and W f is the final weight of the biodegradable polymers.

(0.510−0.268)
For S1, Solubility (%)= ×100=47.62 %
0.510

Similarly, the Solubility is calculated for the other replications and then an average of all

five replications are found out. Average Solubility is found to be 46.878% This suggests

that the biodegradable polymer's structure allows water molecules to penetrate and interact

with the polymer matrix, causing it to gradually break down and dissolve. This aligns with

the inherent characteristics of biodegradable polymers, which tend to exhibit water-soluble

properties due to the presence of natural components that can undergo hydrolysis.

55
 Water Solubility

S1 S2 S3 S4 S5

Figure 4.2: Solubility of the Biodegradable Polymer Replicates

4.4 Results for Gloss Measurement

Gloss is a complex attribute of a surface which cannot be completely measured by any

single number. Specular gloss is used primarily as a measure of the shiny appearance of

films and surfaces. Specific evaluations of gloss values are expressive only when they

mention to the similar measurement procedure and identical general type of material.

Table 4.4 shows the reading of gloss unit.

Table 4.4: Different Values of Gloss

Replications GU

S1 16.62

S2 7.54

S3 7.6

S4 10.38

56
S5 10.82

Average 10.592

Gloss
18

16

14

12

10

0
S1 S2 S3 S4 S5

Figure 4.3: Gloss Measurement of the Biodegradable Polymer Replicates

The average Gloss measurement is found to be 10.592 GU. This indicates plastic has

Medium Gloss.

4.5 Results for Biodegradability Test

Microorganisms such as bacteria and fungi present in the soil can absorb and metabolize

the biodegradable polymer as a source of energy and all that remains are CO 2, water, salts

and biomass.

(W 0−W )
Weight Loss(%)= × 100,
W0

57
Where, W 0 is the initial weight of sample before burial and w is the final weight after

burial Day wise weight of the biodegradable polymer sample is recorded and at the end of

sixth day it is found out that weight of plastic remains was 0.112g. By using the data

recorded in the Table 4.5 and by using the formula above, the biodegradability is being

calculated.

Table 4.5: Degradability in Days

Days Weight (g)

Day 1 1.151

Day 2 0.972

Day 3 0.823

Day 4 0.648

Day 5 0.453

Day 6 0.112

58
 Degradability
1.4

1.2

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
Day 1 Day 2 Day 3 Day 4 Day 5 Day 6

Figure 4.4: Gloss Measurement of the Biodegradable Polymer Replicates

(W 0−W )
By using the formula, Weight Loss(%)= × 100,
W0

(1.151−0.112)
¿ ×100=90.26 %
0.151

Biodegradability of 90.26% was achieved in 6 days for the sample placed in the soil at a

depth of 3 cm.

4.6 Result for Water Absorption

Water absorption is used to determine the amount of water absorbed under specified

conditions. Factors affecting water absorption include type of plastic, additives used,

temperature and length of exposure. The data sheds light on the performance of the

materials in water or humid environments.

(Wet Weight −Dry Weight )

By using above formula, the biodegradability is being calculated as shown in Table 4.6.

59
Table 4.6: Values for Water Solubility

Sample No. Initial weight Final weight Water solubility in

(%)

W o (in grams) W f (in grams)

S1 0.510 0.405 20.58

(0.510−0.405)
Percent Water Absorption= × 100=20.58 %
0.510

This show that the biodegradable polymer material is porous in nature so, it lets water

molecules to infuse and interact with the polymer matrix.

4.7 Results for GSM

The GSM testing method involved, cutting the samples to 100cm². Using an Electrical

Balance the weight of the 100cm² samples were determined.

GSM =Weight of 100 cm² x 100

¿ 2.617∗100

¿ 216.7

GSM 200 to 300 GSM is considered good for packaging of the dry food products. We

compared the formulated biodegradable polymer with commercially available plastic

based on two parameters: GSM (grams per square meter) and thickness. The results

revealed that the biodegradable polymer had a higher water absorption rate compared to

polythene due to its porous nature. The addition of citric acid not only improved the

material's shelf life but also enhanced its mechanical properties. Furthermore, the
60
inclusion of PVA improved its mechanical properties. Moreover, the biodegradable

polymer exhibited relatively high-water solubility, likely because we used food-based raw

materials. This characteristic is advantageous in terms of degradability. The film also

displayed a medium gloss level, and its hardness fell within the range of polythene.

Notably, formed biodegradable polymer degraded in just one week, whereas polythene

film takes thousands of years to break down.

4.8 Results for Hardness Test

The potato-based biodegradable polymer material has an average Rockwell hardness value

of 41 HRC at 60 kgf load. A moderate level of hardness suggests that the material offers a

certain degree of resistance to deformation and external forces, making it potentially

suitable for various applications. The observed Rockwell hardness value aligns with

similar studies conducted on other biodegradable polymers, such as starch-based

materials. Smith et al. (2020) reported comparable Rockwell hardness values for their

starch-based biodegradable polymers. This indicates that the potato-based biodegradable

polymer's hardness is consistent with expectations for biodegradable materials of this

nature.

61
Table 4.7: Comparison of Formulated Biodegradable Polymer from Existing

Petroleum-Based Plastics

S. No. Properties Biodegradable polymers Polyethylene

1. GSM 216 GSM 200 GSM

2. THICKNESS (µ) 181 MICRON 150 MICRON

3. Water absorption 20.75% <0.01%

4. Water solubility 46.678% soluble Not soluble

(Soluble in benzene

and toluene)

5. Gloss measurement 10.592 GU 35-97 GU

6. Hardness 41 HRC 50 to 70 HRC

7. Biodegradability 6 to 7 days 500 to 1000 years

62
 CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Conclusion

Different methodologies were employed in this study, where various combinations of time

and temperature were altered, along with adjustments to the chemical composition.

Ultimately, the selected formulation included 70 ml of distilled water, 4.5 g of starch, 1.3

g of citric acid, 3.3 g of glycerol, 1 g of polyvinyl alcohol, and 2 g of carboxymethyl

cellulose. The process parameters were set at 30 minutes and a temperature of 100 °C. The

results of several standard tests revealed that the final bioplastic film had a thickness of

181 microns (µ) and a GSM (grams per square meter) of 216. The average moisture

content was found to be 21.49%, while solubility was measured at 46.878%. Gloss levels

were recorded at 10.592 GU.

The biodegradability of the bioplastic reached 90.26% within 6 days. The water content

was 20.75%, and the average Rockwell hardness value was 41 HRC at a 60 kgf load.

Testing and evaluation posed challenges, particularly in measurement and calculation,

which were addressed through comprehensive research and the acquisition of additional

knowledge. The Rockwell hardness test showed an average value of 45.6 HRC for the

potato-based bioplastic, indicating its potential resistance to deformation and external

forces, making it suitable for various applications. Various parameters, including hardness,

GSM, thickness, biodegradability, glossiness, and water absorption, were compared with

commercially available polyethylene. The bioplastic demonstrated a higher water

absorption rate due to its porous structure and relatively high solubility, attributable to its

food-based raw materials. While the bioplastic holds potential for use in products like

carry bags and dry food packaging, future research should aim to reduce moisture

63
 absorption, enhance water solubility, and decrease moisture content to develop more

environmentally friendly plastics suitable for diverse applications.

5.2 Recommendations

The findings of this study underscore the potential of potato-based biodegradable

polymers as an eco-friendly alternative to conventional plastics. However, to fully harness

this potential and address the challenges identified during the research, several areas

require further exploration and refinement. The following recommendations are proposed

to guide future research efforts, with the aim of enhancing the performance, sustainability,

and commercial viability of biodegradable polymers.

i. Future research should focus on reducing the moisture absorption rate and water

solubility of the bioplastic film. This can be achieved by exploring alternative

additives, cross-linking agents, or modifying the chemical composition to create a

more hydrophobic biopolymer. This improvement would enhance the durability and

applicability of the bioplastic, especially in environments where exposure to moisture

is a concern.

ii. To increase the commercial viability of the bioplastic, further studies should

investigate methods to enhance its mechanical properties, such as tensile strength and

hardness. This could involve the incorporation of reinforcing materials like natural

fibers or nanoparticles, which could improve the film's resistance to deformation and

make it more suitable for a broader range of applications, including packaging and

agricultural films.

iii. The study highlighted the need for standardized testing methods to ensure the

comparability of results across different studies. Future work should advocate for the

development and adoption of standardized protocols for the characterization and

64
 evaluation of biodegradable polymers. This would ensure consistency in assessing

properties such as biodegradability, mechanical strength, and water absorption,

facilitating more reliable comparisons and conclusions.

iv. To better understand the environmental impact and long-term performance of the

bioplastic, it is recommended that future research includes long-term degradation

studies in real-world conditions, such as soil and marine environments. Such studies

would provide valuable insights into the durability, environmental fate, and potential

ecological effects of the bioplastic, aiding in the development of more sustainable

materials.

v. The study primarily utilized starch-based feedstocks, but future research should

explore the use of other renewable resources, such as lignocellulosic biomass, algae, or

microbial substrates, to diversify the sources of raw materials. This could lead to the

development of bioplastics with varying properties tailored to specific applications and

reduce dependency on a single feedstock type.

vi. To transition from laboratory-scale production to commercial-scale manufacturing,

future research should address the scalability of the bioplastic production process. This

includes optimizing production parameters to ensure consistency and cost-

effectiveness at larger scales. Collaboration with industry partners could facilitate the

commercialization of the bioplastic, leading to broader adoption and environmental

benefits.

vii. It is recommended that future research includes comprehensive life cycle assessments

(LCA) of the bioplastic to evaluate its overall environmental impact compared to

traditional petroleum-based plastics. LCAs should consider all stages of the

bioplastic's life cycle, from raw material extraction and production to use and end-of-

life disposal, to ensure a holistic understanding of its sustainability.

65
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