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 ENDOCRINE GLAND
• A ductless gland composed of epithelial cells that
releases secretions directly into extracellular
fluid
• If there is a duct it’s called an exocrine gland

• From the ECF the hormone diffuses into the

bloodstream
 HORMONE
• Definition: A chemical that is secreted by one cell
and exerts a physiological control effect on another
cell

• Amino acid derivatives

(usually water soluble)

• Peptide hormones
(usually water soluble)

• Lipid derivatives (not water soluble)

• They are chemical messengers released
by endocrine glands to target
cell/tissue/organ

• Endocrine organ interact with NS and

ImS to function

• Endocrine glands are ductless and

secrete hormones into blood vessels
CHEMISTRY OF HORMONES CONTROL OF HORMONES

• Steroids: These hormones are derived from

cholesterol and are lipid-soluble e.g. oestrogen,
• Negative
testosterone, aldosterone, and cortisol
feedback
• Amines: These hormones are derived from single
amino acids, usually tyrosine or tryptophan. e.g mechanism
melatonin, epinephrine and norepinephrine
• Peptides: These hormones are made up of chains
of amino acids e.g. ADH, insulin, glucagon • Neural
oxytocin, TRH, GnRH
mechanism/
• glycoproteins: These are protein hormones that
control e.g.
have carbohydrate groups attached to the amino
acid chain. e.g. Parathyroid hormones, GH, adrenaline
Prolactin, FSH, LH, and TSH
 NEUROSECRETORY CELLS OF THE
HYPOTHALAMUS

• Neurosecretory cells in the hypothalamus

synthesize and secrete hormones that either
regulate the anterior pituitary gland or are
released directly into the bloodstream from the
posterior pituitary.

These cells can be divided into two main groups:

 MAGNOCELLULAR
NEUROSECRETORY CELLS:
• Location: Located in the paraventricular and supraoptic nuclei
of the hypothalamus.

• Function: These cells produce two primary hormones:

• Oxytocin: Involved in childbirth, lactation, and social
bonding.
• Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH, also known as vasopressin):
Regulates water balance in the body by acting on the kidneys.

• Pathway: Hormones are transported down the axons of these

cells to the posterior pituitary, where they are stored and
eventually released into the bloodstream.
 PARVOCELLULAR NEUROSECRETORY CELLS:
• Location: Found in various nuclei of the hypothalamus, including the
paraventricular nucleus.

• Function: These cells produce releasing and inhibiting hormones that

regulate the anterior pituitary:
• Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH): Stimulates the release of thyroid-stimulating
hormone (TSH).
• Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH): Stimulates the release of adrenocorticotropic
hormone (ACTH).
• Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH): Stimulates the release of follicle-stimulating
hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH).
• Growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH): Stimulates the release of growth hormone
(GH).
• Somatostatin: Inhibits the release of growth hormone (GH) and thyroid-stimulating hormone
(TSH).
• Dopamine: Inhibits the release of prolactin.

• Pathway: Hormones are released into the hypothalamic-pituitary portal

system and travel to the anterior pituitary.
 CELLS OF THE ANTERIOR PITUITARY
Basophils
• Description: Basophils in the anterior pituitary are cells that stain with basic (alkaline) dyes, which typically
appear blue or purple.
• Function: These cells produce and secrete tropic hormones that regulate other endocrine glands.
• Thyrotrophs
• Gonadotrophs
• Corticotrophs:

Chromophobes
• Description: Chromophobes are cells that do not stain well with either acidic or basic dyes, hence they appear
relatively clear or pale under the microscope.
• Function: The exact function of chromophobes is less well defined compared to basophils and acidophils. They
may represent undifferentiated cells, degranulated cells, or support cells. Some chromophobes might be in a
resting state or have already secreted their hormonal contents.
• Role: Chromophobes are thought to be a reserve population of cells that can differentiate into hormone-
producing cells as needed.

Acidophils
• Description: Acidophils are cells that stain with acidic dyes, typically appearing red or pink.
• Function: These cells produce and secrete hormones involved in growth and lactation.
• Types and Associated Hormones:
• Somatotrophs
• Lactotrophs
 CELLS OF THE ANTERIOR PITUITARY
The anterior pituitary (adenohypophysis) consists of several types of endocrine cells
that secrete different hormones in response to hypothalamic signals:

• Somatotrophs:
• Hormone: Growth hormone (GH).
• Function: Stimulates growth, cell reproduction, and regeneration.

• Lactotrophs:
• Hormone: Prolactin.
• Function: Promotes milk production in mammals.

• Corticotrophs:
• Hormone: Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH).
• Function: Stimulates the adrenal cortex to produce corticosteroids, including cortisol.

• Thyrotrophs:
• Hormone: Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH).
• Function: Stimulates the thyroid gland to produce thyroid hormones (T3 and T4).

• Gonadotrophs:
• Hormones: Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH).
• Function: Regulate the reproductive processes, including the production of gametes and sex
hormones.
 CELLS OF THE POSTERIOR PITUITARY

The posterior pituitary (neurohypophysis) does not produce

hormones itself, but stores and releases hormones produced
by the magnocellular neurosecretory cells of the
hypothalamus.
It consists mainly of:
• Pituicytes:
• Description: Glial cells that support the axon terminals
of the neurosecretory cells from the hypothalamus.
• Function: Help store and release oxytocin and ADH.
• Hypothalamus
• Hypophysis/ pituitary gland
• Adrenal gland
• Thyroid gland
• Parathyroid gland
• Pineal gland
• Others are thymus gland, heart, kidney,
placenta/ ovary/ testis
 PITUITARY GLAND

• Also called hypophysis

• Less than 1 cm in diameter, about ½ g, located in
sella turcica in sphenoid bone
• Two glands in one
• Anterior pituitary (adenohypophysis)
• Posterior pituitary (neurohypophysis)
• About 0.5g with dimension 10 × 13 × 6 mm

• Found in sella turcica, covered by diaphragma

sellae

• Development: has a neural component

(neurohypophysis) and an ectodermal component
(adenohypophysis)
Neurohypophysis (Posterior Pituitary)

• Pars nervosa: The main part of the posterior pituitary that

stores and releases hormones like oxytocin and
vasopressin (ADH).

• Infundibulum (Neural Stalk): Connects the

hypothalamus to the pituitary gland and consists of the
stem and median eminence (a part of the
hypothalamus).
Adenohypophysis (Anterior Pituitary)
• Composed of:
• Pars distalis (Anterior lobe): The largest part,
responsible for hormone secretion (e.g., growth
hormone, ACTH, prolactin).
• Pars tuberalis: A small region that wraps around the
infundibulum and may play a role in regulating
hormone release.
• Pars intermedia: A thin region between the anterior
and posterior pituitary, involved in secreting
melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH) in some
species.
Blood Supply
• The internal carotid artery provides blood to the pituitary
gland through two key branches:
• Superior hypophyseal arteries: Supply blood to the
anterior pituitary and hypothalamus.
• Inferior hypophyseal arteries: Supply blood mainly to
the posterior pituitary.
• These blood vessels help transport hormones between the
hypothalamus and the pituitary gland to regulate endocrine
function.
PARTS SECRETIONS

Pars distalis Somatotropin (GH), PRL, FSH, LH, Thyrotropin

(TSH), Corticotropin (ACTH), α- MSH

Median eminence Thyrotropin releasing hormone (TRH), GnRH,

PIH, (Corticotropin releasing hormone) CRH

Pars nervosa Arginine vasopressin (ADH), oxytocin

Pars tuberalis Gonadotropins (FSH, LH)

Pars intermedia α- MSH

• Neurohypophysis contains glia called pituicyte; the

neurosecretions are transported along the axons and
accumulate at their endings in the pars nervosa. Here
they form structures known as Herring bodies
• Clinical anatomy: Tumor of the pituitary gland,
diabetes insipidus
• Located above the kidney and supplied with cortical
and medullary arteries; drained by adrenal/
suprarenal vein
• Division: adrenal cortex and medulla
• Adrenal cortex: has 3 layers; zona glomerulosa (15%),
fasciculata (65% with spongiocytes) and reticularis (7%
contains lipofuscin) secreting mineralocorticoid
(aldosterone), glucocorticoid (cortisol) and androgens
(dehydroepiandrosterone)
• Adrenal medulla secretes catecholamine (epinephrine
and norepinephrine)
 ADRENAL GLANDS
• Adrenal = next to kidney
• Since the adrenal glands are superior to the
kidney in humans, some books call them
suprarenal glands
• 2 functionally and anatomically
distinct glands: adrenal medulla and adrenal
cortex
 ADRENAL MEDULLA
• Develops from ectoderm, the same embryological
tissue that gives rise to the nervous system
• 2 hormones, epinephrine (E or EP or epi) and
norepinephrine (NE or norepi)
• Stimulated directly by sympathetic division of
nervous system
 ADRENAL CORTEX
• Derived from same embryological tissue that
gave rise to gonads
• 3 zones
• Zona glomerulosa, mineralocorticoids
• Zona fasciculata, glucocorticoids
• Zona reticularis, gonadocorticoids
 MINERALOCORTICOIDS
• Most common mineralocorticoid is aldosterone
• Aldosterone increases Na+ retention in kidney,
sweat glands, and salivary glands, which also
increases water retention
• Increases K+ and H+ secretion in kidney
• Save Na+, lose K+
 GLUCOCORTICOIDS
• Most common glucocorticoid is cortisol
• Metabolism:
• Proteins: increases protein breakdown,
releasing amino acids into blood
• Lipids: mobilizes fatty acids from adipose
tissue
• Carbohydrates: increases blood glucose levels
and gluconeogenesis
 THYMUS
• Located in superior mediastinum, just posterior to
the sternum
• Large in infants, becomes fibrous after puberty
• Thymosins: hormones which regulate the
maturation and development of
T-lymphocytes
• A two-part gland: 1% CELL SECRETION

endocrine
99% exocrine (digestive α Glucagon
enzymes)
• Pancreatic islets, also called β Insulin
islets of Langerhans
• Alpha cells: glucagon
δ Somatostatin
• Beta cells: insulin
• Contains islet of
ϒ/ PP cell Protein/
Langerhans embedded in pancreatic
exocrine tissues polypeptide

• Cells of islet of
Langerhans:
 INSULIN
• Proteins: increases amino acid uptake and protein
synthesis
• Lipids: promotes fat storage
• Carbohydrates: promotes glucose uptake into
insulin-dependent cells, promotes gluconeogenesis
• The only hormone we’ve discussed that tells
adipose tissue to get fatter
Glucagon
• Raises blood glucose levels by increasing
glycogenolysis and glucose release from liver
• Contains 20-30 million thyroid follicles;
thyroid colloids contain thyroglobulin
• Produces T3(triiodothyronine), T4
(thyroxine) and calcitonin
• It affects protein, lipids, and
carbohydrate metabolisms
 THYROID GLAND
• On anterior surface of trachea, inferior to thyroid
cartilage
• Two lobes, one on either side of trachea, plus an
isthmus that connects them
• Large for an endocrine gland, 30 to 35 g
• Two hormones, thyroid hormone (TH) and calcitonin
(CT)
 THYROID FOLLICLES
• Functional unit of thyroid gland
• Follicle cavities, containing a protein colloid,
surrounded by cuboidal follicle cells
• Occasional C cells found outside of follicles, along
with many capillaries
 TH PRODUCTION
• Iodide ions actively transported from blood into
cuboidal cells at basal surface

• Ions diffuse through cuboidal cell

• Thyroid peroxidase at apical surface of cell

attaches 1 or 2 iodines to tyrosine residues in
protein called
thyroglobulin (TG)
• Contains two superior and inferior
parathyroid glands

• Cells: chief/ principal cell and

oxyphil cell

• It increases Ca2+ and decreases blood

phosphate
• About 120 m, 5-8 mm long, 3-5 mm wide
• Contains pinealocytes and astrocytes
• Corpora arenacea ("brain sand")
• Produces melatonin
• Controls biological rhythm
• Applied anatomy: an important landmark
in radiology of the brain
 PINEAL GLAND
• Posterior portion of roof of 3rd ventricle
• Calcifies at puberty (“brain sand”)
• Major hormone = melatonin, seems to control
circadian rhythms but the function is uncertain in
humans
• Seasonal affective disorder (SAD)
• THYMUS: releases thymosin in children
• HEART: ANF/ ANP (atrial natriuretic
factor/ peptide)
• KIDNEY: releases erythropoietin
• PLACENTA/ OVARY/ TESTIS: they
produce progesterone, oestrogen, hCG
(human chorionic gonadotropins)
gonadotropins and testosterone
 KIDNEYS

• Calcitriol: secreted in response to PTH, absorbs

calcium from diet
• Erythropoietin: stimulates production of red blood
cells
• Renin: regulation of blood pressure
 GONADS

• Ovaries
• Estrogens (the non-pregnant female hormones)
• Progestins (pregnant female hormones)
• Inhibin (negative feedback of FSH)

• Testes
• Androgens (testosterone is the classic example)
• Inhibin
 HORMONES REGULATION OF FRS
Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)
• It is produced by a part of the brain called the hypothalamus
• When it circulates in the blood, it causes the release of two important
hormones from the pituitary gland in another specialised part of the brain
Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
• It is produced by the pituitary gland during the first half of the menstrual
cycle
• It stimulates development of the maturing ovarian follicle and controls
ovum production in the female
• It also control sperm production in the male
HORMONES REGULATION OF FRS CONT’D
Leutenizing hormone (LH)
• It is also produced by the pituitary gland in the brain
• It stimulates the ovaries to produce oestrogen and progesterone
• It triggers ovulation (the release of a mature ovum from the ovary)
• It also promotes the development of the corpus luteum

➢Corpus luteum means ‘yellow body’, after ovulation it

develops in the ovary from the enlarged ovarian follicle that
released the ovum
HORMONES REGULATION OF FRS CONT’D
Oestrogen
• It is a female reproductive hormone, produced
primarily by the ovaries in the non-pregnant woman
• It promotes the maturation and release of an ovum in
every menstrual cycle
• It is also produced by the placenta during
pregnancy
HORMONES REGULATION OF FRS CONT’D
Progesterone
• It is produced by the corpus luteum in the ovary
• Its function is to prepare the endometrium (lining of
the uterus) for the reception and development of the
fertilised ovum
• It also suppresses the production of oestrogen after
ovulation has occurred
 THE OVARIAN CYCLE
• The ovarian cycle refers to the monthly series of
events in the ovaries, associated with the maturation
and release of an ovum
• And the ‘just in case’ preparation for its fertilisation
and implantation in the uterus
• The regulation of the female reproductive system is
so complicated
• The reason is that the ovarian cycle must be initiated
(switched on) and then suppressed (switched off) in a
precisely regulated sequence every month
HORMONES REGULATION OF FRS CONT’D
• The length of the menstrual cycle is typically 28
days
• But it can be highly variable
• In some women it may be as short as 21 days or as
long as 39 days
• The menstrual cycle is best understood if we focus
first on events occurring in the ovaries
• Also, on the events occurring in the uterus
 CLINICAL CORRELATES

• Abnormalities
• Dwarfism: decreased secretion of hormone
(prolonged steroid use) or decreased number
of receptors (African pigmies)
• Gigantism: excess secretion before epiphyseal
plates close
• Acromegaly: excess secretion after epiphyseal
plates close
 TYPE I DIABETES
• Blood glucose of 300 to 1200 mg per 100 mL when
untreated
• Dehydration
• Acidosis & ketone formation can lead to acidotic
coma if pH drops below 7.0
• Retinopathy, neuropathy, nephropathy, early heart
attacks, loss of limbs due to poor peripheral
circulation, etc.
 HYPERADRENALISM
• Also called Cushing’s syndrome
• Overproduction of glucocorticoids due to excessive
secretion of ACTH from anterior pituitary
• Elevated blood glucose level (adrenal diabetes),
depressed immune system, muscular weakness
 HYPOADRENALISM

• Also called Addison’s disease

• Autoimmune disease, inadequate production of
glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids
• Blood glucose falls, cannot use lipid reserves for
ATP production, excessive urine production, K+
buildup, acidosis, etc.
 ANDROGENITAL SYNDROME

• Also called adrenogenital syndrome

• Tumor in zona reticularis increases androgen
secretion, leading to inappropriate secondary
sexual development (females with beards, males
with breasts, etc.)
 HYPERTHYROIDISM
• Also called exophthalmic goiter and Grave’s disease
• Probably an autoimmune disease
• Goiter, weight loss, irritability
 HYPOTHYROIDISM
• Congenital hypothyroidism (cretinism)
• Autoimmune destruction of thyroid gland?
• Infancy and early childhood, retards growth and
development
• Myxedema
• Insufficient iodine in the diet (very uncommon in
North America, as
table salt is usually iodized)
• Subcutaneous swelling, goiter, weakness