Prepared by Er.

Santosh Ojha
(Pokhara Engineering College)
PU

Chapter 3:- Power And Energy Potential Study

 Gross Head:-
The gross head at any instant of time is the difference between the water level in the fore bay and in
the tailrace. For storage plant, gross head (𝐻𝑔 ) is the difference in water level in the reservoir and
water level in the tail race. For run-off-river plant, it is the difference in water level in the point of
diversion of water and water level at the point where the water is returned back to the river.
For hydropower project with Pelton turbine gross head (𝑯𝒈 ) = 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝒂𝒕 𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆 − 𝑻𝒖𝒓𝒃𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝑨𝒙𝒊𝒔 𝑳𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍
For hydropower project with Francis turbine gross head (𝑯𝒈 ) = 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝒂𝒕 𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆 − 𝑻𝒂𝒊𝒍 𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝑳𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍
 Net head(𝑯𝒏𝒆𝒕 ): −
The net or effective head is the head available for the turbine. It is the difference in total head at the
point of entry and at the point of exit of the turbine. This includes the respective pressure and velocity
heads at both places.

Fig:- Impulse Turbine (Pelton Turbine) For High Head

Fig:- Reaction Turbine (Low Head)

For impulse turbine, 𝐻𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐻𝑔𝑟 − 𝑍 − ℎ𝑙
𝑣2
For reaction turbine, 𝐻𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐻𝑔𝑟 − 2𝑔 − ℎ𝑙
Where, 𝐻𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑛𝑒𝑡 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑, 𝐻𝑔𝑟 = 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑, 𝑍 = ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑒𝑙𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑡 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑙 𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑒.
ℎ𝑙 = ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑐𝑘, 𝑣 = 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑎𝑡 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑡.
 Operating head:-

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PU

It is the simultaneous difference of water surface elevation in the forebay and tailrace, after making
due to allowance of approach velocity and exit velocity head.
Operating head = T.E.L at Forebay – T.E.L at exit
 Design head:-
It is the net head under which the turbine reaches peak efficiency at synchronous (existing at same
time) speed.
 Hydraulic efficiency of plant:-
It is the ratio of net head to the gross head. This efficiency indicates the total losses from intake to
powerhouse. Higher losses in the system lower the hydraulic efficiency. So we always tried to minimize
the losses while designing the project.
 Firm (Primary Power):- The power which is insured to a consumer at any time of the day is known as
firm power. Firm power is completely dependable and available 100% of time. Such power corresponds
to minimum stream flow. The firm power could be increased by use of pondage. The firm capacity
depends on the minimum stream discharge at the time of peak load, pondage available shape and size
of connected load curve and interconnected of other existing plants. It is available at most adverse
hydraulic condition.
 Secondary power:- The secondary power is the amount of power which is excess of the firm power
during off peak hours during monsoon season etc. It is called surplus or non-firm power. It is also called
secondary energy. It is not guaranteed to the consumer. This type of energy is supplied to the
consumer at cheaper price. The plant can deliver the secondary power only for a part of the year, it is
comparatively less valuable. It is useful in an interconnected system of plants and at off peak hours.

Fig :- Firm Power and Secondary Power

 Plant capacity:- It is the capacity of plant with respect to the available head, discharge and efficiency
with known head and storage, the capacity of plant would be inversely proportional to the load factor
at which plant is to be operate.

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PU

Following two conflicting considerations are taken to select the plant capacity as the plant capacity
either represent the minimum flow for running all around the year or high flow with bigger, capacity
which surely remain ideal in the major problem portion of the year:-
1. Run the plant of the base portion of the load curve to utilize the maximum energy of flowing water.
2. Run the power plant at the peak load for better operational convenience and efficiency.
Such things can be achieved by :-
 Analysis of different alternatives has to be made for maximum utilization.
 Firm capacity of the plant may be increased due to poundage.
 Generally the capacity of the low head plant corresponds to the flow which is available 40-50% of
the time.
 Installed Capacity:-
The plant capacity, which is economically available, is known as installed capacity. It is also defined as
the maximum power, which can be developed by all generators of the plant at the normal head and
with full flow.
𝑛∗ɳ∗𝛾∗𝑄𝑑 ∗𝐻
𝑃 = ∑𝑛𝑖=1 100
where, 𝑄𝑑 = 𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑚3/𝑠𝑒𝑐 , ɳ= overall efficiency, 𝛾 = 9.81 KN/m3
 Energy Flow diagram:-
In hydropower project, the water needs to flow from headwork to the powerhouse and then to the
tailrace through water conveyance system designed for the project. The energy of the flowing water in
the water conveyance system can be represented in hydraulic terms of :-
𝑝
a. Pressure Head (𝛾 )
𝑣2
b. Velocity Head (2𝑔)
c. Potential Head (Z)

Fig :- Energy Flow Diagram

The sum of the pressure head and potential head is known as hydraulic head. The sum of the hydraulic
head and velocity head is known as energy head. The slope of hydraulic and energy head are called
Hydraulic Gradient Line (HGL) and Energy Gradient Line (EGL).
𝑝1 𝑝2
i.e. HGL= 𝛾
+ 𝑍1 = 𝛾
+ 𝑍2

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PU

𝑝 𝑣1 2 𝑝 𝑣2 2
EGL= ( 𝛾1 + 𝑍1) + 2𝑔
= ( 𝛾2 + 𝑍2)+ 2𝑔
Energy Flow Diagram:-
Water stored in dam Flow through conduit Rotation of turbine Generation of electricity Light/ Heat / Sound etc.
 Power estimation:-
Power potential of any hydel plant is directly proportional to the discharge that can be withdrawn from
the river and the head available (net head) to the project site.
Power estimation by following two way:-
a. Converting Potential energy into the Kinetic energy (Impulse Turbine)
b. Converting potential energy into the pressure energy (Reactive Turbine)
a. Converting Potential energy into the Kinetic energy (Impulse Turbine):-
Let us consider unit mass ‘m’ of the flowing water in the river. If the height difference of the two
positions is ‘H’
Therefore, Potential energy possessed by the water =mgH
This potential energy could be converted in to kinetic energy the flow through pipe conduit.

Fig:- Impulse turbine

Consider turbine axis is datum line , 𝑍2 = 0
Now, Using Bernoulli’s equation at point 1 and 2
𝑝1 𝑣12 𝑝 𝑣22
(
𝛾
+ 𝑍1) + 2𝑔
= ( 𝛾2 + 𝑍2)+ 2𝑔
We know, 𝑝1 = 𝑝2 = 𝑎𝑡𝑚. 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝑣1 = 0(𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 ), 𝐻𝑓 = 𝑁𝑒𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡 , 𝑍1 = 𝐻
𝑝1 𝑝2 𝑣22
( + 𝐻) + 0 = ( + 0)+ ⇒ 𝐻 ∗ 2𝑔 = 𝑣2 2 ⇒𝑣2 = √2𝑔𝐻
𝛾 𝛾 2𝑔

Therefore velocity in conduit (v)= √2𝑔𝐻

1 1
Kinetic energy of the flow = 2 ∗ 𝑚𝑣 2 = 2 ∗ 𝜌 ∗ 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 ∗ 𝑣 2
Therefore,
𝐾𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 1 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 1
Hydropower available= 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
= 2𝑔 ∗ 𝛾 ∗ 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
∗ (√2𝑔𝐻)2 = 2𝑔 ∗ 𝛾 ∗ 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 ∗ 2𝑔𝐻

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PU

𝑁𝑚 𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠
⇒ 𝑃 = 𝛾𝑄𝐻 Unit:- 𝑠𝑒𝑐 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐
= 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡
b. Converting potential energy into the pressure energy (Reactive Turbine)

Fig:- Reactive Turbine

Potential energy is converted into the useful positive pressure energy and remaining K.E. could be utilized
by converting into the negative pressure energy below the turbine.
(𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦+𝑅𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐾.𝐸.) 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒∗𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
The hydropower available= 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
= 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
= 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
=
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦∗𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎∗𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝛾𝐻∗𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
= = 𝛾𝐻 ∗ 𝑄
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
Therefore, 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟(𝑃 ) = ɳ𝛾𝑄𝐻 where, ɳ= overall efficiency of hydropower = ɳℎ ∗ ɳ𝑡 ∗ ɳ𝑔
ɳℎ = 𝐻𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑖𝑐 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 , ɳ𝑡 = 𝑇𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦, ɳ𝑔 = 𝐺𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦
 Marginal Cost and Benefit approach:-
The economical plant capacity is determined by equating the marginal cost and benefits for that
project, while determining the fixed cost of the project assumed to be constant.
Let X % of the duration corresponds to the best installed capacity for 1 Kw power generation with
energy price= US $𝐸/𝑀𝑊𝐻
Variable cost = US $ 𝑉𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 /𝑘𝑤 (the variable cost is the electromechanical installed cost. The civil cost is
not included in the variable cost because it is fixed cost)
O&M cost= certain percentage of variable cost and life of plant = N years.

Power 1 KW Power Duration Curve

X%

25 50 75 100
% of Time
Now, analyzing by the marginal benefit and marginal cost approach,

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PU

1
Energy generated = 1000 (𝑀𝑊 ) ∗ 𝑋 ∗ 365 ∗ 24 = 8.76 𝑋(𝑀𝑊𝐻)
Marginal Benefit= Total Energy generated * Energy rate = US $𝐸 ∗ 8.76 𝑋 … … … … … … … … … … (1)
Marginal Cost = Annual Cost (AC)+ O&M Cost
Total marginal cost= Annual cost of installed electromechanical equipment (AC)+ O&M
⇒The electromechanical equipment is installed at the time of construction so converted it into annual cost
and annual operation and maintenance cost is added in it.
⇒ The civil component cost in hydropower is fixed cost so it is not included in marginal cost.
(1+𝑖)𝑁 ∗𝑖
AC= 𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 [(1+𝑖)𝑁−1] where, i= interest rate, N= Economic life of the project.
⇒Operation and maintenance cost is generally considered as certain percentage of variable cost,
O&M Cost = % of 𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡
(1+𝑖)𝑁 ∗𝑖
∴ 𝑀𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 = 𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 [(1+𝑖)𝑁−1] +% of 𝑂&𝑀 ∗ 𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 ……………………………………….(2)
Finally, equating marginal cost and marginal benefit the value of ‘X’ can be obtained.
∴ 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜 ′𝑋′ % 𝑜𝑓𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡.

 Installed Capacity Optimum approach:-

We know the power generated from a plant is function of head and discharge. i.e. it is given by, P= ɳ𝛾𝑄𝐻
The power can be calculated based on the different percentile available flow as , 𝑃30 =
ɳ𝛾𝑄30 𝐻𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃40 = ɳ𝛾𝑄40 𝐻 and so on.
 From flow duration curve, for run of river plant, increasing % of available flow the design discharge is
reduced. Decreasing the design discharge, the size of the hydropower component such as intake
structure, settling basin, conveyance system, penstock etc decreases. Hence, the project cost reduces.
 But, in decreasing the design discharge, the project capacity as well as energy decreases i.e. the
annual revenue is decreased. Hence the revenue and cost is treated for to get optimum benefit.
 For this generally the flow with 30% available to the 60% available with certain interval is calculated
from flow duration curve as shown in figure and power and revenue is calculated.
 The optimum capacity is fixed as installed capacity. In Nepal for project up to 25 MW the installed
capacity is fixed based on 𝑄40 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑠 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑁𝐸𝐴 conduct power purchase agreement in the pattern
but for projects greater than 25 MW the installed capacity is fixed based on the optimization study.

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PU

 Demand and load prediction:-

Demand is the need of energy that is requested by the customers in market, community and region
and in country. Power demand is classified into:-
 Residential
 Commercial
 Industrial
The power demand is generally depends upon population, living standard of population or society,
climate, purpose of using power, general custom and culture. These are following load prediction:-
a. Short term prediction:- Covering a period of 4 to 5 years. It is done mainly for designing operation
plans identifying the areas of deficit and surplus power.
b. Medium term prediction:- Covering a period of 8 to 10 years. It is done mainly for formulation of
expansion program of power generation and transmission facilities.
c. Long term prediction:- covering period of more than 20 years. It is mainly for formulation of country’s
perspective plan for power generation, country’s power resources and made of transmission and its
voltages. The economic factors and perspective plans has significant role for long term forecasting.
 Load curve:-
Load curve is graph of load consumption with respect to any time. So this curve gives an indication of
power used at any time. Generally load curve is daily load curve, weekly load curve, monthly load curve
and yearly load curve. The curve of load consumption with respect to daily time scale gives the daily
load curves as shown in figure below. It also gives information, whether the installation is working
efficiently or not.

Fig:- Load Curve

a) Daily load curve:- Daily variation of power supply or demand in a power system is known as daily load
curve. The power demand is not constant in different hour of a day and it varies from hours depending
on the type of areas that have to be served. For domestic area, the peak demand generally occurs at
18:00 to 20:00 for cooking and lightening purpose of evening.

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PU

Fig:- Daily Load Curve

b) Weekly load curve:- The power demand or consumption in a community or society is not same in all
days of a week. The variations of a load in different days of a week are known as weekly load curve.

Fig:- Weekly Load Curve

c) Seasonal Load Curve:- The curve showing the variation of power consumption or demand in a power
system feeding to a community/Society or cities in different seasons is known as seasonal load curve.
The seasonal load of a particular place is mainly governed by the climate and culture besides the living
standard and style of the society.
 Importance of load / Power variation curve:-
 The study of power/load variation is important for planning of power production / generation and
transmission and distribution utilities.
 It indicates the power consumption at any time.
 It determines the size of the power plant and its cost.
 The load curve indicates the reservoir operation schedule.
 It also helps to prepare guide lines for operation and maintenance of power project to achieve the
targeted service at optimum cost for generation transmission and distribution system.
In a daily load curve demand may reach the highest value is known as daily peak load or the highest
peak load of the day or daily peak demand.
 Peak demand:- Peak demand is used to refer to a historically high point in the scales records of a
particular product. In terms of energy use, peak demand describes a period of strong consumer
demand.
 Peak load:- The highest demand in a day is called the peak load. The load is defined as that part of
the load carried at intensity greater than 4/3 times the mean load intensity.
 Base load:- The load which is continuously exceeded during that time period. For daily load curve
minimum load within a day is called base load for that particular day. For monthly load curve the
minimum load in a particular month is called base load.
 Average load:- Average load is defined as the average consumption over a defined time period.
Area under the load curve divide by time gives the average load.

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 Load Factor:- The ratio of average load to the maximum demand during a certain period of time such
as a day or a month or a year is called the load factor. Since average load is always less than the
maximum demand. i.e. load factor is always less than unity.
𝑨𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝑳𝒐𝒂𝒅 𝑷𝑴𝒆𝒂𝒏
Load factor =𝑴𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 𝑫𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒅 = 𝑷𝑴𝒂𝒙
Also,
𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝑺𝒖𝒑𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒆𝒅 𝒅𝒖𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝟐𝟒 𝑯𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒔
Daily Load Factor =𝑫𝒂𝒊𝒍𝒚 𝑴𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 𝒅𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒅∗𝟐𝟒 𝑯𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒔
𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝑺𝒖𝒑𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒆𝒅 𝒊𝒏 𝒂 𝒎𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒉
Monthly Load Factor =
𝑴𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒉𝒍𝒚 𝑴𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 𝒅𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒅∗𝟑𝟎∗𝟐𝟒 𝑯𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒔
𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝑺𝒖𝒑𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒆𝒅 𝒊𝒏 𝒂 𝒚𝒆𝒂𝒓
Yearly Load Factor =𝑴𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 𝒅𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒅∗𝟑𝟔𝟓∗𝟐𝟒 𝑯𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒔
 Capacity Factor (Plant Factor):-
The capacity factor is also known as a plant factor and is the ratio of average output of the plant for a
given period of time to the plant capacity. Capacity factors depending on the type of fuel that is used
and design of the plant.
𝑨𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝑶𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒕
i.e. Capacity or Plant Factor = 𝑷𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝑪𝒂𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚
𝑨𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒕
Also, Capacity (Plant Factor)= 𝑴𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒄𝒂𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒕
 Utilization Factors (Plant Use Factor):-
It is the ratio of peak load developed during certain period of time to the installed capacity of the plant.
𝑷𝒆𝒂𝒌 𝑳𝒐𝒂𝒅 𝑸𝒖𝒂𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒇 𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒚 𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒍𝒊𝒛𝒆𝒅 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
Utilization factor = 𝑰𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒅 𝒄𝒂𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 = 𝑨𝒗𝒂𝒊𝒍𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒓𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒓
The value of utilization factors varies from 0.40 to 0.90 for a hydropower plant depending upon the
plant capacity, load factors and storage.
 Diversity factors:-
The consumer uses power as per his demand if he uses whole of the connected load his load factor is
100%, if he uses less than connected load his load factor is less than 100%. The ratio of sum of the
individual maximum demand of all the consumers supplied by it to the maximum demand of the power
station is called the diversity factors. It is always greater than unity.
𝑺𝒖𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒅𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝒎𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 𝒅𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒅
Diversity factors:-
𝑴𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 𝒅𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
 Demand Factor:-
𝑴𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 𝑫𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒅
Demand Factor= 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒏𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝑳𝒐𝒂𝒅

 Significance of load factors and diversity factors:-

1. Load factors and diversity factors play an important part in the cost of the supply of electrical energy.
2. Higher the value of load and diversity factor, lower will be the overall cost per unit generated.
3. Higher load factor means greater average load, resulting in greater number of unit generated for a
given maximum demand. Thus the standing charges which are proportional to the maximum demand
and independent of number of units generated can be distributed over a larger number of units
supplied and therefore overall cost per unit of electrical energy generated will be reduced.
4. Lower the maximum demand of the power station, the lower is the capacity required and therefore
lower is the capital cost of the plant.

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PU

 Power Variation:- (Daily, Weekly, Seasonal)

 Power consumption in a community or society is not constant forever.
 It fluctuates hour to hour in a day and day to day in a week and month to month in a different seasons.
 The power consumption in a society or community depends on the followings factors:-

a) Population:-
The population number/size that has to be served by the power system directly governs the power
consumption / demand in the system. Higher the number of people larger the power/energy demand.
The power demand in small city is smaller than that of the demand in the big cities. During tourist
season the power demand in pokhara is higher than that in off season due to increase of the people in
the city that has to be served.
b) Climate:-
The climate is another important factor that influences rate of energy consumption per unit time. In
Nepal the power demand is higher in winter season for heating purpose compared to that in summer
season.
c) Living standard:-
Living standard and life style of the people also directly affects the energy or power demand. The use of
electrical appliances for cooking (rice cooker, oven etc) heating and cooking consumes considerable
amount of electric energy. The industrial area needs a lot of energy and power compared to that in
residential areas. The energy consumption in city areas is higher than that of remote areas mainly due
to life style and living standard of people.

 Power Grid:-
System of transmission of high voltage is called power grid. Modern power system is served by several
power plants which are interconnected to form a power grid. Such power system is designed to supply
sufficient capacity to supply peak load and small additional capacity to take the care of break down and
necessary maintenance. The hydropower station connected with the national power grid system may
be in one river or its basin or different part of country. In this system, shut down of any power station
for maintenance will not affect the working process of the people as a whole. Thus power system
interconnection is known as power grid system. Except micro hydropower and few mini hydropower
projects all the small and large hydropower system is interconnected to grid. For isolated system, there
is no linkage with national grid. The advantage of integrated grid over isolated grid is :-
 It increases reliability, in the event of a force or planned outage of power station.
 Reduction in the total capacity, by effective utilization of plants and by desired degree of service
reliability.
 Economic operation by combination of different sources of energy such as coal, thermal etc.
 Component of power grid system are:-
 Generation station ( Power house, Generator)
 Transmission Line
 Sub-Station
 Distribution lines

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PU

 Distribution transformers
 Household / consumer
 Load dispatch centre

Fig:- Power Grid Component

 The power system planning is connected with the reliable supply with minimum losses.
 Electric power is generated at a low voltage 6 to 25 KV which is then stepped up to the transmission
level in the range of 66 KV to 4O0 KV. As the transmission capability of line is proportional to the
square of its voltage it has to raise transmission voltage with increase in transmission voltage
efficiency in transmission increases for these reason it is always advantageous to transmit power at
high voltage..
 Finally, the electricity is connected to consumers in 220 V voltage level by 11 KV/220 V distribution
transformers.
 Whole supply of electricity from power house to all distribution lines of a power grid is controlled by
Load Dispatch Centre (LDC).
 Component of power system:-
a) Generators:-
Generators are machine which generate electrical power when rotated about by external source of
power such as water, stream etc. Generators of hydropower stations have a speed range of 70 to 1000
rpm. The generators can have either a vertical shaft alignment or a horizontal shaft alignment. The
main components of generator are:-
i. Stator:- stationary part of the generator it consists of frame, core, winding.
ii. Rotor:- Rotating element of generators it consists of hub, rim, poles, excitation.
iii. Bearing:- It minimized frictional losses while operating the generator and improves the efficiency.
b) Transformers:-
These are the device which increase or decrease the voltages. It consists of a core made from
laminated silicon alloy steel having 0.35 mm to 0.50 mm thick each layer being insulated by thin paper
or varnish. Two coil of insulated copper wire known as primary and secondary coils are wound around
the core. The generation voltage of a hydro-generators may be vary from 6 kv to about 240 kv, where
as the transmission voltage in case of long transmission line losses can be minimized and a transformer
has to be provided for stepping up the generator voltage to transmission voltage.
c) Switch Gear:-
The power houses are designed to give continuous service without interruption of power. But
sometimes faults may develop in the system due to manmade or natural causes. In such cases suitable

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PU

protective devices have to be provided to locate faults, isolate the faulty circuits from the system and
to clear the faults as quick as possible. The switching and protective equipment used for this purpose is
known as switch gear. It consists of breakers, relax and equipment for controlling and measuring such
as currents and potential transformers, isolators, control panels, switches and fuses etc.
d) Substations:-
It is generally located just outside the power station building on the ground or sometime on the RCC
roof of the power house. It consists incoming line, outgoing line, bus bars, transformer, metering
panels, dropout fuse station earthling system, low and high voltage, switch gear like circuit breaker etc.
e) Control room equipments:-
It consists of switches to control the operation of units, recording and signaling equipments.
Instruments measuring of controlling voltages, currents and frequencies of generation, outage feeders,
battery charging equipment , telephone equipments etc. Reservoir and tail race water level indicator.
 Advantage of integrated grid over isolated grid:-
1. Increase reliability:- In the event of forced or planned outage of a power station, the affected system
can be fed from other stations. River flow, storage facilities, floods and draughts are the factors that
may affect the hydropower generation.
2. Reduction in the total capacity:- In an isolated system, reserve units must be maintained separately in
power station but the reduction in total installed capacity depends upon the characteristics of inter
connected systems and desired degree of service reliability.
3. Economic operation:- Power station might be far from the load centre depending upon the natural
resource available e.g. thermal station can be built close to the source fuels (Coal, mines and petroleum
refineries).
 The load on a hydropower plant varies from minimum of 10 MW to 35 MW. Two turbo generators of
capacities 22 MW installed capacity have been installed. Calculate load factor, plant factor and
utilization factor?
 Installed capacity of the plant = 2*22 = 44 MW
10+35
Average load = = 𝟐𝟐. 𝟓 𝑴𝑾
2
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 22.5
Load factor= = ∗ 100% = 𝟔𝟒. 𝟐𝟖𝟓%
𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 35
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑂𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 22.5
Plant factor= = ∗ 100% = 𝟓𝟏. 𝟏𝟑%
𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 44
𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 35
Utilization Factor= 𝐼𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 44 ∗ 100% = 𝟕𝟗. 𝟓𝟒𝟓%
 In a hydropower plant of installed capacity 100 MW 42 Gwh energy is produced in one month. What
is the capacity factor of that plant? If the maximum load on the plant during that period is 80 MW,
What is the load factor ?
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 42∗106 𝐾𝑤ℎ
 Plant factor= = = 0.5833.
𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 100∗103 ∗30∗24𝐾𝑤ℎ
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 42∗106 𝐾𝑤ℎ
Load factor= 𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑
= 80∗103 ∗30∗24𝐾𝑤ℎ = 0.7291
∴ 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 58.33% 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 72.91%.

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PU

 A power station has to supply the following loads on an average day. Calculate the daily load factor.
What will be the plant capacity factor and utilization factor if it has reserve capacity of 1000 Kw?
Time (T) 11pm to 5 am to 6 am to 7 am to 9 am to 12 am 1 pm to 5 pm to 7 pm to 9 pm to
5 am 6 am 7 am 9 am 12 am to 1 pm 5 pm 7 pm 9 pm 11 pm
Load(Kw) 500 750 1000 2000 2500 1500 2500 2000 2500 1000
 Reserve Capacity = 1000 Kw
Time Hour Load (Kw) Energy (Kwh)
11 pm to 5 am 6 500 500*6 = 3000
5 am to 6 am 1 750 750*1 =750
6 am to 7 am 1 1000 1000*1 = 1000
7 am to 9 am 2 2000 2000*2 = 4000
9 am to 12 am 3 2500 2500*3 = 7500
12 am to 1 pm 1 1500 1500*1 = 1500
1 pm to 5 pm 4 2500 2500*4 = 10000
5 pm to 7 pm 2 2000 2000*2 = 4000
7 pm to 9 pm 2 2500 2500*2 = 5000
9 pm to 11 pm 2 1000 1000*2 = 2000
∑ = 38750 𝐾𝑤ℎ
Maximum Load = 2500 Kw
Plant capacity = Maximum Load + Reserve capacity = 2500 + 1000 = 3500 Kw
38750
∴ 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 = = 1614.583 𝐾𝑤
24
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 1614.583
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = = ∗ 100% = 64.5%
𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 2500
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 1614.583
Plant Factor= = ∗ 100% = 46.10%
𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 3500
𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 2500
Utilization Factor= 𝐼𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 3500 ∗ 100% = 71.40%
 A run of river plant is constructed across a river at a site having net head 50 m. The river carries a
sustained minimum flow of 20 cumec as a dry weather flow. Behind the power station sufficient
water poundage has been provided to supply daily peak load of demand with a load factor 70%.
Assuming the plant efficiency of 65% determine:-
i. The maximum generating capacity of the generators to be installed at the powerhouse.
ii. The volume of poundage to be provided to supply the daily demand assuming that the daily load
pattern consist of average load for 21 hours and peak load for 3 hours?
 The power produced ( At dry weather flow ) is given by , P=ɳ ∗ 𝛾 ∗ 𝑄 ∗ 𝐻 = 0.65 ∗ 9.81 ∗ 20 ∗ 50 =
6376.5 𝐾𝑤 = 𝟔. 𝟑𝟕𝟔𝟓𝑴𝑾
We know,
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 6376.5
Load factor= ⇒ 𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 = = 9109.29𝐾𝑤.
𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 0.7
i) Assuming there is no reservoir capacity. We have the maximum capacity of the generators to be
installed = 9109.29 KW.
ii) Excess water from poundage is drawn in order to meet the excess demand for 3 hour.
Excess power required to be developed during 3 hour = 9109.29 – 6376.5 = 2732.79 KW.
Excess discharge required for developing this excess power is given by,
𝑃 = ɳ∗𝛾∗𝑄∗𝐻

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PU

2732.79 = 0.65 ∗ 9.81 ∗ 𝑄 ∗ 50

3
∴ 𝑄 = 8.57 𝑚 ⁄𝑠𝑒𝑐
Required poundage per day = 8.57*3*60*60 = 92556 cum
 When a run of river plants operates as a peak load station with a weekly load factor of 20% all its
capacity is firm capacity. What will be the minimum flow in the river so that the station may serve as
base load station? It is given that rated installed capacity of generator = 10000 Kw
Operating Head = 15 m
Plant efficiency = 80%
Estimate the daily load factors of the plant if the stream flow is 15 cumec.
 Rated installed capacity of generator = 10000 KW
Operating Head =15 m
Plant Efficiency = 80%
When the plant operated as a peak load plant with 20% load factor, the total energy generated for
one week = 10000*0.2*7*24 = 336000 KWh ……………………….(1)
If ‘Q’ is the minimum flow necessary for the plant to run as a base load plant, the power ‘P’
developed to ,
𝑃 = ɳ ∗ 𝛾 ∗ 𝑄 ∗ 𝐻 = 0.8 ∗ 9.81 ∗ 𝑄 ∗ 15 = 117.72 𝑄
∴ 𝑇 𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑘 = 117.72 ∗ 𝑄 ∗ 7 ∗ 24 = 19776.96 𝑄 … … … … … … . . (2)
Now equating (1) and (2)
336000 = 19776.96 Q
Q = 16.99 Cumec.
Hence, minimum flow in the river = 16.99 cumec.
If the stream flow is 15 cumec, then power developed per day ‘P’= 117.72 *Q= 117.72*15 =1765.8
KW.
Total units generator in 24 Hours = 1765.8 *24 = 42379.2 Kwh.
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 1765.8
∴ 𝐷𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑦 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = = ∗ 100 = 17.658%
𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 10000
 If a run of river hydroelectric plant is used as peak load operating only 8 hours a day. Determine i)
firm capacity of the plant without poundage or storage ii) with poundage , if the river has minimum
flow 12 m3/sec under a head of 12 m with plant efficiency 85 percent.
Solution:-
I) Firm power without poundage or storage (P)= ɳ ∗ 𝛾 ∗ 𝑄 ∗ ℎ = 0.85 ∗ 9.81 ∗ 12 ∗ 12
= 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟎. 𝟕𝟒𝟒 𝑲𝑾
II) With poundage (Assuming No losses)
The plant is used as a peak load plant operating 8 hours a day. The volume stored during (24- 8)=
16 Hours is given by ,
Total Volume (V)= 12*16*60*60 = 691200 m3.
691200 3
Rate of flow available from poundage = 24 = 24 𝑚 ⁄𝑠𝑒𝑐
3
Total rate available to generate power = (12+24) = 36 𝑚 ⁄𝑠𝑒𝑐
Firm power with poundage = ɳ ∗ 𝛾 ∗ 𝑄 ∗ ℎ = 0.85*9.81*36*12 = 3602.23 Kw.

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PU

 A run of river plant is installed on a river having minimum flow of 15 m3/sec. If the plant is used as a
peak load plant operating only for 6 hours daily.( i.e. 6 hours peaking plant). Compute the firm
capacity of the plant. A) Without poundage. B) With poundage but allowing 10% of water to be lost
in evaporation and other losses.
Head at the plant is 16 m and plant efficiency may be assumed as 80 %.
Solution:-
a. Firm capacity without poundage(P)= ɳ ∗ 𝛾 ∗ 𝑄 ∗ ℎ = 0.8 ∗ 9.81 ∗ 15 ∗ 16 = 1883.52 𝐾𝑤
b. Firm power with poundage
Total volume of water stored during 18 hours (24 -6 ) hours when the plant is not operating
= 15*18*60*60 = 972000 m3.
Loss of water due to evaporation per day = 972000*10/10 =97200 m3.
∴ 𝑁𝑒𝑡 𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑎𝑦 = 972000 − 97200 = 874800 𝑚3.
874800 𝑚3
Rate of water available from poundage = 6∗60∗60 = 40.5 𝑠𝑒𝑐
∴ 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑎𝑣𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = (15 + 40.5) = 55.5 𝑚3/𝑠𝑒𝑐
∴ 𝐹𝑖𝑟𝑚 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑔𝑒(𝑃)= ɳ ∗ 𝛾 ∗ 𝑄 ∗ ℎ = 0.8 ∗ 9.81 ∗ 55.5 ∗ 16 = 6969.02𝐾𝑤.
 A run off river plant has a minimum flow of 30 m3/sec and net head of 70 m. The overall efficiency of
plant is 85%. Calculate the installed capacity of a plant.
a) Without poundage designed for pure ROR Plant.
b) If the plant is designed for a peaking plant with 6 hours peaking (morning 2 hours and evening 4
hours). The plant has two set of units (Turbine and Generators) such that one unit with full capacity
is operating during off peak hour. If total evaporation and other loss is 5 % of the stored water.
Solution:-
a. Power developed without poundage by 30 m3/sec discharge is given by ,P = ɳ ∗ 𝛾 ∗ 𝑄 ∗ ℎ = 0.85 ∗
9.81 ∗ 30 ∗ 70 = 17510.85𝐾𝑤
b. With poundage,
One unit is continuously operated during off peak hour. i.e. 30/2 = 15 m3/sec water is used.
∴ 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 (𝑃1) = ɳ ∗ 𝛾 ∗ 𝑄 ∗ ℎ = 0.85 ∗ 9.81 ∗ 15 ∗ 70 = 8755.425𝐾𝑤
Total volume of water stored during (24- 6) = 18 hours when one unit is operating = 15*18*60*60=
972000 m3.
Loss of water = 972000*5/100= 48600 m3.
Net amount of poundage per day = 972000-48600 = 923400 m3
923400
Rate of water available from poundage for 6 hours only = 6∗60∗60 = 42.75 𝑚3/𝑠𝑒𝑐
Total flow available to generate power = 15+ 42.75 =57.75 m3/sec
∴ 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 (𝑃2) = ɳ ∗ 𝛾 ∗ 𝑄 ∗ ℎ = 0.85 ∗ 9.81 ∗ 57.75 ∗ 70 = 33708.386𝐾𝑤
∴ 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟(𝑃 ) = 𝑃1 + 𝑃2 = 42463.811
OR, P= (30+42.75)*9.81*0.85*70 = 42463.811Kw.
 From the following data of the flow at a given area for an average year. Compute and draw the
power duration curve. Assume an average available net head of 10 m and combined efficiency of
89%. Determine primary and secondary energy available during a year if the plant capacity is fixed at
power corresponding to the flow available for 25% of time.
Flow(m3/sec) 900 600 500 450 400 350 340 300 280 200 140 100

15
 Prepared by Er. Santosh Ojha
(Pokhara Engineering College)
PU

% time 1 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 93 100
Solution:-
Net head(H)= 10 m Efficiency (ɳ)= 89%
The power installed capacity of the plant is fixed based on 25% of the time availability of flow so ,
𝑄25 = 475 m3/sec.
𝑥 − 500 450 − 500
= ⇒ 𝑥 = 475 𝑚3/𝑠𝑒𝑐
25 − 20 30 − 20
Power (Installed Capacity) P= ɳ𝛾𝑄ℎ =0.89*9.81*475*40 = 41471.775 Kw= 41.472MW
𝑡𝑛−𝑡𝑛−1 𝑃(𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙)𝑛+ 𝑃(𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙)𝑛−1 365∗24
Energy = ∗ ∗ 𝑖𝑛 𝐺𝑤ℎ
100 2 1000
∴ 𝐷𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑙 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒: −
S.N Flow(m3/sec) % of time Power(MW) Actual Energy (Gwh)
Power(MW)
1 900 1 78.578 41.472 3.633
2 600 10 52.385 41.472 32.697
3 500 20 43.655 41.472 36.329
4 475 25 41.472 41.472 18.165
5 450 30 39.289 39.289 17.687
6 400 40 34.924 34.924 32.505
7 350 50 30.558 30.558 28.681
8 340 60 29.685 29.685 26.387
9 300 70 26.193 26.193 24.475
10 280 80 24.447 24.447 22.180
11 240 90 17.462 17.462 18.356
12 140 93 12.223 12.223 3.901
13 100 100 8.731 8.731 6.425
∑ 271.421
The area under the power duration curve gives the energy generated. So the energy under different area is
calculated as,
𝑡𝑛 −𝑡𝑛−1 𝑃(𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙)𝑛+ 𝑃(𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙)𝑛−1 365∗24 10−0 41.472+41.427 365∗24
𝐸1= ∗ ∗ 𝑖𝑛 𝐺𝑤ℎ = ∗ ∗ = 3.633 𝐺𝑤ℎ
100 2 1000 100 2 1000
𝑡𝑛−𝑡𝑛−1 𝑃(𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙)𝑛+ 𝑃(𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙)𝑛−1 365∗24 10−1 41.472+41.427 365∗24
𝐸2= 100
∗ 2
∗ 1000
𝑖𝑛 𝐺𝑤ℎ = 100
∗ 2
∗ 1000
= 32.697 𝐺𝑤ℎ
𝑡𝑛−𝑡𝑛−1 𝑃(𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙)𝑛+ 𝑃(𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙)𝑛−1 365∗24 20−10 41.472+41.427 365∗24
𝐸3= 100
∗ 2
∗ 1000
𝑖𝑛 𝐺𝑤ℎ = 100
∗ 2
∗ 1000
= 36.329𝐺𝑤ℎ
𝑡𝑛−𝑡𝑛−1 𝑃(𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙)𝑛+ 𝑃(𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙)𝑛−1 365∗24 25−20 41.472+41.427 365∗24
𝐸4= 100
∗ 2
∗ 1000
𝑖𝑛 𝐺𝑤ℎ = 100
∗ 2
∗ 1000
= 18.165 𝐺𝑤ℎ
𝑡𝑛−𝑡𝑛−1 𝑃(𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙)𝑛+ 𝑃(𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙)𝑛−1 365∗24 30−25 39.289+41.427 365∗24
𝐸5= 100
∗ 2
∗ 1000
𝑖𝑛 𝐺𝑤ℎ = 100
∗ 2
∗ 1000
= 17.687𝐺𝑤ℎ
𝑡𝑛−𝑡𝑛−1 𝑃(𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙)𝑛+ 𝑃(𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙)𝑛−1 365∗24 40−30 34.924+39.289 365∗24
𝐸6= 100
∗ 2
∗ 1000
𝑖𝑛 𝐺𝑤ℎ = 100
∗ 2
∗ 1000
= 32.505 𝐺𝑤ℎ
𝑡𝑛−𝑡𝑛−1 𝑃(𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙)𝑛+ 𝑃(𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙)𝑛−1 365∗24 50−40 30.558+34.924 365∗24
𝐸7= 100
∗ 2
∗ 1000
𝑖𝑛 𝐺𝑤ℎ = 100
∗ 2
∗ 1000
= 28.681 𝐺𝑤ℎ
𝑡𝑛−𝑡𝑛−1 𝑃(𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙)𝑛+ 𝑃(𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙)𝑛−1 365∗24 60−50 26.685+30.558 365∗24
𝐸8= 100
∗ 2
∗ 1000
𝑖𝑛 𝐺𝑤ℎ = 100
∗ 2
∗ 1000
= 26.387 𝐺𝑤ℎ
𝑡𝑛−𝑡𝑛−1 𝑃(𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙)𝑛+ 𝑃(𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙)𝑛−1 365∗24 70−60 26.193+26.685 365∗24
𝐸9= 100
∗ 2
∗ 1000
𝑖𝑛 𝐺𝑤ℎ = 100
∗ 2
∗ 1000
= 24.475 𝐺𝑤ℎ
𝑡𝑛−𝑡𝑛−1 𝑃(𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙)𝑛+𝑃(𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙)𝑛−1 365∗24 80−70 24.447+26.193 365∗24
𝐸10 = ∗ ∗ 𝑖𝑛 𝐺𝑤ℎ = ∗ ∗ = 22.180 𝐺𝑤ℎ
100 2 1000 100 2 1000

16
 Prepared by Er. Santosh Ojha
(Pokhara Engineering College)
PU

𝑡𝑛−𝑡𝑛−1 𝑃(𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙)𝑛+𝑃(𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙)𝑛−1 365∗24 90−80 17.462+24.447 365∗24

𝐸11 = 100
∗ 2
∗ 1000
𝑖𝑛 𝐺𝑤ℎ = 100
∗ 2
∗ 1000
= 18.356 𝐺𝑤ℎ
𝑡𝑛−𝑡𝑛−1 𝑃(𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙)𝑛+𝑃(𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙)𝑛−1 365∗24 93−90 12.223+17.462 365∗24
𝐸12 = 100
∗ 2
∗ 1000
𝑖𝑛 𝐺𝑤ℎ = 100
∗ 2
∗ 1000
= 3.901 𝐺𝑤ℎ
𝑡𝑛−𝑡𝑛−1 𝑃(𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙)𝑛+𝑃(𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙)𝑛−1 365∗24 100−93 8.731+12.223 365∗24
𝐸13 = 100
∗ 2
∗ 1000
𝑖𝑛 𝐺𝑤ℎ = 100
∗ 2
∗ 1000
= 6.425 𝐺𝑤ℎ
100−0 365∗24
Firm energy or Primary energy (Available at 100% of time)= 100
∗ 8.731 ∗ 1000
= 76.484 𝐺𝑤ℎ
∴ 𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 − 𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 271.421 − 76.484 = 194.937 𝐺𝑤ℎ

 Draw a power duration curve from the stream flow record from the proposed power development
site if the available head is 80 m and the maximum discharge capacity is 60 m3/sec. Determine the
firm and secondary energy at the site if the overall efficiency is 78%.
Months Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Discharge(m3/sec) 37 35 31 25 19 37 65 84 62 51 44 41
For note:-
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul
Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Feb= 28 days( Always), Odd no = 31 Day , Even no( Except Feb) = 30 days.
Solution:-
From question, Head(H)= 80 m, Design discharge (Q)= 60 m3/sec, overall efficiency(ɳ)=78%
∴ 𝑰𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒅 𝑪𝒂𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 (𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓) = 𝒑 = ɳ 𝜸𝑸𝑯 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟖 ∗ 𝟗. 𝟖𝟏 ∗ 𝟔𝟎 ∗ 𝟖𝟎 = 𝟑𝟔𝟕𝟐𝟖. 𝟔𝟒𝑲𝒘
= 𝟑𝟔. 𝟕𝟐𝟖𝑴𝑾.
Month Discharge Discharge in Rank(n) % of Power Actual Energy(Gwh)
(m3/sec) descending order time (MW) Power(MW)
(n/N)
Jan 37 84 1 1/12*1 51.42 36.728 26.80
00=8.33
Feb 35 65 2 16.67 39.789 36.728 26.83
Mar 31 62 3 25 37.953 36.728 26.80
60 26.455 36.728 36.728 4.68
Apr 25 51 4 33.33 31.219 31.219 20.46
May 19 44 5 41.67 26.934 26.934 21.242
Jun 37 41 6 50 25.098 25.098 18.984
Jul 65 37 7 58.33 22.649 22.649 17.42
Aug 84 37 8 66.67 22.649 22.649 16.547
Sep 62 35 9 75 21.425 21.425 16.08
Oct 51 31 10 83.33 18.976 18.976 14.74
Nov 44 25 11 91.67 15.304 15.304 12.522
Dec 41 19 12 100 11.631 11.631 9.827
∑ 232.932

𝑥−25 33.33−25
By interpolation, 60−62 = 51−62
⇒ 𝑥 = 26.455%
The area under the power duration curve gives the energy generated. So the energy under different area is
calculated as,

17
 Prepared by Er. Santosh Ojha
(Pokhara Engineering College)
PU

𝑡𝑛 −𝑡𝑛−1 𝑃(𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙)𝑛+ 𝑃(𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙)𝑛−1 365∗24 8.33−0 36.728+36.728 365∗24

𝐸1= 100
∗ 2
∗ 1000
𝑖𝑛 𝐺𝑤ℎ = 100
∗ 2
∗ 1000
= 26.80 𝐺𝑤ℎ
𝑡𝑛−𝑡𝑛−1 𝑃(𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙)𝑛+ 𝑃(𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙)𝑛−1 365∗24 16.67−8.33 36.728+36.728 365∗24
𝐸2= 100
∗ 2
∗ 1000
𝑖𝑛 𝐺𝑤ℎ = 100
∗ 2
∗ 1000
= 26.83 𝐺𝑤ℎ
Similarly, For 𝐸3,𝐸4 … … … . . 𝑒𝑡𝑐.
100−0 365∗24
𝐹𝑖𝑟𝑚 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦= 100
∗ 11.631 ∗ 1000
= 101.887𝐺𝑤ℎ
Secondary energy= Total Energy- Firm Energy =232.932-101.887 = 131.045 Gwh.
 From the mean monthly flow for a Nepalese river. The power duration curve is calculated which are
as shown below:-
%of time 8.33 16.67 25 33.33 41.67 50 58.33 66.67 75 83.33 91.67 100
Power(MW) 703 588 537 305 256 183 147 107 82 72 59 51
Determine the best installed capacity of the power plant with following data.
Interest Rate = 10%
Energy price = US $𝟑𝟎/𝑴𝒘𝒉
Variable Cost = US $𝟔𝟎𝟎/𝑲𝑾 (Electro mechanical)
Fixed cost = US $𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎/𝑲𝑾
O&M cost = 2% of variable cost
Economic life of the plant = 40 years
Solution:-
Let us analyze marginal benefit and cost for 1 Kw installation.
Assuming “X” % of the duration corresponds to the best installed capacity for 1 Kw power generation.
Then,
1
Total energy generated = 1000 ∗ 𝑋% ∗ 365 ∗ 24 𝑀𝑊𝐻 = 8.76𝑋% 𝑀𝑊𝐻(𝐴𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙) = 0.0876𝑋 𝑀𝑊𝐻 𝑃𝑒𝑟 𝐾𝑤.
Marginal Benefit = 0.0876*X *U$ 30 = U$ 2.628 X …………………………………..(1)
Also, Total Marginal cost = Annual cost + O& M cost
(1 + 𝑖 )𝑁 ∗ 𝑖
= 𝑉𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 [ ] + % 𝑜𝑓 𝑂 & 𝑀 ∗ 𝑉𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 .. . 𝐹𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝐶𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡.
(1 + 𝑖 )𝑁 − 1
(1+0.1)40 ∗0.1 2
⇒Total Marginal cost = 𝑈$600 [ (1+0.1)40
−1
]+
100
∗ 𝑈$600 = 𝑈$ 73.36 … … … … . . (2)
Now, equating equation (1) and (2)
U$2.628 X= u$ 73.36 ⇒ 𝑋 = 27.915% //
Hence the advantageous duration is 27.915 %.
Now, installed capacity is calculated by interpolation.
537 P 305
𝑷−𝟓𝟑𝟕 𝟑𝟎𝟓−𝟓𝟑𝟕
𝟐𝟕.𝟗𝟏𝟓−𝟐𝟓
= 𝟑𝟑.𝟑𝟑−𝟐𝟓 25% 27.915% 33.33%
−𝟐𝟑𝟐
P= 537 +2.915 *( 𝟖.𝟑𝟑 ) = 𝟒𝟓𝟓. 𝟖𝟏𝟒 𝑴𝑾
Which is the best install capacity of the power plant.

18