Introductory Entomology

Mr. Ankit Soti

Assistant Professor of Entomology
Gauradaha Agriculture Campus
Jhapa,, Nepal
 Introduce yourself ………
Which one is insects ?
Any guess ?
Among 10 , how many are the TRUE insects belongs to
Insecta class.

1) Aphids (लाही ) 8) Mite (सु लसु ले )

2) Spider (माकुरा) 9) Cutworm (फेद कटु वा )
3) Centipede (कान सु े) 10) Snail ( z+v] ls/f )
4) Red ant (रातो किमला )
5) Tick ( ि ना)
6) Whitefly (सेतो पुतली )
7) Housefly (झीगा)
 Why Entomology?

 Entrepreneurship ( Bee- Keeping)

 Professor ( Teaching Sector)
 Plant Protection Officer
 Foreign studied ( America….)
 NARC (Technical officer, Scientist)
 Private Company ( R & D Manager Entomologist)
 Lab Technician (Rapid Bioassay Pesticide Residue )
 IPM based Project (INGO, NGO )
 Taxonomist
 IPM specialist
 Introduction :
Definition and Position of Insects in
Animal Kingdom
Entomology
Entomology is derived from greek word
“entomon”- insect, “logos”- discourse.
discourse
Entomology is a branch of zoology which deals
with insects.

Insect
Insect is derived from the latin word “Insectum”
which means cut into sections are a class of
invertebrates within the arthropod phylum that
have commonly a chitinous exoskeleton,
exoskeleton 3 part
body, 3 paired of jointed legs, compound eyes
and a pair of antennae.
• Insects belong to the superclass Hexapoda under the phylum
Arthopoda.

All arthopods are characterized by following features:

1) Body segmented often divided into three segments.

2) Bilateral symmetry body.
3) Paired joined appendages.
4) Body is covered by chito-proteinous
proteinous exoskeleton.
5) Circulatory system is open.
6) Excretion by the means of malphigian tubules.
7) Respiration by means of trachea.
8) Dorsal brain with ventral nerve cord.
Position of Insects in Animal Kingdom

Kingdom: Animalia
Sub kingdom: Eumetazoa
Division: Non chordata
Phylum : Arthopoda
Sub phylum : Mandibulata
Superclass : Hexapoda
Class : Insecta
 Kingdom: Animalia
Sub kingdom: Eumetazoa
Division: Non chordata
Phylum : Arthopoda
Sub phylum : Mandibulata
Superclass : Hexapoda
Class : Insecta
Order : Hymenoptera
Superfamily: Apoidea
Family: Apidae
Genus : Apis
Species : A. cerana, A. dorsata, A. laborisa, A.florea, A.mellifera
 7 CLASSES OF PHYLUM ARTHOPODA

1. Onychophora: Peripatus (No clear body, 1 pair antennae, Simple eyes)

2. Crustacea: Crab (Cephalothorax
Cephalothorax)
3. Arachnida: Mites, Ticks ( 4 pairs legs)
4. Chilopoda : Centipede ( 1 pair legs/ segment)
5. Diplopoda : Millipede ( 2 pair legs/ segment)
6. Trilobitomorpha (extinct group)
7. Hexapoda or insecta : Insects
 FACTORS FOR INSECTS ABUNDANCE

1) More number of species:

• In the animal kingdom more than
85 per cent of the species belongs
to insect group.
• Total number of insects described
so far is more than 9 lakhs.
 2) Large number of individuals in a single species:
• e.g., Locust swarm comprising of large number of individuals, occupying
large area.
3) Great variety of habitats:
Insects thrive well under varied
conditions.

4) Long geological history: Insects

were known to occupy this earth for
more than 350 million years, which
is a good track record. This has
given the insects great variety of
adoptions under different
conditions.
 Reasons for dominance
1) Capacity for flight: Insects poses wings, which is the lateral extension
of exoskeleton. Insects are the earliest animals and the only flying
invertebrates.

Flight is used for the following purpose.

i. To seek food, mate, shelter and oviposition sites.
ii. To colonize in a new habitat and also to exchange habitat.
iii. To escape from enemies and unfavourable conditions.
iv. To migrate (i.e. for long distance travel e.g. Locusts).
2) Adaptability or Universality: Insects are the earliest groups to make their
life on the earth and to occupy vast habitats of soil and water.
 Found in wide range of climatic conditions, from -50°C to 40°C.

3) Size: Majority of insects are small conferring the following physiological

and ecological advantages.
 Most species are between 2 and 20 mm (0.1 - 1.0 inch) in length, although
they range in size from giant moths that would nearly cover your computer
screen to tiny parasitic wasps.
4 ) Exoskeleton:
Insect body is covered with an outer cuticle called exoskeleton which is made up
of a cuticular protein called chitin.

Act as external armour :

i. Provides space for muscle
attachment
ii. Prevents water loss
5) Resistance to desiccation: Insects minimize the water loss from
their body surface through the following processes.

a) Prevention of water loss:

Lipids and polyphenols present in the epicuticle acts as water
proofing.
b) Conservation of water:
Capable of utilizing metabolic water.
water

6) Compound eyes:
The compound eyes are divided into many hexagonal areas and each
has a cornea or optic unit known as ommatidium. If one of the
ommatidium is not functional, other parts can do i.e. is sufficient to
see.
 7. Tracheal system of respiration:

• This ensures direct transfer of

adequate oxygen to actively
breathing tissues.

• Spiracles through their closing

mechanism admit air and restrict
water loss.
8. Reproductive potential:

Reproductive potential of insect is high due to the following reasons:

1) Egg laying capacity (fecundity) is high.
2) Development period is short.
3) Careful selection of egg lying sites and protection of eggs.
4) Exhibits parental care like progressive provisioning (e.g. bees) and
mass provisioning (e.g. Wasps).
Presence of special types of reproduction other than oviparity and viviparity.
• Polyembryony: Development of many individuals from a single egg.
e.g. parasitic wasps.
• Parthenogenesis: Reproduction without male or without fertilization,
e.g. aphids
• Paedogenesis: Reproduction by immature stages. e.g. certain flies.

.
9. Complete metamorphosis: More than 82 per cent of insects undergo
complete. As the larval and adult food sources are different, competition for
food is less.
10 . Defense mechanisms: By using the following defense mechanisms,
insects escape from the enemies to increase their survival rate.

Behavioural
Thanatosis: insects pretends as if dead. e.g. some beetles.
Structural: e.g. hardened forewings of beetles known as elytra protect the
beetles from predation of birds.
Camouflage : Presence of protective colours.
colours e.g.Stick insects
Chemical: Presence of defensive chemicals.. e.g. Bees producing venom

11. Hexapod locomotion: Insects uses 3 legs at a time during locomotion,

while the remaining 3 legs are static, which gives greater stability.
Thank You
Insect Are Beneficial

Insect Are Harmful

• Insects at some stages of their life are involved in activities
that are both friendly as well as harmful e.g. the honeybees
which are beneficial to humans but tend to be harmful when
aggressive.

• As a result of the benefits man gets from friendly insects, he

conserves them so as to maximize profit.
1. Insect Products
 a. Honey

Beekeeping for honey production is a profitable agricultural

enterprise in many countries and an important foreign exchange
earner for those that export honey and bee wax.
Honey is used in many ways by man also as the chief source of
natural sweet in preparing candies, cakes, bread and so on.
 It forms a very important food for patients of diabetes or for
persons undergoing very strenuous physical exertion (Jordan and
Verma, 2010).
200g of honey is as nourishing as 1.135kg of milk or 1.658 kg of
cream cheese or 340 g of meat or 8 orange or 10 eggs.
 b. Bee wax
The worker bees secrete wax from glands situated in the
abdomen.
Bee wax is used in building of the combs of bee.
Refined bee wax is used in the preparation of cosmetics,
plasters and making candles.

c. Propolis
Bee propolis is used by bees to seal open spaces and cracks.
It is made up of tree sap collected from conifers, pines, flowers,
and small buds, along with small amounts of bee saliva.
Both humans and bees enjoy the benefits of bee propolis.
Propolis is used in pharmaceuticals and other health products.
 d. Royal Jelly

• The royal jelly causes a larva that feeds on it to develop into

a queen rather than a worker, increasing its lifespan from 6
weeks to an average of 3-4 years.

• Humans harvest the royal jelly that can be found in the

queen’s chamber .

• It balances cholesterol.

• It prevents against premature ageing.

 e. Bee Venom

• Bee venom is a colorless, acidic liquid.

• Bees excrete it through their stingers into a target when they

feel threatened.

• It contains both anti-inflammatory and inflammatory

compounds, including enzymes, sugars, minerals, and amino
acids .

• It is used for treating patients of arthritis as well as other

medical conditions.
 f. Pollen

• Bee pollen is a mixture of flower pollen, nectar,

enzymes, honey, wax and bee secretions.

• It contains over 250 biologically active

substances, including proteins, carbohydrates,
lipids, fatty acids, vitamins, minerals, enzymes
and antioxidants.

• It helps in body building, boost the brain power,

enhances immunity.
g. Silk
• The true silk is the secretion of the caterpillars of
silkworm moth (Bombyx mori).

• Silk is a secretion in the form of fine threads, produced by

caterpillars in preparing cocoons for their pupae.

• Silk is the queen of fibers which is admired by people

throughout the world for its beauty, color and comfort.
 h. Dyes

• Lac are the resinous exudation from the body of female scale
insect.

• This is a raw material from lac scale insects (Laccifer lacca)

used in making shellac and the coloring of other scale insects
for making red and purple dyes.
 2. Role of Insects in Pollination

• The most important crop pollinators are bees, of both social

and solitary species, although visitors to flowers also include
small beetles, butterflies and a variety of flies.
• Honeybee fly from flower to flower, worker honeybees
collect pollen grains and pack them onto their hind legs in
special hair-fringed pockets known as pollen baskets.
• Honey bee pollination activities are worth 143 times than the
value of honey and wax .
• About one third of our total diet comes directly or indirectly
from insect pollinated crops.
• Bee pollination results yield increase over 50% in some
crops.
 3. Role of Insect in Weed Control

• Populations of weeds are often controlled or held in balance

by insects.
• Sometimes insects are introduced from another country to
control weed plants.
• Parthenium management –by Zygogramma bicolorata.
 4. Insects as Food
• Most edible insects are cheap, available and can
provide a good source of protein and minerals needed
to complement cereal based foods consumed in the
developing countries.
• The grasshopper is eaten by some people either roasted
or fried; their eggs, nymphs and adults provide food for
several predatory insects, spiders, fish, frogs, reptiles,
birds and mammals.
 5. Insects as Experimental Animals

• Drosophila melanogaster is a model organism for studies in

the genetics of higher eukaryotes.
• Drosophila melanogaster has been an essential part of
studies into principles like genetic linkage, interactions
between genes, chromosomal genetics, development,
behaviour, and evolution.
 6. Role of Insects in Medicine

• Honey bee venom is extracted for the production of anti-

venom therapy and is being investigated :
• For the treatment of cancer cells, including renal, lung, liver,
prostate, mammary gland as well as leukemia cells can be
targets of bee venom peptides such as melittin .
• Maggot therapy may help with wound healing.
• Introduction of live, disinfected maggots (fly larvae) into the
non-healing skin and soft tissue wound of a human or animal
for the purpose of cleaning out the necrotic (dead) tissue
within a wound and disinfection.
 7. Bio-control agents

Insect act as the predator, parasitoid of harmful insects.

Bio-control agents can be a suitable natural alternatives over
the pesticides .
E.g. Lady beetles eat the plant pests known as aphids.
Trichogramma chilonis is a parasitoid of maize stem borer.
 Harmful insect

1. Transmission of diseases

Insect which carries the disease organisms from one host to

another is called vector.

Cockroaches spoil food and are intermediate hosts of some

helminthes of humans.
Different types of biting flies cause irritation. They transmit
diseases e.g. malaria, dengue, yellow fever.
Fleas cause direct irritation, transmission of plague.
• In plant, insects acts as a vector to transmit different viral
disease,

Vector insects Diseases

Black bean aphids Papaya mosaic, cucumber
mosaic
Banana aphids Banana bunchy top
Thrips Tomato spotted wilt
Whitefly Tomato leaf curl, yellow
vein mosaic
 2 . Household pest
Pests in households flourished with the storage of dried
organic material in houses, such as grains, flour etc.
Some common insect pests in households include:
Silverfish: These insects are wingless, primitive types that
live in areas of moderate humidity and darkness. They are a
particular threat to paper products, and the glue used in book
and magazine production.
Termites: This group of insects is the least commonly seen of
all the household pests. They infest wood and must rely on
protozoa and bacteria in their guts to break down the
cellulose of the wood.
Continue………………

• Carpenter Ants: The Black Carpenter Ant , is a problem in

many households. They originate from large nests in dead or
dying trees, and then enter houses to start secondary nests,
usually in walls. Sometimes home owners are alerted to their
presence by the sight of small piles of sawdust.
3 ) Bullet ants : Largest of all the ant families. It is believed to
be victim will fell same pain as that of shot by bullet.
4) Driver ants: Largest colony upto 22 million . Even elephants
run away from group attack.
5) Insects hampers the growth of plant by chewing the leaves
or by sucking the sap of the plant.
For E.g. Chewing and biting the leaves : Larvae of moth,
Butterfly.
Sucking the sap: Aphids, whitefly.
Circulatory, Respiratory &
Nervous system
• Insects bear open circulatory system as the blood bathes the
internal organ directly in the body cavity .
• The body cavity of the insects is called the haemocoel and the
blood, haemolymph.
• The organ of circulation include the dorsal vessel and some
accessory pulsatile organs.
 Dorsal vessel
• Principal organ for blood circulation.
• It lies along the dorsal midline of the
insect, extending from the posterior
region of the abdomen to the head.
• The wall of dorsal vessel is contractile
and is composed of mainly circular
muscles but it may also have semi
circular, oblique, helical or
longitudinal fibers.
• It is typically differentiated into two
parts :
1) Aorta – Presence in anterior part
2) Heart –Posterior part
1) Aorta
Aorta extends anteriorly from the heart and
open behind or beneath the brain.
This is a simple tube without ostia.

2) Heart
Heart is restricted to abdomen but in cockroach
it is extend to prothorax and closed posteriorly.
It consists of number of paired and usually
lateral opening or ostia.
The number of chambers varies among different
groups of insects from 13 in cockroaches to
single in Mallophaga, Anoplura and Hemiptera.
3) The ostia
There are of two types as
Incurrent ostia : Incurrent ostia is presence in almost all of the
insects. Their number is equal to the number of heart chamber of
that insects.
They permit the entry of blood from the haemocoel into the
heart but at the same time prevent its outward flow.
Excurrent ostia : Excurrent ostia are found in Thysanura and
orthopteriod insects. They are devoid of valve. Number doesnot
relate with that of chambers of heart.
4) The lateral vessels
In heart of cockroach contain six pairs of lateral vessels, two
thoracic and four abdominal.
 Accessory pulsatile organs
Besides the dorsal blood vessel other different organs also play
role in circulation. These are muscular membranous structures,
varying in the shape and are situated at the base of appendages,
such as antennae, legs and wings.
They pumps the blood from sinuses into the respective
appendages.
Most of insects ----- Pulsatile organ……….Presence in mesothorax
and metathorax------------Pump blood into wings
Grasshopper and cockroach----------small ampulla presence in the
base of antennae ------function pump blood into antennae
 Sinuses, Diaphragms and Alary Muscles

To facilitate circulation of haemolymph, the body cavity is divided

into three compartments called blood sinuses.
Dorsal diaphragms : The dorsal diaphragm is formed by alary
muscles of the heart and related structures.
It separate the pericardial sinus from the perivisceral sinus.
Ventral diaphragms : The ventral diaphragm usually covers the
nerve cord, it separates the perivisceral sinus from perineural
sinus.
Alary muscles : Alary muscles are closely associated with heart.
There number varies with the insects species. Due to contraction
of these paired muscles, the chamber of hearts contracts and
cause forward flow of blood into dorsal aorta.
 Mechanism of circulation
The incurrent ostia open during diastole allowing haemolymph
inside the heart while remain closed during systole in order to
prevent outward as well as backward flow of the haemolymph.
While the movement of diaphragms , action of accessory
pulsatile structures, movement in alary muscles and tergo-sternal
muscles blood circulates throughout the haemocoel and
appendages.
Blood passes into perineural sinus supplying the nervous system
with the help of the ventral diaphragm.
Haemolymph returns to the pericardial sinus via perivisceral sinus
through the openings in the dorsal diaphragm and then it enters
the heart.
 Function of haemolymph
1) Lubricant : Haemolymph keeps the internal cells moist and the
movement of internal organs is also made easy.
2) Hydraulic medium : Hydrostatis pressure developed due to blood
pumping is useful in ecdysis (moulting),wing expansion in adults.
3) Transport and storage : Digested nutrients, hormones and gases
(chironomid larva) were transported with the help of haemolymph.
4) Protection : Diverse physiological mechanism against pathogen as
detoxify the toxic materials, higher particle rupture (encapsulation).
5) Heat transfer : Haemolymph through its movement in the circulatory
system regulate the body heat.
6) Maintenance of osmotic pressure : Ions, amino acids and organic
acids present in the haemolymph helps in maintaining osmotic
pressure required for normal physiological functions
 Respiratory system
• The respiratory system is responsible for delivering sufficient
oxygen to all cells of the body and for removing carbon
dioxide (CO2) that is produced as a waste product of cellular
respiration.
• In insect it is a complex network of tubes (called a tracheal
system) that delivers oxygen-containing air to every cell of the
body.
• The tracheae opens outside through segmental pores called
spiracles having some system of closing and opening.
• The tracheal system is of 2 types
1. with functional spiracles is called the open tracheal system.
2. with non-functional spiracles is called closed tracheal system.
Fig : Respiratory system in cockroach
Structure of the tracheal system
Tracheae
• Tracheae ectodermal origin
• Tubes that communicate with the outside by spiracles.
• Tracheae are similar to the integument, being composed of a
layer of epithelial cells that secrete a cuticular layer, the
intima.
Tracheoles
 The distal end of branches of tracheae which penetrate the
tissues are called, the tracheoles.
 They are simple or branched, fine capillaries or tubules and
are formed within the cells known as tracheoblasts.
 The tracheoles are very intimately associated with the tissues
or organs that have a high metabolic rate and high oxygen
demand.
Air sacs
 Air sacs are mainly present in flying insects.
 The air sacs are quite collapsible.
 As, demand of oxygen increases, the air sacs collapse and
pump air in and out of the tracheal system to meet out the
demand.
 In terrestrial insects air sacs helps in flight.
 Air sacs also provide space for growth of internal organs, help
in heat conservation and improves the haemolymph
circulation in flight muscles.
Spiracles
Spiracles are external opening of tracheae. Usually one pair of
spiracles is present in a body segment.
 Number and distribution of spiracles

On the basis of the number and distribution of spiracles the

respiratory system is classified as:
a) Polypneustic
At least 8 pairs of functional spiracles.
• Holopneustic - 10 pairs of spiracles , ( 1 mesothoracic, 1
metathoracic, 8 abdominal ) e.g., cockroaches
• Hemipneustic – one or more pairs of spiracles are non
functional.
• Peripneustic - 9 pairs of spiracles, metathoracic spiracles are
closed e.g., larvae of lepidoptera.
b) Oligopneustic: 1 or 2 pairs of functional spiracles.
• Amphipneustic - 2 pairs of spiracles. Only mesothoracic and
last pair of abdominal spiracles are open. e.g., maggot
• Metapneustic - 1 pair of functional spiracles. Only last pair of
abdominal spiracles are open. e.g., mosquito larvae
• Propneustic - 1 pair of spiracles. Mesothoracic spiracles are
open e.g., dipteran pupae
c) Apneustic : No functional spiracles , e.g., chironomid larvae.
d) Hypopneustic : 1 or 2 pairs of spiracles may completely
disappear or absent e.g.: Siphunculata, Mallophaga
e) Hyperpneustic: More than 10 pairs of spiracles are present
e.g.: Japyxsps. (dipluran)
 Mechanism of respiration
Gaseous exchange in the insects are observed in following ways
Diffusion or passive ventilation
Among the most of the terrestrial insects, oxygen enters the tracheal system
either through all (holopneustic) or some of the spiracles, mostly by diffusion
mechanism, called, the air tube diffusion.
Diffusion mechanism is simple in small insects like fleas, while in others, the
spiracles are provided with the opening and closing apparatus that controls
the rate of diffusion.
Active ventilation
In large and active insect, air sacs and large tracheae are present ventilated by
rhythmical pumping movements of the body which is called as active
ventilation.
Elimination of carbondioxide
In tissue carbondioxide diffuses 35 times than oxygen. So, carbondioxide is
eliminated easily from the insect body . Most of carbondioxide is eliminated
from tracheae but some are also eliminated from the body surface.
 Respiration in aquatic & parasitic insects
Aquatic and parasitic both types of insect need oxygen for
respiration where volume of oxygen is low or not similar to
atmosphere. Those insect whose habitat is aquatic or parasitic are
equipped with a variety of adaptations that allow them to carry a
supply of oxygen.
1) Use of dissolved oxygen in water (cutaneous respiration)
In mayfly, dragonfly nymph possess tracheal gills . Aquatic insects
with closed tracheal systems depend entirely upon the diffusion of
dissolved oxygen through the integument.
2) Use of aerial oxygen
Aquatic insects having open tracheal systems obtain oxygen at the
surface of water and for this they come in the surface periodically.
a) Respiratory siphon
In mosquitoes larvae possess posterior
spiracles on siphon that penetrates the
water surface and get atmospheric
oxygen.

b) Hydrofuge structures
Hydrofuge structures are made up of
hairs and are resistant to wetting by
water. E.g., Notonecta.
c) Air stores
In the aquatic bugs and adult beetles carry air
stores in the form of bubbles or films into
which spiracles open.
d) Plastron
e.g.: aquatic beetles
• special type of air store in the form of a
thin film
• held by a system of hydrofuge hairs, scales
• volume remains constant
• If there is adequate oxygen, the it act as a
physical gill
• The trachea opens in to plastron.
e) Gills
Physical gills : The hair absorb and store the air for inspiration
forming the physical gills. They are capable of absorbing oxygen
from the aqueous media and are found on the hind legs of the
aquatic bugs. E.g., aquatic beetle.
Spiracular gills: E.g.: aquatic pupae
• Peritremeor atrium is drawn out in to a long filament
• adapted for both aquatic and aerial respiration
• enables the insect to live in air, moist places, completely in
water
Rectal gills: E.g.: dragonfly nymphs (naiads)
•rectum modifies in to a barrel like chamber
•rectal wall forms basal thick pads and distal gill filaments
•which are richly supplied with tracheoles
Blood gills: E.g. chironomid larvae
• Called blood gills as they contain blood but some times have
trachea
• absorption of water and inorganic ions rather than respiration
f) Use of plant surface
Insects obtain oxygen from submerged vegetation in a variety of
ways. Many are able to hold bubbles on the surface of plants by
means of hydrofuge structures.

Respiration in endoparasitic insects : Parasitic wasps

 Respiration in cutaneous (tracheal system absent )
 Caudal vesicle is presence in insects ,wall of caudal vesicle is
thin and associated with heart so that oxygen passing in is
quickly carried round the body.
Nervous system
• The nervous system of insects serves as to perceive and
transmit stimuli or impulses from one part of body to another.
• The cellular unit of the nervous system are the neurons.
• Nervous system play vital role in co-ordination, learning,
memory , intelligence and behavior.
• Insects have a relatively simple central nervous system with a
dorsal brain linked to a ventral nerve cord that consists of
paired segmental ganglia running along the ventral midline of
the thorax and abdomen.
The neurons
 Neuron is an ectodermal origin.
 Bear the cell body and projections (dendrites, axon).
 The soma is provided with the fine processes called dendrites.
 The terminal end of the axon bears a group of fine fibrils called
terminal arborization.
According to the number of
axons , the neurons are
classified into three groups

1) Unipolar neuron /
Monopolar neuron
( single process)

2) Bipolar neuron
( two process proximal
axon, distal dendrite)

3)Multipolar neuron
( proximal axon and many
distal dendrite)
 On the basis of function neuron are three types
1) The sensory neurons (afferent neurons, situated outside
the ganglia, bipolar , dendrite terminating in sense organs or
receptor and axon running towards the CNS).
2) The motor neurons ( efferent neurons, situated in the
ganglia, monopolar, devoid of dendrite, conduct impulses
from CNS to the effector organs )
3) The association neurons ( interneurons association
between afferent and efferent neurons, situated within the
ganglia, conduct signals within CNS )
Synapsis : The site at which the axon of one neuron
contacts the dendrite of another is called a (synapsis) it is
the point which neurons receive information from or convey
it to other cells.
 Mechanism of impulse conduction
Impulses are conducted by the neurones by two means.
A. Axonic conduction : Ionic composition varies between inside
and outside of axon resulting in excitable conditions, which leads
to impulse conduction as electrical response.
B. Synaptic conduction: Neuro - chemical transmitters are
involved in the impulse conduction through the synaptic gap.
Neuro transmitters and the type of reactions helping in the
impulse conduction is as follows.
Acetyl CO-A + Choline (choline acetylase ) Acetyl choline
Acetyl choline + Water (Acetyl choline esterase) Choline +
Acetic acid
 Central Nervous System (CNS)

• Basic unit of CNS are essentially a brain and a double chain of

ventral nerve cord having segmental ganglia joined by lateral
and longitudinal connectives.
• Connectives : Longitudinal nerves fibres, ganglia of adjacent
body segment joined by connectives, connectives are the rail
of the ladder.
• Commissures : Transverse fibres, ganglia within each segment
joined by commissures, commissures are the rungs of the
ladder.
 Brain

An insect’s brain is a complex of six fused ganglia (three

pairs) located dorsally within the head capsule. Each part of
the brain controls (innervates) a limited spectrum of
activities in the insect’s body.
1) Protocerebrum: The protocerebrum is the largest and
most complex parts of the brain.
The first pair of ganglia are largely associated with vision;
they innervate the compound eyes and ocelli.

.
Continue…
2) Deutocerebrum: The second pair of ganglia process sensory
information collected by the antennae or olfactory lobes.
The antennal lobes receive both sensory and motor axons from
antennae.
The antennal lobes are important for selection, mate finding,
food finding , oviposition sites etc.

3) Tritocerebrum: The tritocerebrum is a smallest part of the

brain and consists of pairs lobe beneath the deutocerebrum.
 Ventral nerve cord
The ventral nerve cord consists of the subesophageal ganglion in
the head, connected to the brain by circumesophageal
connectives, and a chain of ganglia in the thoracic and abdominal
segments interconnected by paired nerves.
a) Suboesophageal ganglion : Formed by the last three
cephalic neuromeres. Innervates mandible, maxillae and
labium.
b) Thoracic ganglion : Three pairs found in the respective
thoracic segments, largest ganglia, innervate legs and
muscles.
c) Abdominal ganglion : 8 pairs, number varies due to fusion of
ganglia, innervate spiracles.
 Visceral (Sympathetic) Nervous System
It helps to control some of involuntary motions of the anterior
portion of the gut and dorsal blood vessel.

1) Stomatogastric nervous system : Nerves associated with the

brain, salivary glands, and the foregut are the stomatogastric
nervous system.
• These include the frontal ganglion and the hypocerebral
ganglion.
• The hypocerebral ganglion is associated with two endocrine
glands corpora cardiaca and corpora allata.
• Function : Regulate the swallowing movements
Continue…

2) Ventral visceral nervous system : The nerves associated with

the ventral nerve cord & its ganglia. These nerves innervate
the muscles and regulate closing and opening of the
segmental spiracles.

3) Caudal visceral nervous system : The caudal visceral

subsystem is associated with the posterior segments of the
abdomen (the caudal region) including the reproductive system.
 Peripheral Nervous System

All the nerves emerging from the ganglia of the central and
visceral nervous system comprise peripheral nervous system.
The peripheral system continuously inform the insect about its
surroundings by receiving stimuli through sensory organs.
1. Receptor-cell or part of a cell that converts stimuli into nerve
impulses example=chemoreceptor, mechanoreceptor
2. Sensillum (sensilla, pl)-a simple sense organ composed of a
few neurons example=chemosensillum
3. Sense organs-grouping of several kinds of cells or tissues built
around a group of receptor cells of a specialized type.
Example=eye, antenna
Body regions, Cuticle and
External process
 Body regions
 Insect body is divided in to three regions or tagmata namely
head, thorax and abdomen.
 This grouping of body segments into regions is known as
tagmosis.

1) Head
Insect head is a hard, highly sclerotized compact capsule bearing
a group of feeding appendages that consists of mouthparts,
compound eyes, simple eyes (ocelli) and a pair of antennae.
2) Thorax
 Thorax is a well-differentiated middle part of the insect body.
 Thorax consists of 3 segments i.e. prothorax, mesothorax and
metathorax.
 Meso and metathorax are together known as pterothorax.
 All the three thoracic segments possess a pair of legs and
meso and meta thorax possess one pair of wings.

3) Abdomen
 Abdomen is the third or hind part of the insect body.
 Abdomen has 7-11 segments with genital appendages on 8th
and 9th segments.
 Body wall and its derivation

• The body wall (integument) of insects consists of a layer

composed of living cells the epidermis resting on a basement
membrane.

• The body wall of insect is composed of three principal layers

cuticle, epidermis and basement membrane.
 Cuticle
 The cuticle is an outer layer which contains chitin, proteins and
pigments.
 The cuticle is made up of three principal layers epicuticle,
exocuticle and endocuticle.
 The exocuticle and endocuticle together called procuticle.
1) Epicuticle
Epicuticle is the outer thin delicate layer without any chitin and
may have four sublayers.
 Inner epicuticle
 Outer epicuticle
 Epicuticular wax layer
 Cuticular cement layer
2.Exocuticle
 It is a thicker layer below epicuticle and is often darker and
harder than the rest.
 It contributes rigidity and toughness to the cuticle.
 The exocuticle mainly consists of chitin and protein.
 Chitin is a polymerized nitrogenous polysaccharide linked to
protein.

3. Endocuticle
 It is soft and flexible.
 It is inner undifferentiated part below the exocuticle and is
characterized by the presence of chitin.
3. Pore canal
 Tiny pores that run from the hypodermal cells to the inner
part of the inner epicuticular layer.

4. Epidermis
 It is a cellular layer of one cell thick beneath endocuticle.
 The epidermal cell forming a seta is called trichogenous cell.
 The other closely associated another cell forming the setal
membrane as the floor of the socket is called tormogen.
 5. Basement membrane
 The basement membrane is also called basal lamila.
 The primary component of basement membrane are fibrous
protein, collagen, glycoprotein and glycosaminoglycan.

Function of the integument

 Protection of internal organs and tissues.
 Prevent water loss from insect body
 Protect barrier for foregut and hindgut.
 Protective barrier against entry of pathogens, parasites and
predators including pesticides nowadays.
 Protect tracheae, tracheloes, salivary gland and portions of
reproductive tract.
 External processes of insect body walls

The external processes may be classified as:

• Noncellular
• Cellular Processes

1) Non cellular processes:

 Epidermal cells don't take a direct part in their production.
 They are mostly in the form of minute points or nodules,
spicules, small spines, hairs, corrugations or ridges.
2) Cellular processes:
The epidermal cells take direct part in their production.
Two types of cellular process:
a) Unicellular
b) Multicellular

a) Unicellular:
 A hair like unicellular external process of the body wall are
called setae.
 The small, flat ,squamous unicellular process called scale
which is greatly modified setae constitutes the covering of
adult lepidoptera.
b) Multicellular structures:
They constitute the hollow outgrowths of the entire body wall
and lined by a layer of epidermal cells.

Spines are solidly fixed to the cuticula and are immovable.

For eg, hind tibia of orthoptera.

Spurs are the movable multicellular processes. For eg: lateral

claws of the legs of insects.
 Molting
 Casting the cuticle is known as molting.
 It involves sequence of events beginning with the separation
of old cuticle known as apolysis and shedding of remnant of
old cuticle known as ecdysis.

Steps of molting
1) Changes in the epidermis
2) Separation of the cuticle from the epidermis
3) Digestion of the old endocuticle
4) Ecdysis
1) Changes in the epidermis : Epidermal cells divides mitotically
so become close packed and columnar in form.

2) Separation of the cuticle from the epidermis:

It involves sequence of events beginning with the separation of
old cuticle known as apolysis.

3) Digestion of the old endocuticle: Epidermal cells secrete

molting fluid that contain chitinase and protease digesting
about 80-90% of the endocuticle.

4) Ecdysis: The shedding of remnant of old cuticle known as

ecdysis.
 b) Head

Segmentation
Structure
Orientation
Mouth parts & their modifications
 Segmentation
Two types of segmentation
 Primary segmentation
 Secondary segmentation

Primary Segmentation
 In the larvae the segmental regions of the body are
separated by circular constrictions of the integument.

 Such animal can bend the body freely in any direction and
can shorten it by lengthwise contraction of the segments.

 The segments in this type of segmentation correspond with

the true somites or embryonic measures.
 Secondary segmentation

 The development of hardened plate in body wall.

 The sclerotized area include the parts of primary inter-
segmental folds on which the longitudinal muscles are
attached.
 The flexible non-sclerotized area of the integument become
the functional inter-segmental membrane.
 The area of flexibility between the sclerotic parts of the
segments divide the body in a new way which is clearly
secondary.
 Insect head & Segmentation of head
The insect head is strongly sclerotized capsule joined to the
thorax by a flexible , membranous neck.
It bears : Mouth parts , Antennae, Compound eye and ocelli
Insect head is made up fusion of six segments:
 Preantennary
 Antennary
 Intercalary
 Mandibular
 Maxillary
 Labial
Insect head formed by the fusion of six segments that can
be divided in to two regions i.e. procephalon and
gnathocephalon (mouth parts).
A general insect head posses the following sclerites.
1.Labrum : It is small sclerite that forms the upper lip of the
mouth cavity. It is freely attached or suspended from the
lower margin of the clypeus.
2.Clypeus: It is situated above the labrum and is divided in to
anterior ante-clypeus and posterior post-clypeus.
3. Frons : It is the facial part of the insect consisting of
median ocellus.
4. Vertex : It is the top portion of the head behind the frons
or the area between the two compound eyes.
5. Occiput : It is an inverted “U” shaped structure representing
the area between the epicranium and post occiput .
6. Post occiput : It is the extreme posterior part of the insect
head that remains before the neck region.
7. Gena : It is the area extending from below the compound
eyes to just above the mandibles.
8. Occular sclerites : These are cuticular ring like structures
present around each compound eye.
9. Antennal sclerites : These form the basis for the antennae
and present around the scape which are well developed in
Plecoptera (stone flies).
 Sutures of Head
The head capsule is formed by the union of number of sclerites
or cuticular plates or areas which are joined together by means
of cuticular lines or ridges known as Sutures.
The common sutures present in head are
1) Clypeo-labral suture : It is the suture present between clypeus
and labrum.
2) Clypeo-frontal suture or epistomal suture: The suture present
between clypeus and frons.
3) Epicranial suture: It is an inverted ‘Y’ shaped suture
distributed above the facial region extending up to the epicranial
part of the head.
4) Occipital suture: It is ‘U’ shaped or horseshoe shaped
suture between epicranium and occiput.
5) Post-occipital suture: It is the only real suture in insect head.
Posterior end of the head is marked by the post occipital suture
to which the sclerites are attached.
6) Genal suture: It is the sutures present on the lateral side of
the head i.e. gena.
7) Occular suture: It is circular suture present around each
compound eye.
8) Antennal suture: It is a marginal depressed ring around the
antennal .

Tentorium : An internal framework in the insect head that

provides rigidity and areas for muscle attachment is known as
tentorium.
 Orientation of Head
• Based on the inclination of long
axis of the head and orientation of
mouth parts there are three types
of insect heads.
1) Hypognathous
• The mouth parts pointed
downwards or placed vertically in
a continuous series with the legs.
E.g. Grasshoppers and cockroach.
2) Prognathous
• Mouth parts projected forward or
in an anterior position.
E.g. Mantids and weevils.
3) Opisthognathous
• Mouth parts extending backward
between the legs under the thorax
and abdomen.
E.g. True bugs.
Thank you
 Practical No : ………………..
Classification of insects
Introduction : ….Taxonomy definition
Objectives : To be familiar with the various insects found in
locality.
Observation :
Name of insects :
Local Name :
S.N :
Order:
Family :
Conclusion :
 Practical No : ………………..
Title : Study of internal anatomy of an insects.
Introduction……………
Objective……….
Theory………….
 Digestive
 Excretory
 Reproductive
 Respiratory
 Nervous system
Conclusion
 Industrial Entomology

• Industrial entomology : Commercial rearing and industrial

utilization of insects and their products.
• Apiculture : Rearing of honey bees on a commercial scales.
• Sericulture : Rearing of silkworms and production of
commercially valuable silk.
• Laculture : Rearing of lac insects and production of resineous
secretion.
• Beekeeping for honey production is a profitable agricultural
enterprise in many countries and an important foreign
exchange earner for those that export honey and bee wax.
• Insects at some stages of their life are involved in activities
that are both friendly as well as harmful e.g. the honeybees
which are beneficial to humans but tend to be harmful when
aggressive.

• As a result of the benefits man gets from friendly insects, he

conserves them so as to maximize profit.
HONEY BEE
1. Insect Products
 a. Honey
 Bees make honey from the nectar that they collect from
flowers, other plant saps and honeydew are used to a minor
extent transform by combining with specific substances of their
own, deposit, dehydrate, store and leave in honeycombs to ripen
and mature.
 Honey is used in many ways by man also as the chief source of
natural sweet in preparing candies, cakes, bread and so on.
 It forms a very important food for patients of diabetes or for
persons undergoing very strenuous physical exertion, (Jordan and
Verma, 2010).
 200g of honey is as nourishing as 1.135kg of milk or 1.658 kg of
cream cheese or 340 g of meat or 8 orange or 10 eggs.
 b. Bee wax
 The worker bees secrete wax from glands situated in the
abdomen.
 Bee wax is used in building of the combs of bee.
 Refined bee wax is used in the preparation of cosmetics,
plasters and making candles.
c. Propolis
 Bee propolis is used by bees to seal open spaces and cracks.
 It is made up of tree sap collected from conifers, pines,
flowers, and small buds, along with small amounts of bee
saliva.
 Both humans and bees enjoy the benefits of bee propolis.
 Propolis is used in pharmaceuticals and other health
products.
 d. Royal Jelly

• The royal jelly causes a larva that feeds on it to develop into a

queen rather than a worker, increasing its lifespan from 6
weeks to an average of 3-4 years.

• Humans harvest the royal jelly that can be found in the

queen’s chamber .

• It balances cholesterol.

• It prevents against premature ageing.

 e. Bee Venom

• Bee venom is a colorless, acidic

liquid.
• Bees excrete it through their
stingers into a target when they
feel threatened.
• It contains both anti-
inflammatory and inflammatory
compounds, including enzymes,
sugars, minerals, and amino
acids .
• It is used for treating patients of
arthritis as well as other medical
conditions.
 f. Pollen

• Bee pollen is a mixture of flower

pollen, nectar, enzymes, honey,
wax and bee secretions.

• It contains over 250 biologically

active substances, including
proteins, carbohydrates, lipids,
fatty acids, vitamins, minerals,
enzymes and antioxidants.

• It helps in body building, boost the

brain power, enhances immunity.
 Role of Insects in Pollination

• The most important crop pollinators are bees, of both social

and solitary species, although visitors to flowers also include
small beetles, butterflies and a variety of flies.
• Honeybee fly from flower to flower, worker honeybees collect
pollen grains and pack them onto their hind legs in special
hair-fringed pockets known as pollen baskets.
• Honey bee pollination activities are worth 143 times than the
value of honey and wax .
• About one third of our total diet comes directly or indirectly
from insect pollinated crops.
• Bee pollination results yield increase over 50% in some crops.
 Types of Honey Bees
Out of nine species of honey bees,
Apis laboriosa
Apis dorsata
Apis florea
Apis cerena are native.
Apis mellifera (exotic one)
(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dwtlNE_vHd8) Honey hunting in Nepal
1) Himalayan cliff bee (Apis laboriosa)
 Largest honey bee , found in rocky mountains.
 Found in hill area from 1200 to 3000 masl.
 Prefers nesting in open area
 Migrate one place to another, seasonal movement
 Excellent pollinators
 Darker in color than Apis dorsata
 Average honey production is 60 kg per colony per year.
2) Giant honeybee (Apis dorsata)
• Found in hills and plains
• Open nesting honeybee ( top of tree, tall buildings, or water
towers )
• Excellent pollinators of field crops, fruit, and natural flora.
• Migrates to the hills in summer and to plains area in winter.
• Good honey gatherers, single comb yielding about 25 kg of
honey.
3) Little honeybee (Apis florea)
 Smallest or dwarf honey bee of the Apis species.
 Found in hills and plains at altitudes up to 1200 masl.
 Open nesting honeybee; builds single small comb nests under
small tree branches or bushes.
 Produce small amount of honey yield 1 kg per colony per
year.
4) Asian hive bee ( Apis cerana )
 Indigenous bee in the himalayas.
 Can be kept at higher altitudes compare to Apis mellifera.
 Healthy colony has 25,000 to 35,000 bees.
 Can fly upto 2 km from the hive in a single foraging trip.
 Ability to produce upto 20 kg honey per hive per year.
 Quite aggressive in nature than Apis mellifera.
 Result frequent swarming, absconding and robbing
tendencies.
5) European honey bee ( Apis mellifera)
 Exotic bee species
 Probably originated from Tropical Africa.
 Successful in plain areas.
 Healthy colony has 60,000 to 70,000 bees.
 Can fly upto 5 km from the hive in single foraging trip.
 Can produce upto 100 kg honey per hive per year.
 Less violent in nature, swarming and absconding low.
 Susceptible to brood diseases and mites than Apis
cerana.
 Life cycle of honeybee
Honeybee belongs to the holometabolus group and has four
developmental stages.
Eggs
 Queen lays eggs into a cell after 2-3 days of mating.
 Banana shaped creamy eggs
 Fertilize eggs are laid in bottom of newly cleaned cells.
 Unfertilize eggs in drone cells.
 Eggs stage last for 3 days.
Larvae
 Small larvae hatch out after 3 days of egg stage.
 They have no legs and eyes.
 Queen larvae and drone larvae grow larger.
 Larvae are feed with the royal jelly throughout the life for
queen, drone & worker bee for 3 days.
 Larval stages last for 5 to 7 days.
Pupae
 Worker bees seal the cells with a porous bees wax cap and the
larvae spins a cocoon around itself.
 Pupae is a dormant stage in bee.
 Pupae stages last for 8-14 days varies in different caste of bee.
Adult
 Matured bee cut out the cell cap and crawl out.
 Initially adult queen bee are light color, latter darker color.
 Total time taken to develop varies with the caste of bee.

Life cycle of adult honey bee ( For various honey bee castes)
Castes Egg stages Larval Pupal Total time Lifespan
stages stages of adult
emergence
Queen 3 days 5 days 7-8 days 15-16 days 2-5 years
Workers 3 days 6 days 11-12 days 20-21 days 6 weeks to 6
months
Drone 3 days 7 days 14 days 24 days About 2
months
 Honey bee castes
1) Queen
 Each hive bear single queen.
 Major task of queen is egg laying and pheromone secretion
for the colony organization.
 Queen are the fertilized female in the bee colony.
 A good queen can lay 1500-2000 eggs per day.
 Apis cerana : 800 eggs
 Apis mellifera : 2000 eggs per day
 Queens lays fertilized and unfertilized eggs. Fertilized eggs
may be developed into queen or workers whereas, from
unfertilized eggs drone will be emerge out.
 The virgin queen copulates only once at the beginning of her
reproductive life. The virgin queen mates with the 5-7 drones
in air in her nuptial flight. The drone died after mating. They
stored the sperm in their spermathecae.
2) Worker
 Workers are imperfect females.
 Workers are smaller than the drones and have yellowish and
dark brown abdominal stripes.
 The workers bear wax gland in abdomen, pollen basket in their
legs, well developed oral cavity, sting apparatus for their
protection.
 Each worker bee undertakes a number of duties related to
their age.
Age ( in days) Duty
0-3 Cell cleaning
3-6 Nurse bee ( feeding larvae)
6-14 Feed royal jelly to queen bee
14-18 Wax production, honey sealing, drone feeding.
18-20 Guarding of hives, water carriers
20-40 Foraging bees
3) Drone
 Males produced from unfertilized eggs.
 A drone bee is larger than worker bee , blackish and hairy.
 Each drone is fed by 3 to 4 worker bees.
 Their duty is to mate with virgin queen.
 The colony rear drone at swarming season and later driven
out from colony.
Bee hive
A modern hive is based on Langstroth hive named after Reverend
LL langstroth . Components of bee hive are as follows :
1) Base ( Hive stand )
It protects the hive from moisture and unnecessary wear and
tear.
2) Floor stand (Bottom board)
Provides ventilation and aids in mite fall.
3) Deep super (Brood chamber)
A rearing chamber , some honey and pollen are stored.
4) Queen excluder
It’s exclude to move the queen from brood chamber to super
chamber. Small opening in queen excluder only permit entry of
worker bees.
5) Shallow super
• Only worker move their for to store honey.
6) Inner cover
• Provides insulation for heat and cold.
7) Top cover
• Protection from rain and sun.
 Colony management
Apiary : Place where the bee colonies are kept.
Different activities should be done for healthy bee keeping.
1) Selection of good apiary site
 Apiary site should be rich in bee flora.
 Accessible to road.
 Should have natural wind breaks .
 Should receive morning and evening sunshine.
2) Selection of healthy queen (have strong ability of reproduction
and management of colony )
3) Regular examination of bee colony.
 Inspection of colony should be carried out during clear and warm
weather.
4) Seasonal colony management
Seasonal colony management is the proper management of colony
during all season. It includes different need of colony over the season.
During off season
 Ensures water & food in the hives
 Keep the bee colony strong by feeding sugars.
 Unite weak and queenless colonies.
 Keep the bee colonies under the roof or the shade (summer).
 Avoid colony division and queen rearing.
 Fed artificial diet sugar syrup (sugar water solution) or the candy.
 Keep in check the attack of predators as wasp, wax moth ants etc.
At honey flow season
 Visit the colony regularly.
 Check the status of brood and adult bees.
 Wait untill 70% of honey cells in the super are capped and then harvest
honey.
 Control and manage swarming.
 5. Disease and insect pest
Honey bee can be infected by number of disease pest.
Pests of honey bee
1)Predatory wasp - Kill the bee at entrance Prevention : Burn the
nest , use fly swat to kill the wasp.
2)Greater wax moth (Galleria mellonella L.) - Larvae tunnel into
the combs leaving debris. Prevention : Close cracks, keep the
board clean.
3) Ants - feeds on honey and brood - Prevention : Placed bowl of
water in stand, remove weeds.
Ectoparasitic mites
1) Acarine mites (Acarapis woodi)
2) Varrora mites (Varroa destructor)
3) Tropilaelaps mites ( Tropilaelaps clareae)
 Disease of honey bee
1) European foulbrood : causal agent - Streptococcus platon –
only affect young honeybee Control – Antibitoic such as
terramycin.
2) American foulbrood : causal agent – Bacillus larvae – affect
the older larvae Control : Feed terramycin @ 0.2g in 500 ml
conc. sugar syrup.
3) Thai sac brood : Viruses – affect the late larval stage – Straw
colored dead larvae seen – No effective management.
4) Nosema disease : causal agent – Nosema apis ( Protozoan ) –
Infected bee sluggish, crawlers on leaf blade – Control- feed
fumigillin 200 mg in sugar syrup to each colony.
Practical No : ……………….
• Modern beehive and its parts
Practical No : ……………..
• Life cycle of honey bee
 Instruments used to working with bees
1. Clothing
For the protection of the body against honey bee stings.
i. Bee suit
Usually made from a cotton/polyester blend, the bee suit
covers the entire body and should be worn loose.
ii. Helmet and veil
The veil is worn over the helmet and is made of screen
material that allows maximum sight and ventilation for the
beekeeper during use.
iii. Gloves
Gloves protect the hands from bee stings and to keep bees
from crawling up inside the sleeves.
iv. Shoes and leg straps
Covered shoes are recommended when working with bees.
Leg straps are recommended for bees that are more
aggressive. The leg straps are used to close the bottom of
the pant leg so that the bees do not crawl up into the suit.
2. Equipment
i. Smoker
The smoker produces smoke that is blown into the
hive prior to opening the hive and occasionally while
the beekeeper is working inside the hive.
ii. Hive tool
The hive tool is a multifunctional metal pry bar
designed for beekeeping. It is used to pry open the
hive and loosen frames, to scrape off built up
propolis, and to pull nails.
iii. Bee brush
The bee brush is used to remove bees from the
frames and parts of the hive during inspection.
iv. Wooden swat
A fly swat is used to kill bee predators such as wasps
and hornets.
 Qualities of a good bee flora
Following are the qualities of good bee flora as mentioned
below:
 Long flowering period.
 High density of flowers per unit of the plants.
 Good quality of nectar with high concentration of sugars.
 Easy accessibility of the nectar to the honey bee and ease
in collection of nectar.
 Availability of flora in the close vicinity of the apiary.
 Bees as a best pollinators for most of plants

• Floral constancy
• Suitable body size and body hair
• Body part especially modified for pollen collection
• Specialized behavior and communication
• Wide adaption to different climate and niches
• Pollen foragers spending less time and visiting more flowers at
a time.
 Effectiveness of honeybee pollination in
particular crops
• The number of bee colonies in the crop area
• The distance of bee colonies from the targeted crop.
• Timing and method of placing honeybee colonies.
• Forage preferences of honeybees.
• Queen quality for egg laying in a colony.
• Weather (favorable & unfavorable )
• Pesticides poisoning
 Lac culture
• Lac culture is the scientific
management of lac insects to obtain
a high amount of quality lac.
• Lac a natural resin , secretion of lac
insect Laccifer lacca Kerr. belonging
to family lacciferdae and order
Hemiptera.
• Lac insects feed on succulent twigs
of certain plants like ficus spp.,
kusum etc.
• Female lac insect secretes lac.
• Its integumentary glands secrete a
hard resinous encrustation over the
body which is the true lac from
which commercial shell lac is
manufactured.
 Composition of lac

• Resin is the main constituent of lac.

• The approx. percentage of different constituents of lac is
given below :
Resin---------------------------68% to 90%
Dye--------------------------------2 to 10%
Wax------------------------------5 to 6%
Mineral matter -----------------3 to 7%
Albuminous matter------------5 to 10%
Water ------------------------------2 to 3%
 Uses of lac
1. Lac is one of the most versatile natural resinous material.
2. It is useful in the plastics, electrical , adhesive, leather, wood
finishing and other industries .
3. In the electrical industry it is used in the form of insulating
varnishes and moulded insulators.
4. It possesses very good adhesion to mica.
5. It is an ingredient of varnishes, polishes, finishes wood used
for protective and decorative purposes.
6. By-products of lac are used to prepare nail polish, dying
purpose.
7. Shell lac are used for coating the medicine.
Host of major importance

1.Palas – Butea monosperma

2.Ber – Zizyphus mauritiana
3.Kusum –Shorea oleosa
4.Kher - Acacia catechu
Other host tree includes
Cajanus cajan(Arhar),
Ficus sp.,.
 Systematic position

Phylum - Arthropoda
Class - Insecta
Order – Hemiptera
Super family – Coccoidae
Family – Lacciferidae
Genus – Laccifer
Species - lacca
 Morphology
• Lac insect is a paurometabola.
• It has three life stage namely egg, young one and adult.
• The young ones are called as nymph.
• The nymphs are similar to adult in all aspects except their size
and reproductive organs.
• The adult male and female are different from each other.
• Female is about three time larger than the male.
 Male lac insect Female lac insect
These are pinkish red in color The female is pinkish in color.
and may be winged or wing Three times larger than
less. Winged male possesses male. They lack wings.
only one pair of translucent
membranous forewing.
It measures 1.2 -1.5 mm in It measures 4-5 mm in
length. length.
The head bears a pair of The head lacks antennae.
antennae and a pair of eyes.
The last abdominal segment The abdomen is round and
bear pointed penis. on the dorsal surface, a spine
is provided.
 Life cycle
Egg
 The female lac insect is ovoviviparous in nature. So the laid
eggs contain fully developed embryos within it.
 Mature female copulates just after emergence and lays 300-
1000 eggs within cells and dies after oviposition.
 The eggs hatches with in few hours of laying and the tiny
crimson-red first instar nymphs come out of the lac
encrustation.
Nymph
 The nymphs possess a pair of antennae, three pairs of legs,
two compound eyes and six anal setae.
 The first instar nymphs are called as crawler.
 The emergence of nymph is called as swarming which may be
continuing for five or more weeks.
 Usually the nymphs choose twigs that are neither too tender
nor too hard and settle close together at the rate of some
200-300 insects per inch depending upon the number of
broods.
 After a days or so on settling, the nymph starts secreting
resin from the gland distributed under the cuticle all over
the body except near the mouthparts, the two breathing
pores and the anus.
 The resin when secreted is in a semi solid condition, it
hardens on exposure to air into a protective covering which
we called the lac.
The nymphs moult thrice inside the cells before reaching
maturity, the duration of each instar being dependent on several
factors such as temperature, humidity and host plant.
1st moult : Both male and female nymphs lose their legs,
antennae and eyes become degenerate but anal setae becomes
10 instead of 6. Male and female are distinguishable.
2nd moult : After second moult the female nymphs become
swollen with no trace of segmentation.
3rd moult : After third moult the male emerged as winged and
wingless adults.
Adults
Male emerge earlier than that of female lac insects. The male lac
insect just after emerge takes part in role in copulation. As the
mouthparts of male lac insect are vestigial the male died after
the copulation. A male has life of 62-92 hours.
 Lac cultivation
• The cultivation of lac starts from brood lac which is a
twig of host tree bearing active mother cells.
• The twigs are cut , bundled and tied at convenient
places on the fresh shoot plant so that emerging
nymphs swarm and settle on nearby succulent shoots.
Two methods is in practices.
• Local Method
• Improved Method
1) Local method : Lac collected from the host plant growing in
forest area. It’s totally a traditional method.
2) Improved method: Coupe system, host trees are divided
into group and inoculated according to the schedule.
a) Selection of suitable site : Environment should be favorable
for host trees.
b) Pruning of host plants : To develop the sufficient tender
branches to enable the lac insect establishment pruning of
trees should be done.
c) Inoculation of brood lac : The brood lac sticks (15-30 cm )
are attached with the succulent shoots of the tree (25-30cm
above ground).
d. Harvest & extraction of lac : Crops are harvested at maturity, which
can be judged by appearance of crack in the lac before 15-20 days.
1. Twigs with thick crusts around it are cut and removed from sites.
2. The encrustations are scraped out from the twigs. This is granular lac.
3. The granular lac is thoroughly washed with water. A red ‘dye is
obtained in the process. Drying and bleaching of washed lac are done by
exposure to sunlight.
4. The granules are melted in pot over open charcoal fire.
5. The lac melts and comes out of the crust. Sheets are prepared from
the molten lac. The sheets are dried and broken into pieces and
marketed as flakes.
Seed lac : Seed lac is a natural resin that is obtained from the secretions
of the tiny lac insect Laccifer Lacca.
Shellac : The seed lac washes, melted spread out in a thin layer and
dried forming shellac.
 Pests of lac insect
The insects are serious and damaging pests to the lac crop also,
like the other agricultural crops.
These insect pests destroy 30-40% of lac.
The insects damage the lac crop is two ways:
i) As Parasites: Lac insects are parasitized by small winged eight
species of chalcids. These insect pests lay eggs in lac cells. Their
grubs on hatching feed on lac insects within the cells. Loss due
these parasites is 5-10%
ii) As Predators: The predators account major damage (up to
35%) of lac crop.
There are three main insect predators on lac:
a. Eublemma amabilis Moori: commonly known as white lac
moth, order Lepidoptera.
b. Holocerca pulverea Meyr : commonly known as black lac
moth.
c. Chrysopa spp.: Commonly known as lac wing fly.

These predators moths and fly lay their eggs on the lac
encrusted twigs. On hatching, their larvae make their way inside
the lac encrustation and feed on the lac insects as well as on lac
encrustations. The white lac moth is more destructive on trees;
while black lac moth, on the stored lac.
 Practical
• Study of a microscope
• Collection and preservation of insects
• External morphology of an insect
• Insect mouth parts and their modifications
• Insect antennae and their modifications
• Insect legs and their modifications
• Insect wings and their modifications
• Internal anatomy of an insect (digestive, reproductive (male and female), nervous,
circulatory and respiratory systems)
• Insect metamorphosis
• Types of larvae and pupae
• Modern beehive and its parts
• Life-cycle of honeybee
• Introduction and principles of insect rearing
• Methodology, care and handling of beneficial insect rearing
• Classification of insects: important families of the orders: Thysanura, Odonata,
Blattodea, Orthoptera, Thysanoptera, Isoptera, Phthiaptera, Siphonaptera,
Hemiptera, Homoptera, Coleoptera, Diptera, Lepidoptera, Hymenoptera and other
orders of economic importance
Digestive System
&
Excretory System
 Digestive System
The insect's digestive system is a closed system, with one long
enclosed coiled tube called the alimentary canal which runs
lengthwise through the body.
Most of this food is ingested in the form of macromolecules and
other complex substances which must be broken down by
catabolic reactions into smaller molecules before being used by
cells of the body for energy, growth, or reproduction. This break-
down process is known as digestion.
The alimentary canal only allows food to enter the mouth, and
then gets processed as it travels toward the anus.
 The Alimentary Canal

The alimentary canal are short in the primitive insects such as

Apterygota, Ephemeroptera, Odonata, Dermaptera, Phasmida
and the larvae of butterflies, moths, bees, wasps and
mosquitoes while elongated in Homoptera insect.
The alimentary canal are longer in phytophagous insects than in
carnivorous insect.
It is differentiated into three regions viz.,
1) Foregut- ectodermal structures, stomodaeum
2) Midgut - ectodermal structures, proctodaeum
3) Hindgut- endodermal origin
 Foregut
It begins at the mouth, includes the pharynx, the esophagus, and
the crop (a dilated portion, or a diverticulum).
The crop is a storage organ in many insects and also serves as a
site for digestion in others.
The foregut is generally differentiated into:
 Pharynx - Pushes food to esophagus, acts as sucking pump.
 Esophagus - Conduct food to the crop.
 Crop - Acts as a food reservoir in insects.
 Proventriculus or gizzard - Absent in fluid feeder, grinding food
in cockroach, crickets.
Although foregut is not major digestive region, some digestion
occur in crop and the enzyme regurgitated from the midgut in
cockroach.
 Midgut
• The gizzard opens into the midgut through the cardiac,
proventicular or stomodeal valve.
• It occurs as a short straight tube in primitive insects and
caterpillars while greatly coiled and enormously long in higher
insects or modified into a pyriform or fusiform sac in
mosquitoes.
• The wall of the midgut composed of five layers
1) The innermost columnar epithelial layer
2) The basement membrane
3) The circular muscle layer
4) The longitudinal muscle layer
5) The outermost peritoneal membrane
• The epithelial cells are of four types:
1) The columnar cells of same or different size with a brush
border.
2) The regenerative cells, either scattered or grouped into the
cluster.
3) The globet cells serving excretory function.
4) The endocrine cells secreting peptide hormones.
Filter chamber: In homoptera , filter chamber is present.
The rapid removal of water to the rectum is achieved by the
anterior midgut forming a large thin-walled bladder which is
closely bound to anterior hindgut and malphighian tubules by its
own basement membrane. The chamber formed within this fold
is filter chamber.
 Diversity of alimentary canal

• In hemipteran insects, there is presence of filter chamber.

• Termites and other cellulose digestors have hindgut highly
specialized for housing gut microbiota.
• In male mosquitoes, nectar taken is stored in a large sac-like
crop that is diverticulum from the foregut .
• Larvae of Lepidoptera have a very short foregut, a large, long,
relatively straight midgut, and a short hindgut.
• In honeybees and other related hymenopterans, the midgut is
closed off from the hindgut. In honey bee, honey sac is
presence next to esophagus in which surplus nectar is
collected , stored and transported to the hive for the
conversion into the honey.
 Hindgut
• The hindgut is composed of cuboidal epithelial cells and lined
by a layer of cuticle which is thinner and more permeable than
that of the foregut.
• The hindgut is divisible into an indifferentiated tubular
anterior intestine, just posterior to the malpighian tubules and
highly muscularised enlarged rectum which terminates with
the anus.
• The anterior intestine may be divided into an anterior ileum
and posterior colon.
• Functions of the hindgut include the following :
1) Water absorption from urine and faeces
2) Ion absorption from urine and faeces
3) Pheromone production
4) Modification in structure of housing in termites
 Gut Physiology
• Primary functions of the gut is to digest the ingested food and
to absorb metabolites.
• The digestion process is enhanced with the help of enzymes
and microbes which are produced by digestive glands and
special cells.
A. Digestive glands
a) Salivary glands
A pair of lobulated glands lying in the thoracic region and
associated with the labium are commonly called the salivary
glands.
The salivary glands contain large number of lobules or acinae
and therefore retain grape-bunch like acinous form in
orthoptera, dictyoptera, hymenoptera etc.
 Salivary Glands

In a large number of insects , they secrete saliva consisting of

enzymes mostly amlyase, invertase and sometimes even
protease lipase but never cellulase.
In the larvae of lepidoptera and Hymenoptera, the salivary
glands secrete a silk protein.
In blood sucking insects an anticoagulant which maintains the
liquid state of ingested food.
In gall midge saliva contain Indole Acetic Acid (IAA) which
produces galls on plant parts.
In disease transmitting insects the salivapaves way for the entry
of pathogens.
In honey bee two pair of salivary glands is present.
• One pair is situated in the ventral region of head known and
cephalic salivary glands. This glands help in wax production
and for moistening the food material for chewing.
• Second pair is situated in thoracic region secrete the
proteinaceous secretion consisting of invertase and other
digestive enzymes.
The saliva contains specific ezymes in insects which feed on
selective kinds of food. For e.g.,
• Chitinase - Ants
• Cellulase - Macrotermitinae
• Peroxidase - Milkweed bug
• Proteinase - Aphids
b. Hepatic caecae and midgut epithelial cells
Secrete most of digestive juices.
Holocrine : Epithelial cells disintegrate in the process of enzyme
secretion.
Merocrine :Enzyme secretion occurs without cell break down.
c. Microbes in digestion
In the insects symbitoic microorganism are presence which helps
in digestion of the food. The cells of the body housing
microorganisms are called mycetocytes.
Intestinal flagellates in cockroach and termites carry out the
digestion of wood.
Symbionts in the hindgut of some termites can capture
atmospheric nitrogen in an organic form, which is probably quite
important to many termites because their diet of wood is
relatively low in proteins.
 Digestion process
In cockroach as it is omnivorous large number of enzyme present
than other insects.

1) Extra – Intestinal Digestion

Digestion of food takes part outside alimentary canal.
For e.g., assassin bugs inject saliva into prey which histolysis the
contents before ingestion.

2) Intestinal digestion
Most digestion of food occurs in insect midgut where enzymes
are secreted.
a) Digestion of carbohydrate
Insect uptake food in form of polysaccharides as starch,
glycogen which hydrolyzed to monosaccharides by the action of
enzyme such as amylase.
b) Digestion of protein
Insect posses a series of proteases. A trypsin like proteinase is
secreted in the midgut which hydrolyses protein into peptones
and polypeptides.
c) Digestion of lipid
Many insects secrete lipases which hydrolyse fats to fatty acid
and glycerol.
 Absorption mechanism
The midgut is the major site of absorption.
Major factors that affect the absorption of digested food
materials
i) The presence of microvilli, which increase the surface area
for absorption.
ii) The functional differences in membrane permeability of
various regions of the digestive tract.
Absorption may be active or passive.
Passive absorption takes place from the higher concentration
inside the lumen of the gut to lower one.
Active absorption depends on some metabolic process for
movement of a substance against a concentration . There is
utilization of ATP for absorption.
• Carbohydrates: Complex carbohydrates are converted into
simple sugars by hydrolysis and diffusion takes place from
high to low concentration from gut to haemolymph.
• Proteins: Proteins are absorbed in midgut caeca after their
degradation to amino acids. Mode of absorption of amino
acids depends on their relative concentrations in food and the
haemolymph.
• Lipids: The midgut caeca appear to be particularly active in
lipid absorption.
• Water: Water is absorbed in various parts of midgut by active
and passive movements of water.
• Inorganic ions: They are absorbed in midgut and reabsorbed
from the fluids in the rectum.
 Excretory system

Excretion in insects is the process of eliminating nitrogenous

waste products resulting from the breakdown of proteins and
the regulation of salt and water.

Major function of excretory system

To maintain constant internal environment by the elimination of
various excess and toxic wastes products.
 Excretory organs

Different structures are involved in the excretion process as

1) Malpighian tubules
2) Fat bodies
3) Nephrocytes
4)General body integument
5) Wall of the digestive system
6) Other excretory organs
 Malphigian tubules

• The malpighian tubules are long, thin, blindly ending tubes

arising from the gut near the junction of the midgut and
hindgut, and lie freely in the body cavity.
• Malpighian tubules are absent in the Collembola and aphids,
and are represented only by papillae in Diplura, Protura, and
Strepsiptera.
• In cockroach, the malpighian tubules absorb nitrogenous
waste products from the haemolymph and convert them into
uric acid for excretion.
• Number of the malpighian tubules in some insect order is
given below :
Hemiptera, Anoplura, Thysanoptera, Diptera = 4
Coleoptera = 4-6
Lepidoptera = 6
Orthoptera, odonata = 30-200
Collembola = absent
 Association of the malpighian tubules with the gut
a) Gymnonephridial arrangement: The distal ends of the
malpighian tubules are lying freely in the body cavity.
 Orthopteran type
 Hemipteran type
a) Cryptonephridial arrangement : The distal ends of the
malpighian tubules are embedded in the tissues surrounding
the rectum.
 Coleopteran type
 Lepidopteran type
There are two types of cells in insects, where each malpighian
tubule is differentiated into distal clear and proximal opaque
regions.
• Distal part
 Composed of cells having honeycomb border.
 Three to 10 micron long cytoplasmic filaments packed very
close together.
• Proximal part
 Composed of cells having brush border.
 7 to 40 micron long cytoplasmic filaments packed very close
together.
 Fat Bodies
In the lepsima and higher insects, such as the nymphs of
cockroaches, honeybees uric acid is also stored in the urate cells
of fat body.
In collembola,
They donot have malphigian tubules. It acts as the excretory
organs.
 Nephrocytes (Pericardial cells)
 Nephrocytes occur singly or in groups in several parts of
insects.
 Nephrocytes also called the storage kidney.
 They usually are present on the surface of the heart, or lie on
the pericardial septum or the alary muscles.
 Nephrocytes also take up dyes and probably colloidal particles
from the haemolymph and they play a role in the control of
the heartbeat.
General body integument
 During moulting the nitrogenous products containing skin in
insects shed off and also water and carbon dioxide are
excreted through the integument.
 Wall of the digestive system
In springtails, posses tubular glands opening above the base of
labium by a duct called labial kidney plays the role in excretion.

Other Excretory organs

Utricular glands are present in male accessory organs in
cockroach where uric acid are temporarily stored and then it is
poured out over the spermatophore during copulation.
 Excretory products
• Most of terrestrial insects are uricotelic (excrete uric acid ) .
• It doesnot need a large amount of water for its elimination
being less soluble in water.
• Most of aquatic insects are ammoniotelic (excrete ammonia).
• Aquatic insects excrete ammonia is highly soluble in water.
• Other excretory products are urea, allantoin, amino acids,
protein etc.
• The allantoin, allantoic acid and urea are produced from
breakdown of uric acid.
 Mechanism of Excretion
• Both terrestrial and aquatic insects must conserve ions,
such as sodium (Na+), potassium (K+) and chloride (Cl-), that
may be limiting in their food or lost into the water by diffusion.
• Therefore the production of insect excreta (urine or pellets) is
a result of two related processes:
• Excretion and osmoregulation(maintenance of favourable
osmotic pressure and ionic concentration of body fluid).
• Excess materials in hameolymph are filter by the malpighian
tubules.
• Urine is poured into the gut and passes out as a droplet.
Enzymes are present in malpighian tubules
lipase, alkaline and acid phosphatases and succinic
dehydrogenase.
Reproductive system
 Insects usually reproduce sexually and are dioecious.
There are some of exception as given below, some specialized
reproductive mechanism as
1) Viviparity : In viviparity , fertilized egg is retained in the
genitalia of mother, development of embryo occurs on the
nourishment supplied by the mother. For e.g., large number
of species of the families - Aphidae, Chrysomelidae etc.
2) Polyembryony : In polyembryony , more than one larvae
produce from the single eggs. It is common in endoparasitic
hymenopterans.
3) Paedogenesis : If the immature insect is possessing the
functional ovary and capable of reproduction through
parthenogenesis, the phenomenon is called paedogenesis.
For e.g., the larvae of gall midge.
4. Parthenogenesis : Development of embryo from unfertilized
egg. Three different types of chromosomes mechanism often
involved in the parthenogenesis.
a) Haplo – diploidy mechanism – Bee ( fertilized eggs produce
female, unfertilized eggs produce male).
b) Apomictic mechanism – In aphids all offsprings are
developed from the unfertilized eggs represents the female
sex.
c) Automictic meiotic mechanism : In phasmids meiotic
reduction division occur during oogenesis, both the
daughter nuclei fuse together to give female offspring.
5. Hermaphroditism : For e.g., scale insect the gonads of
hermaphrodite females produce both the gametes,
spermatozoa and eggs. If eggs come in contact with sperm
reproduce female, not than male.

6. Natural castration : For e.g., in bees and termites. In honey

bees pheromone acts adversely on corpora allata of those
exclusively feeding on the honey- pollen only and deprived of
royal jelly (develop into sterile female).
 Male reproductive system
Male reproductive system is located in the abdomen and
typically consists of paired testes connected by ducts (vas
deferens, seminal vesicle and ejaculatory duct) which ultimately
open in intromittent organ ( aedeagus or penis).
Male reproductive system of insect is typically consisted into
following parts or organ:-
1) Testes
2) Vas deferens
3) Seminal vesicle
4) Ejaculatory duct
5) Aedeagus
6) Accessory gland
7) Spermatophore
 1) Testes
One pair of testes are situated in the mid part of the abdominal
cavity and embedded in the mass of fat bodies above the
intestine of insect.
Each testes is oval in shape and extended from 2nd to 6th
abdominal segment of the insect.
Both testes are composed of a number of testicular follicles or
spermtube which produce sperms.
Spermatogenesis
The distal end of each testicular follicle contain the germ cells
that divide to give rise to sperms the process is known as
spermatogenesis.
Three zones of development are usually recognized below the
germarium that represent the different stages of
spermatogenesis.

i) The growth zone or zone of spermatocytes where the

spermatogonia undergo several mitotic divisions, forming
primary spermatocytes.
ii ) The maturation zone where primary spermatocytes undergo
meiosis and produce haploid spermatids.
iii) The basal transformation zone where the spermatids become
transformed into sperms.
2. Vas deferens : A vas deferentia from each testis unite to
form the ejaculatory duct. The vas deferens is covered with a
layer of muscles and connective tissue.
3. Seminal vesicles : In seminal vesicle, the sperms are stored
for a while.
4. Ejaculatory ducts : Ejaculatory duct is ectodermal in origin
and is lined with cuticle and helps in the propulsion of semen.
5. Accessory glands : In cockroach large number of glands is
present as mushroom glands or utricular glands.
6. Spermatophores: They are common in primitive insects (
cockroach, grasshopper). In this insect, sperm are not directly
released in spermatheca of female.
 Female Reproductive System

Female reproductive system is located in the abdomen.

The female reproductive system of insect consist of following
organ or parts:-
1) Ovary
2) Lateral oviduct
3) Common oviduct
4) Spermatheca
5) Accessory glands
6) Vagina
 1) Ovaries
 Bilaterally located
 Mesodermal origin
 Presence large number of ovarioles
 Each ovariole is divided into zones that contain germ cells or
oocytes in various stages of development and maturation.
 There are two broad zones apical germarium and basal
vitellarium covered by outer ovariole sheath.
 Oogenesis

The process of
formation of egg in
female reproductive
system is called
oogenesis.
2. Oviducts: The pedicel open into lateral oviduct. The lateral
oviduct join to form the common oviduct which serves as
communicating organ between lateral oviducts and vagina.
3. Spermatheca : Spermatheca stored the sperm prior to
fertilization. Spermatheca secrete the spermathecal fluid that
nourishes the sperm.
4. Accessory glands : Two pair of accessory glands is present
which open in common oviduct. These glands vary in structure,
usually secrete adhesive material to cement eggs to the
substratum.
5. Gonapophysis : An opening is presented at the posterior part
of the abdomen of female insect is called gonapophysis. It is also
called the ovipositor of female.
Circulatory system
• Insects bear open circulatory system as the blood bathes the
internal organ directly in the body cavity .
• The body cavity of the insects is called the haemocoel and the
blood, haemolymph.
• The organ of circulation include the dorsal vessel and some
accessory pulsatile organs.
 Dorsal vessel
• Principal organ for blood circulation.
• It lies along the dorsal midline of the
insect, extending from the posterior
region of the abdomen to the head.
• The wall of dorsal vessel is contractile
and is composed of mainly circular
muscles but it may also have semi
circular, oblique, helical or
longitudinal fibers.
• It is typically differentiated into two
parts :
1) Aorta – Presence in anterior part
2) Heart –Posterior part
1) Aorta
Aorta extends anteriorly from the heart and
open behind or beneath the brain.
This is a simple tube without ostia.

2) Heart
Heart is restricted to abdomen but in cockroach
it is extend to prothorax and closed posteriorly.
It consists of number of paired and usually
lateral opening or ostia.
The number of chambers varies among different
groups of insects from 13 in cockroaches to
single in Mallophaga, Anoplura and Hemiptera.
3) The ostia
There are of two types as
Incurrent ostia : Incurrent ostia is presence in almost all of the
insects. Their number is equal to the number of heart chamber of
that insects.
They permit the entry of blood from the haemocoel into the
heart but at the same time prevent its outward flow.
Excurrent ostia : Excurrent ostia are found in Thysanura and
orthopteriod insects. They are devoid of valve. Number doesnot
relate with that of chambers of heart.
4) The lateral vessels
In heart of cockroach contain six pairs of lateral vessels, two
thoracic and four abdominal.
 Accessory pulsatile organs
Besides the dorsal blood vessel other different organs also play
role in circulation. These are muscular membranous structures,
varying in the shape and are situated at the base of appendages,
such as antennae, legs and wings.
They pumps the blood from sinuses into the respective
appendages.
Most of insects ----- Pulsatile organ……….Presence in mesothorax
and metathorax------------Pump blood into wings
Grasshopper and cockroach----------small ampulla presence in the
base of antennae ------function pump blood into antennae
 Sinuses, Diaphragms and Alary Muscles

To facilitate circulation of haemolymph, the body cavity is divided

into three compartments called blood sinuses.
Dorsal diaphragms : The dorsal diaphragm is formed by alary
muscles of the heart and related structures.
It separate the pericardial sinus from the perivisceral sinus.
Ventral diaphragms : The ventral diaphragm usually covers the
nerve cord, it separates the perivisceral sinus from perineural
sinus.
Alary muscles : Alary muscles are closely associated with heart.
There number varies with the insects species. Due to contraction
of these paired muscles, the chamber of hearts contracts and
cause forward flow of blood into dorsal aorta.
 Mechanism of circulation
The incurrent ostia open during diastole allowing haemolymph
inside the heart while remain closed during systole in order to
prevent outward as well as backward flow of the haemolymph.
While the movement of diaphragms , action of accessory
pulsatile structures, movement in alary muscles and tergo-sternal
muscles blood circulates throughout the haemocoel and
appendages.
Blood passes into perineural sinus supplying the nervous system
with the help of the ventral diaphragm.
Haemolymph returns to the pericardial sinus via perivisceral sinus
through the openings in the dorsal diaphragm and then it enters
the heart.
 Function of haemolymph
1) Lubricant : Haemolymph keeps the internal cells moist and the
movement of internal organs is also made easy.
2) Hydraulic medium : Hydrostatis pressure developed due to blood
pumping is useful in ecdysis (moulting),wing expansion in adults.
3) Transport and storage : Digested nutrients, hormones and gases
(chironomid larva) were transported with the help of haemolymph.
4) Protection : Diverse physiological mechanism against pathogen as
detoxify the toxic materials, higher particle rupture (encapsulation).
5) Heat transfer : Haemolymph through its movement in the circulatory
system regulate the body heat.
6) Maintenance of osmotic pressure : Ions, amino acids and organic
acids present in the haemolymph helps in maintaining osmotic
pressure required for normal physiological functions
INSECT TAXONOMY
 Classification and Nomenclature

 The animal kingdom is divided into numerous major groups

called phyla and each phylum is separated further into
classes.

 Insects are in the class Insecta , phylum Arthopoda.

 Standard word endings are used for certain categories.

 Order names of winged insects usually end in -ptera (e.g.,
Hymenoptera)
 Superfamily names in - oidea (Apoidea)
 Family names in - idae (Apidae)
Position of Insects in Animal Kingdom

Kingdom: Animalia
Sub kingdom: Eumetazoa
Division: Non chordata
Phylum : Arthopoda
Sub phylum : Mandibulata
Superclass : Hexapoda
Class : Insecta
Kingdom: Animalia
Sub kingdom: Eumetazoa
Division: Non chordata
Phylum : Arthopoda
Sub phylum : Mandibulata
Superclass : Hexapoda
Class : Insecta
Order : Hymenoptera
Superfamily: Apoidea
Family: Apidae
Genus : Apis
Species : A. cerana, A. dorsata, A. laborisa,
A.florea, A.mellifera
 Scientific Nomenclature
 Nomenclature refers to the scientific names given to the
organisms.
 Carolus Linnaeus (1707 – 1778)- Binomial system of
nomenclature.
 This double naming in latin, one for the genus and the second
for the species.
 For e.g. scientific name of cabbage butterfly - Pieris brassicae
nepalensis .
 The abbreviation “sp.” refers to a single, unnamed species
(e.g., Apis sp.). More than one species abbreviated “spp.”
(e.g., Apis spp.).
 The following is the classification given by International
Commission on Zoological nomenclature which is being
followed by most of the taxonomists.
 Class – Insecta

Sub class 1. Apterygota

Order 1. Thysanura (Bristle tails, Silverfish,
firebrats)
Order 2.Diplura (Diplurans)
Order 3: Protura (Telson tails)
Order 4: Collembola (Spring tails, snow fleas)
 Sub class 2: Pterygota
Exopterygota (Insects having simple
metamorphosis)

Order 5. Ephemeroptera (May flies)

Order 6: Odonata (Dragon flies & damsel flies)
Order 7: Plecoptera (Stone flies)
Order 8: Grylloblattodea (Grylloblattids)
Order 9: Orthoptera (Locusts and grass hoppers )
Order 10: Phasmida (Walking sticks, leaf insects & stick insects)
Order 11: Dermaptera (Earwigs)
Order 12: Embioptera (Web spinners)
Order 13 Dictyoptera ( Cockroaches and mantids)
Order 14: Isoptera ( White ants or termites)
Order 15: Zoraptera ( Zorapterans)
Order 16: Psocoptera ( Psocids, book lice)
Order 17: Mallophaga ( Bird lice)
Order 18: Siphunculata or Anoplura (sucking lice)
Order 19: Hemiptera ( Plant bugs)
Order 20: Thysanoptera ( Thrips)
 Endopterygota ( Insects having complex
metamorphosis)
Order 21: Neuroptera ( Ant lions and lace wings)
Order 22: Coleoptera ( Beetles, weevils)
Order 23: Strepsiptera ( Stylopids)
Order 24: Mecoptera ( Scorpion flies)
Order 25: Siphonoptera ( Fleas)
Order 26: Diptera ( Flies, midges, mosquitoes)
Order 27: Lepidoptera ( Moths and butterflies)
Order 28: Trichoptera ( Caddis flies)
Order 29: Hymenoptera ( Ants ,bees, wasps)
 1. Thysanura
1) Mouthparts ectognathous adapted for biting.
2) Antennae many segmented.
3) Tarsi 2 to 5 segmented.
4) Abdomen 11 segmented with variable number of lateral
styli.
5) Cerci long and many segmented.
6) Female has elongate jointed ovipositor.
E.g. Silverfish, Firebrats, Bristle tails.
 2. Odonata

1. Predacious insect with biting mouth parts.

2. Two equal or subequal pairs of enlongated membranous
wings with a nodus and many cross veins and pterostigma.
3. Antennae filiform and short bristle like.
4. In male gonopore is present on ninth abdominal segment.
5. But the functional copulatory organ is present on the second
abdominal sternite.
6. Hemimetabolus, naiads aquatic.
E.g. Suborder Zygoptera : Damselflies
Ansioptera : Dragonflies
 3. Blattodea

1. Antennae setaceous, mouth parts mandibulate.

2. Forewings tegmina with marginal costal vein.
3. Ocelli 2 in number.
4. Legs used for running (cursorial).
5. Body dorsoventrally depressed.
6. Hemimetablous, eggs contained in ootheca.
E.g. Cockroach ( Periplaneta americana)
 4. Orthoptera
1. They are medium to large sized insects.
2. Antenna is filiform.
3. Mouthparts are mandibulate.
4. Pronotum is curved, ventrally covering the pleural region.
5. Hind legs are saltatorial.
6. Forewings are leathery, thickened and known as tegmina.
7. Cerci are short and unsegmented. Ovipositor is well
developed in female.
8. Metamorphosis is gradual.
9. Wing pads of nymphs undergo reversal during development.
10. Specialized stridulatory (sound-producing) and auditory
(hearing) organs are present.
Sub order : Ensifera Sub order : Caelifera
Antennae long (>30 segment) Antennae short (<30 segment)
Tympanum located fore tibia. Tympanum located in first
abdominal segment.
Ovipositor long Ovipositor short.
Family 1 : Tettigoniidae Family 4 : Acrididae
E.g. Long horned grasshoppers E.g. Short horned grasshoppers
Family 2 : Gryllidae
E.g. Crickets
Family 3 : Gryllotalpidae
E.g. Mole crickets.
 5. Thysanoptera
1. They are minute, slender, soft bodied insects.
2. Mouthparts are rasping and sucking.
3. Mouth cone is formed by the labrum and labium
together with basal segments of maxillae.
4. Right mandible is absent. Hence mouthparts are
asymmetrical.
5. Wings are either absent or long, narrow and fringed
with hairs which increase the surface area.
6. Tarsus is with one or two segments.
7. Abdomen is often pointed.
8. An appendicular ovipositor may be present or absent.
E.g. Thrips tabaci .
 6. Isoptera

1. Iso - equal; ptera - wing.

2. They are small greyish white, soft bodied insects.
3. Two pairs of wings are present which are identical in size
form and venation. Wings are membranous and
semitransparent.
4. Antennae are short and moniliform.
5. Wings are present only in sexually mature forms during
swarming season.
6. External genital organs are lacking in both the sexes.
7. Cerci are short.
8. Termites are nature's scavengers. They convert logs, stumps,
branches etc. to humus. Many are injurious to crops,
furniture and wood works of buildings.
 7. Phthiraptera
1. The lice are small, wingless ectoparasites of birds and
mammals.
2. These insects were divided into two separate orders, the
Mallophaga (chewing lice) and Anoplura (sucking lice).
3. The mouthparts of a sucking louse consist of three piercing
stylets that are withdrawn into a stylet sac in the head.
4. Eyes are usually reduced or absent.
5. Antennae short and have 3-5 segments.
6. Prothorax free, meso and metathorax often
imperfectly separated.

E.g.Pediculus humanus capitis (Family: Pediculidae) (Head louse)

 8. Siphonoptera

1. Small wingless, laterally flattened insects with backwardly

directed spine like setae.
2. Mouth parts adapted for piercing and sucking, lacinea of
maxillae forming the suctorial appartus.
3. Legs long with coxae greatly enlarged , have tremendous
capacity to jump.
4. Antennae short, lie in grooves in the head.
5. Lack the compound eyes,but may have two small ocelli.
6. Both sexes suck blood from mammals and birds , some are
the vectors of deadly pathogens.
• E.g. Pulex irritans – Human flea
 Task for a day

 Difference between Dragonfly / Damselfly.

 Difference between Mallophaga / Anoplura.
 Write few characters of :
• Diplura
• Protura
• Collembola
 9. Hemiptera
1. Typical type of the wing presence in hemiptera ,Hemelytron.
2. Head is opisthognathous.
3. All Hemiptera have large compound eyes.
4. Piercing-sucking mouth parts.
5. The mandibles and maxillae are modified as needle-like
stylets.
6. Antennae are fairly long and contain four to five segments.
7. Incomplete metamorphosis with mostly five nymphal instars.
8. Cerci are always absent.
9. Alimentary canal is suitably modified (filter chamber) to
handle liquid food.
E.g. all bugs.
 Important families of hemiptera/
Heteroptera
1. Gerridae: (Jesus bugs, Water striders)
2. Reduviidae: (Assassin bugs)
3. Cimicidae: (Bed bugs)
4. Tingidae: (Lacewing bugs) Water striders
Continue……
5. Miridae: (Plant bugs or Leaf bugs)
6. Lygaeidae: (Seed bugs or Chinch bugs)
7. Pyrrhocoridae: (Red bugs or Stainers)
8. Coreidae: (Squash bugs or leaf footed bugs)

Leaf bugs

Red cotton bugs

Continue….
9. Pentatomidae: (Stink bugs )
10. Scutelleridae : (Shield bugs)
11. Belostomatidae: (Giant water bugs or electric light bugs)
 10. Homoptera
1. (Homo-uniform; ptera-wings).
2. Horizontal head is deflexed.
3. Pronotum is almost always small enlarged and collar-like.
4. Forewings are of uniform at the base and the apical texture.
Wings are held roof-like over the body.
5. Honey dew secretion common.
6. Tarsi 1-3 segmented.
7. Abdomen 11 segmented but 10th and 11th segmented are
greatly reduced.
8. Cerci absent.
9. Trochantins small.
E.g. Aphids, whitefly.
 Important families of homoptera
1. Cicadidae: (Cicadas)
2. Membracidae: (Tree hoppers or Cowbugs)
3. Cicadellidae: (Leaf hoppers or Jassids)
4. Cercopidae: (Spittle bug or Frog hopper)

Cicadas

Spittle bugs
Tree hopper
Leaf hopper
Continue…..
5. Delphacidae : (Plant hoppers)
6. Psyllidae: (Jumping plant lice)
7. Aleyrodidae: (Whiteflies)
8. Aphididae: (Aphids ) Plant hopper

Aphids Whitefly Psyllid

9. Coccidae: (Scale insects or Soft scales)
10. Diaspididae: (Armoured scale)
11. Kerridae: (Lac insect)
12. Pseudococcidae: (Mealy bug) Scale insects

Mealy bugs Lac insect Armoured scale

 11. Coleoptera
• They are minute to large sized insects. Antenna is usually 11
segmented.
• Mouthparts are chewing type.
• Forewings are heavily sclerotised, veinless and hardened.
They are called elytra.
• Prothorax well developed , free, forming a distinct fore body
,along with the head, contrasted with the hind body formed
by elytra .
• Cerci and a distinct ovipositor are absent. Metamorphosis is
complete.
• Larvae are often called grubs. Pupae are usually exarate and
rarely found in cocoons.
 Important families of Coleoptera

1. Cicindelidae: (Tiger beetles)

2. Carabidae: (Ground beetles)
Tiger beetles
3. Dytiscidae: (Water beetles)
4. Coccinellidae: (Lady bird beetles)

Ground beetles

Lady bird beetles Predaceous diving

beetles
Continue…

5. Lampyridae: (Fireflies, Glow worms)

6. Scarabaeidae: (Scarabs, Dung beetles)
7. Bruchidae: (Pulse beetles, Seed beetles)
8. Tenebrionidae: (Meal worms) Fireflies

Meal worms
Dung beetles Pulse beetles
Continue…..

9. Buprestidae: (Jewel beetles, Metallic wood borers)

10. Staphylinidae: (Rove beetles)
11. Chrysomelidae: (Leaf beetles)

Jewel beetles Rove beetles

Leaf beetles
 Continue…

12. Cerambycidae: (Long horned beetles)

13. Curculionidae: (Weevils, snout beetles)
14. Elateridae: (Click beetles, Wire worms)
15. Meloidae: (Blister beetles, Oil beetles)

Mango stem borer

Banded blister beetle

Click beetles

Banana weevil
 12. Lepidoptera
1. Body, wings, appendages, are densely clothed with
overlapping scales, which give color, rigidity and strength.
2. Mouthparts in adults are of siphoning type. Mandibles are
absent. The galeae of maxillae are greatly elongated and are
held together by interlocking hooks and spines.
3. Compound eye large globular. Ocelli lateral concealed under
scales.
4. Thoracic segments fused but mesothorax is large and
distinct.
5. Metamorphosis complete.
6. Larvae eruciform, pupae obtect type either in cocoon
formed of silk debris or earthern shells.
 Important families of Lepidoptera
1. Nymphalidae: (Brush footed or four
footed butterflies)
2. Lycaenidae: (Blues, Coppers, Hair
streaks, pomegranate butterfly )
3. Papilionidae: (Swallow tails, citrus
butterfly) Brush footed butterfly
4. Pieridae: (Cabbage butterfly)

Cabbage butterfly Pomegranate butterfly

Swallow tails butterfly
5. Hesperiidae: (Skipper)
6.Arctiidae : (Tiger moths)
7. Bombycidae: (Silk worm moths)

Tiger moths
Silkworm moths Skipper
8. Limacodidae : (Slug caterpillar)
9. Crambidae : (Grass moths)
10. Gelechiidae: (Gelechiid moth)

Gelechiid moth
Slug moth
Grass moths
12. Noctuidae: (Noctuid moths)
13. Pyrallidae: (Snout moths)
14. Saturniidae: (Giant silk worm moths)
15. Sphingidae : (Hawk moths, Sphinx moths)
Noctuid moths

Giant silkworm moths

Snout moths
Hawk moths
 13.Diptera
1. They are small to medium sized, soft bodied insects. The body
regions are distinct.
2. Mouth parts of sucking type often modified for sponging and
piercing.
3. Only one pair of wings present, hind wings reduced to
halteres.
4. Prothorax and metathorax greatly reduced.
5. Tarsi 5-segmented
6. Complete metamorphosis.
7. Larvae apodous.
8. Pupae either free and exarate or enclosed in puparium.
9. Female genitalia often modified into telescopic ovipositor
found in segments 6 or 7-10.
10. E.g. Housefly, mosquito, fruit fly.
 Important families of diptera
1. Culicidae: (Mosquitoes)
2. Cecidomyiidae : (Gall midges)
3. Asilidae: (Robber flies)
4. Tabanidae: (Horse flies)
Mosquito

Horse fly Robber fly Gall midges

5. Syrphidae: (Hover flies, Flower flies)
6. Tephritidae: (Fruit flies)
7. Drosophilidae: ( Pomace flies)
8. Tachinidae: (Tachinid flies) Hover fly

Tachnid fly
Pomace fly Fruit fly
9. Muscidae: (House fly)
10. Hippoboscidae: (Dogfly)
11. Agromyzidae : (Leafminer flies)
12. Sarcophagidae: (Flesh flies) Housefly

Flesh fly Leaf miner Dog fly

 14. Hymenoptera
1. Free, mobile,hypognathous.
2. Four membranous wings, hind wings smaller than the front
wings, venation reduced, wing coupling hamulate.
3. Mouth part mandibulate, often modified for lapping and
sucking.
4. Abdomen usually basally constricted and its first segment
fused with metathorax to form propodium.
5. Larvae generally apodous,rarely eruciform with more than
five pairs of prolegs and lack crochets.
6. Ovipositor in higher families modified for stinging.
7. Pupae exarate , cocoon generally present.
8. For E.g. Honey bee, Wasps.
Important families of Hymenoptera
1. Tenthredinidae : (Sawflies)
2. Ichneumonidae: (Ichneumonflies)
3. Braconidae : (Braconid wasps)
4. Bethylidae: (Bethylid wasps) Mustard sawfly

Bethylid wasps Braconid wasps Ichneumonfly

5. Chalcididae: (Chalcid wasps)
6. Trichogrammatidae: (Egg parasitoids)
7. Evaniidae: (Ensign wasps)
Chalcid wasps
8. Vespidae: (Yellow jackets, Hornets)

Yellow jackets Ensign wasps Trichogramma wasps

9. Formicidae: (Ants)
10. Apidae : (Honey bees)
11. Megachilidae: (Leaf cutter bees)
12. Xylocopidae: (Carpenter bees)
Ants

Carpenter bees Leaf cutter bees Honey bee

Insect Metamorphosis

Practical No. 8
 Types of insect development
Development simply means the change in quality.

Embryonic development
It starts from the egg . The embryo gradually develops inside the
egg and after elapsing certain time, minute insects are produced.

Post embryonic development

It starts from the time when minute insects come out of egg and
it passes 5-6 moulting stages to become an adult.
 Metamorphosis
• Metamorphosis means “ change of form”.
• It is the physical transformation of insect from one life stage to
next.
• The developmental process by which a first-instar immature
stage is transformed into the adult is called metamorphosis.
• In metamorphosis, the immature may be similar to the adult
or quite difference to that of the adult.
• Insect go through different stage of development in its
lifecycle.
• The duration of the period between two successive moults
of a developing insect is called stadium.
• The form of the developing insect between two moults is
called instar.
 Types of Metamorphosis

Ametabola or Direct Development

Metabola or Indirect Development
• Paurometabola
• Hemimetabola
• Holometabola
• Hypermetabola
 Ametabola
• Apterygote insects like silverfishes don’t undergo any change
in form, the immature instars differ from the adults only in
size, gonadial development and external genitalia. This
metamorphosis are known as ametabola.
• Moulting is continued into adult. Both developing stages and
the adults live in the same habitat.
 Paurometabola

• In certain exopterygota insects like termites, grasshoppers,

cockroaches, most of the bugs , the development is gradual.
• 3 stages-egg, nymph and adult.
• These nymphs resemble their parents in their structure of body
(mouth parts, simple and compound eyes, antennae, legs etc).
• Similarly, they have the same mode of life, feeding habits, food
and habitat.
• The difference between the nymphs and adults is that the
nymphs do not process wings and reproductive organs until they
turn into full-grown adults.
 Hemimetabola
• In certain exopterygote insects like mayflies, dragonflies and
stoneflies, the immature instar passes in the aquatic habitat
whereas, the adult are terrestrial or aerial habitat.
• The immature appear quite different from adult stage.
• The immature stage are called naiads.
 Holometabola
• The insects in this type complete their postembryonic development
by assuming much striking morphological changes.
• 4 different stages viz. egg, larva, pupa and adult.
• There are several instars during larval stage.
• The wing pads develop internally hence; this group of insects is
called endopterygota.
• The adult come out of the pupal covering with development of
compound eyes, antennae, thoracic legs, wings, reproductive organs
and changes in mouth parts.
• Since, a pupal stage is necessary for the transformation of larva into
adult, this type of metamorphosis is called indirect or complete
metamorphosis. e.g. Butterflies, moths, beetle, weevils, flies,
honeybees, wasps, mosquitoes, etc.
 Hypermetabola
• Hypermetamorphosis or heteromorphosis is a form of complete
insect metamorphosis in which at least one of the instars in the
life cycle differs considerably from the others. For e.g., in certain
species of beetles, flies, wasps and in all species of Strepsiptera.
 Mouthparts of insect
• The mouthparts are the organs concerned for the ingestion of
food.
• Types of mouth parts:
According to the type of feeding habit:
1) Mandibulate:
 Primitive type of mouth occurring in grasshopper cockroach
etc.
 Biting & chewing mouthparts.
2) Hausellate
 Piercing and sucking mouthparts.
 Elongated stylet to suck the sap E.g. Aphid, mosquito etc.
 According to the types of head:
• Ectognathous : Mouthparts don’t lie in a cavity of the head.
E.g. Mouthparts of higher insects.
• Entognathous: The mouth parts of lie in a cavity of the head.
E.g. Mouthparts of Collembola, Protura.

These are the organs primarily concerned with the uptake of

food. Typical mouthpart of an insect consists of the following
parts.
(i) Labrum (upper lip)
(ii) A pair of mandibles
(iii) A pair of maxillae
(iv) Labium (lower lip)
(v) Hypopharynx (tongue)
Chewing and biting mouthparts

MAXILLA LABIUM
This type is considered as primitive and found in Orthoptera,
Isoptera and Coleoptera, larvae of Lepidoptera and Neuroptera
etc.
The mouth parts include following parts :

a. Labrum : It is a small sclerite that forms the upper lip of the

mouth cavity. It protects the mandibles and helps in closing of
the mouth cavity and guide the food in to mouth.

b. Mandibles : These are the paired, unsegmented, strongest

and sclerotized structures called jaws.

’.
c. Maxillae: These are paired homologous structures with basal
triangular ‘cardo’, middle rectangular ‘stipes’ and the lateral
‘palpifer’ bearing maxillary palpi and lobe like inner ‘lacinia’ and
outer ‘galea.

d. Labium: It is known as lower lip and is also called as second

maxillae. It closes the mouth cavity from below.

e. Hypopharynx : It is a tongue like structure situated between

labrum and labium and ducts of salivary glands open on or near
its base.
 Piercing and sucking mouthparts
e.g.: plant bugs, mosquitoes
• Modified to pierce and sucking
mouthparts.
• Consists of paired mandibles,
paired maxillae, labrum
epipharynx and hypopharynx, all
six parts are modified to needle
like stylets sheathed by the
tubular labium, the proboscis.
• The inner surface of the maxillae
are grooved to form two channel
one feeding channel sucking up
the liquid and the next salivary
channel for ejecting saliva.
 Chewing and lapping mouthparts
E.g. Honeybee and wasps.
Modification
 Labrum: The labrum is like the
chewing type mouthparts.
 Mandibles: Flattened to form tools
useful in moulding wax and nest
materials.
 Labium and maxillae : They are
modified to form a long cylinder or
tongue.
 Galea are elongated to form a pair of
blade like structure.
 Paraglossae are greatly reduced and
glossae are elongated to form tongue
like structure called as flabellum.
 Siphoning mouthparts
• E.g. Butterfly, moths.
 Labrum and mandibles: Labrum
reduced, mandible and
hypopharynx lacking.
 Maxillae: Maxillary palps
rudimentary. Galea elongated to
form the long hollow tube
structure, the proboscis. It is
incapable of piercing the skin or
plant tissue.
 Feeding is accomplished by
uncoiling this tube and sucked up
through the food channel.
 Sponging mouthparts
E.g. Housefly.
• The mouth parts comprise a
fleshy and retractile proboscis
which lies under the head and is
formed by three components :
 Basal rostrum
 Middle haustellum
 Distal pair of labella
 Mandible are wanting and the
maxillae are represented by only
a pair of maxillary palps.
 Through capillary action,
pseudotrachea fill with the liquid
as labella are appressed to liquid
food.
Antennae
Antennae consists of three parts:
Scape, pedicel & flagellum.
• The scape is inserted into a membranous region of the head
wall and pivoted on the antennifer and is free to move in all
direction.
• The pedicel is the intermediary in between scape and
flagellum.
• The pedicel contains Johnston’s organ which responds to
movement of the flagellum.
• Flagellum bears sensilla that function as chemo, mechano and
thermohygroreceptors.
Typical antennae
 Function of Antennae

Antennae are used by the insects for the following purposes:

 Detect odor E.g. Flies
 Vibrations
 Locate their food
 Find their mates E.g. Flea
 To communicate E.g. Ant
 Modifications of antennae
1. Setaceous (Bristle like) : Size of the segments decreases from
base to apex. E.g. Cockroaches
2. Serrate (Saw like ) : Segments have short triangular
projections on one side. E.g. Click Beetles, Buprestidae.
3. Moniliform (Beadlike) :Segments are either globular or
spherical with prominent constriction in between E.g.
Termites
4. Stylate : Terminal segment bear a style like process. E.g.
Robber fly
5. Clavate (club shaped) : Antenna enlarges gradually towards
the tip. E.g. Butterfly
6. Geniculate (elbow like) : Scape is long remaining segments are
small and are arranged at an angle to the first resembling an
elbow joint. E.g. Ants
7. Aristate :The terminal segment is enlarged. It bears a
conspicuous dorsal bristle called arista. E.g. Housefly
8. Lamellate (leaf like) : Antennal tip is expanded laterally on one
side to form flat plates. E.g. Dung Beetles
9. Flavellate (cobra like ) : Terminal segment extends laterally
and enlarge forming a cobra head like structure. E.g. Cedar
Beetles
10. Plumose (feather like) : Segments with long whorls of hairs.
E.g. Male mosquitoes
11. Pectinate ( Comb shaped) : Segments with long slender
processes on one side. E.g. Fire colored beetles, Tenthredinidae.
12. Capitate (knobbed) : E.g. Sap Beetles have a prominent club
or knob at their ends.
13. Bipectinate ( Double comb) : E.g. Silk moth have a feather like
shaped.
14. Pilose : The flagellum all segments are alike, fine and tubular
but without processes e.g. female mosquito.

Capitate
 Photoreceptors
 Photoreceptors receive the light stimuli.
 These photoreceptors perceive light by means of a pigment
that absorbs light of a particular wavelength and thus
stimulates associated neurons.
 The photoreceptors of insects include compound eyes, dorsal
simple eyes or ocelli, and lateral ocelli or stemmata.
 1) Dorsal ocelli or simple eyes

• Ocelli differ from compound eyes in that they contain only a

single structure instead of multiple ones. As a result, they are
sometimes called "simple" eyes.

• All adult insects who have compound eyes also have three
ocelli, usually located on their back or face. Nymphs or naiads
of some species, such as the dragonfly or mayfly, also have
ocelli (hemimetabola).

• The ocelli are simple light sensitive or stimulatory organs

activating immediately the central nervous system and thus play
a key role in maintaining the diurnal rhythm.

• They are well adapted for quick perception of light, changing in

its intensity.

• They are incapable of forming image in rhabdoms and as a

result the images are focused far behind the retina.
 2 ) Stemmata: Lateral Ocelli

• The stemmata are found specifically in the larvae forms of

insects that go through a complete metamorphosis (egg,
larva, pupa and adult stages), such as beetles, wasps,
butterflies, flies and fleas.
• The stemmata, sometimes referred to as one to seven lateral
ocelli because these visual organs are located on the sides of
the larva's head, can also recognize light changes, color,
distance and forms.

• Stemmata can forms images on the rhabdoms.

Stemmata are of two types:

• Those with single rhabdom: eg neuroptera
• Those with multiple rhabdom : eg grubs, sawfly larvae.
 3 ) Compound Eyes

 The compound eyes are the chief visual organs of pterygotes.

 The compound eyes are composed of large number of alike
structural units called the ommatidia.
 The number of ommatidia varies with habitat and behaviour.
 The soil insects , apterous or occasional flyers have the least
number of ommatidia.
 Number of ommatidia in different insects are as follows:
Worker honey bee -5,500
Dragonflies-10,000
Housefly-4,000
 Structure of the ommatidia

1) The cornea : It is the outermost

part of the ommatidium. It is
transparent, colorless and
bioconvex modified cuticular
area often termed as lens.
2) The corneagen cells : They are
the epidermal or hypodermal
cells lying behind the cornea.
3) The cone : Beneath the cornea
lies a crystalline cone which is
composed of translucent
material.
4) Primary pigment cells :
Corneagen cells are withdrawn to
the sides of ommatidium and
form the primary pigment cells.
5) Secondary pigment cells :
Secondary pigment cells limits to
varying degrees the light that
may enter from adjacent
ommatidia.
6) Rentinula cells : The crystalline
cone is followed by a long retina
forming the basal part of an
ommatidium.
7) Rhabdom : Rhabdom is the
central axis of the retina.
 Apposition image vs Superposition image

Apposition Mechanism Superposition Mechanism

It is a mechanism of image formation It is a mechanism of image formation
in the bright daylight . in poor light generally during night.
Mostly in diurnal insects. Mostly in nocturnal insects.
Image formation in bright light is Image formation in dim light is
apposition image. superposition image.
Ommatidia are completely Ommatidia are elongated.
surrounded by pigment cells.
The retinal cells lie beneath the There is a clear space between the
crystalline cone. retinal cells and the crystalline cone.
There is no movement of pigment The pigments in the primary cells
cells in response to changes from light move in response to a light-dark.
to dark.
The total image formed in the The image formed by overlapping of
compound eye is a mosaic of several images . It is a hazy and blurred
small images. This type of vision is image.
called mosaic vision.
Thank you
Insect Metamorphosis & Seasonal
Adaptation
Seasonal Cycle

Practical No. 8
 Types of insect development
Development simply means the change in quality.

Embryonic development
It starts from the egg . The embryo gradually develops inside the
egg and after elapsing certain time, minute insects are produced.

Post embryonic development

It starts from the time when minute insects come out of egg and
it passes 5-6 moulting stages to become an adult.
 Metamorphosis
• Metamorphosis means “ change of form”.
• It is the physical transformation of insect from one life stage to
next.
• The developmental process by which a first-instar immature
stage is transformed into the adult is called metamorphosis.
• In metamorphosis, the immature may be similar to the adult
or quite difference to that of the adult.
• Insect go through different stage of development in its
lifecycle.
• The duration of the period between two successive moults
of a developing insect is called stadium.
• The form of the developing insect between two moults is
called instar.
 Types of Metamorphosis

Ametabola or Direct Development

Metabola or Indirect Development
• Paurometabola
• Hemimetabola
• Holometabola
• Hypermetabola
 Ametabola
• Apterygote insects like silverfishes don’t undergo any change
in form, the immature instars differ from the adults only in
size, gonadial development and external genitalia. This
metamorphosis are known as ametabola.
• Moulting is continued into adult. Both developing stages and
the adults live in the same habitat.
 Paurometabola

• In certain exopterygota insects like termites, grasshoppers,

cockroaches, most of the bugs , the development is gradual.
• 3 stages-egg, nymph and adult.
• These nymphs resemble their parents in their structure of body
(mouth parts, simple and compound eyes, antennae, legs etc).
• Similarly, they have the same mode of life, feeding habits, food
and habitat.
• The difference between the nymphs and adults is that the
nymphs do not process wings and reproductive organs until they
turn into full-grown adults.
 Hemimetabola
• In certain exopterygote insects like mayflies, dragonflies and
stoneflies, the immature instar passes in the aquatic habitat
whereas, the adult are terrestrial or aerial habitat.
• The immature appear quite different from adult stage.
• The immature stage are called naiads.
 Holometabola
• The insects in this type complete their postembryonic development
by assuming much striking morphological changes.
• 4 different stages viz. egg, larva, pupa and adult.
• There are several instars during larval stage.
• The wing pads develop internally hence; this group of insects is
called endopterygota.
• The adult come out of the pupal covering with development of
compound eyes, antennae, thoracic legs, wings, reproductive organs
and changes in mouth parts.
• Since, a pupal stage is necessary for the transformation of larva into
adult, this type of metamorphosis is called indirect or complete
metamorphosis. e.g. Butterflies, moths, beetle, weevils, flies,
honeybees, wasps, mosquitoes, etc.
 Hypermetabola
• Hypermetamorphosis or heteromorphosis is a form of complete
insect metamorphosis in which at least one of the instars in the
life cycle differs considerably from the others. For e.g., in certain
species of beetles, flies, wasps and in all species of Strepsiptera.
Seasonal adaptation and
Seasonal Cycles
Few species encounter favorable condition for growth and
development throughout the year they are homodynamic.

But most of insect species, inhabit in the regions where seasonal

variation takes parts that alter the development of the insects.

Component responses for seasonal adaptation of insects as

dispersal, habitat selection, habitat modification, resistance to
cold and dryness, food limitation, diapause, modifications of
development rate, sensitivity to environmental signals, life cycle
patterns including multiple alternatives in one species and type
of variation in phenology and development.
• Insects species have a unique set of eco- physiological
adaptations that underlie its seasonal cycle.
• Seasonal cycles also strongly influence interactions between
organisms, the major example being the seasonal synchrony
between host and parasite.

Phenotypic expression of insect seasonal cycles

• The life cycles of insects include four main phases:

reproduction, growth and development, dormancy, and
movement and migration.
The major strategies that found in insect life cycle for adaptation
in the environment are as :
• Migration
• Dormancy

Migration : It may consists of simply flight from emergence site

to another place where growth and development can continue.
For e.g., Monarch butterfly migrate from one place to another
for adaptation.
Dormancy : Dormancy is an inactive state associated with the
metabolic depression and arrested development that promotes
the survival of insects during periods or harsh environment
conditions, including high or low temperature or moisture
conditions and reduced food quality and availability.
Dormancy includes following topic as
1) Summer dormancy
i) Quiescence
ii) Heat torpor
iii) Summer diapause(Aestivation)
2) Winter dormancy
i) Quiescence
ii) Cold torpor
iii) Winter diapause (Hibernation)
• Torpor : In torpor the insect expose to the short spell of
adverse weather condition results halt the activity and
development of insect instead of killing it.

• Quiescence : Long duration, affect the life cycle of insect,

with the change in environment dormancy of insect will be
breakdown.

• Quiescence is the simplest form of dormancy where

development is temporarily inhibited by unfavorable
environmental and is immediately resumed with onset of
favorable conditions.
• Some animals become quiescent due to extreme low
temperature in winter is termed hibernation or extreme high
and temperature in summer is called aestivation that may last
for a number of weeks and as soon as the temperature
becomes normal these insects resume activity.
• Diapauses is the genetically determined state of suppressed
development, the expression of which may be controlled by
environmental factors .
• This is the mechanism developed by insects to survive under
adverse conditions and is most often observed in insects that
live in temperate region.
 Preparation of diapauses condition
1. Storage of food: Insect reserves the food material in fat
bodies and reduce metabolism.
2. Reduction of free water: Insects reduce free water and
conserve in form of bond water in the body.
3. Decrease in metabolism: Metabolism is reduced to lower
the rate to minimize the loss of reserved food materials.
4. Low consumption of oxygen: Physiological processes are
restricted and required oxygen is minimized for the process.
5. Stop feeding: All insects prepare themselves to reduce
feeding and stop completely before entering into diapauses.
 Types of diapauses
1. Obligatory: All individual enter in diapauses and produce
a single generation every year termed univoltines and are usually
indecently of any alteration in the environment.

2. Facultative: On the other hand, many insect species have

more than one or several generations in a year. They are
known as multivoltines and the diapauses are facultative.

In this case, some or all individuals of certain generation go in

diapauses. Mulberry silkworms have univoltine and multivoltines
races while some strains are completely free of diapauses
responding differently to environmentally factors.
 Diapauses occurring stages in insects
Diapauses occurs in all the events of life cycle i.e. in eggs, larvae,
and adult stages
1. Egg stages: With the grasshopper the diapauses sets in
eggs stage. Bivoltine silkworm eggs laid in autumn diapauses in
egg stage itself.
2. Larva stage: Cutworm, bollworm and corn borers do not
feed during larval stage in which their life is arrested.
3. Pupa stage: Cutworm and Helicoverpa enter into
prolonged duration in pupa stage.
4. Adult stage: Adults of Heteroptera and Coleopteran do
not develop gonad and remain in no feeding conditions.
 Diapauses influencing factors
1. Photoperiod (Day length): Insects in which diapauses is
induced by short day length are known as Short day species
i.e. Bombyx mori. Insects in which diapauses is induced by the
long day length are called Long day species, i.e. Pectinophora
gossypiella.
2. Temperature: The gravid female of insect that diapauses or
hibernate (Hypera sp) requires an exposure to a lower
temperature before they lay eggs.
3. Food : Chrysoperla carnea fed with wheat and honey ended
diapauses faster than those fed with less nutrient diets.
4. Water : European corn borer requires water absorption to
activate neuroendocrine system and complete diapauses. Lack
of moisture in food induces diapauses in pink bollworm.
 Aestivation
• Aestivation is generally defined as a type of dormancy, which is
a survival strategy used to sustain lack of food and other
extreme conditions.
• Some insects have ability to remain dormant during
unfavourable summer months when there is water scarcity or
intense heat.
• Normally in insects, during summer the adults die but the eggs
& pupae survive by remaining dormant.
 Hibernation

• Hibernation refers to period of winter dormancy.

• Overwintering is a synonym used for hibernation in insects.
• Hibernation is a behavior in which insects have evolved to
survive in harsh environmental cues.
• In temperate regions, insects undergo hibernation in different
life stages i.e, egg, larval , pupal and adult stages.
 Seasonal cycles in stink bugs
• All the seasonal cycles realized by pentatomids in the
temperate zone can be divided into two large groups:
univoltine and multivoltine cycles.
• For e.g., obligate embryonic (egg) diapause (e.g.,
Picromerus bidens and Apateticus cynicus), obligate
nymphal diapause (e.g., Pentatoma rufipes) or obligate
adult (reproductive) diapause (e.g., Palomena prasina,
Palomena angulosa, and Menida scotti)
 SERICULTURE
Silkworm rearing and Management
Mulberry Garden Management
 Introduction
• Sericulture : Derived from two words ‘ Sericos’ - Silk and
‘Culture’ – rearing .
• Sericulture is the rearing of silkworms for the production of
raw silk.
• The major activities performed in sericulture are as :
 Mulberry cultivation
 Silkworm rearing
 Production & Processing of silk
Silk is produced by the two glands present in silkworm’s head.
Silk is called queen of the textiles.
 History
 Sericulture development in Nepal was initiated by the Rana Prime minister
Chandra Shamsher.
 In 1940, silkworm rearing exhibition in Kathmandu Rana prime minister
Judha Shamsher.
 In 1950, mulberry sapling planted in godawari.
 1967-1968 : A prefeasibility study of sericulture in Nepal by japanese
exports suggested as high yielding bivoltine cocoons and raw silk of
international quality.
 In 1989 FAO experts analyzed existing conditions of local mulberry varieties,
silkworm egg supply and other infrastructure conditions.
 In 1998, sericulture for rural development program was launched. The
program was launched in seven district viz, Palpa, Syangja, Dhading,
Chitwan, Kavre, Kathmandu, Illam.
 At present, Center For Industrial Entomology Development under the
Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock Development looks after silk
production and bee keeping, mushroom cultivation.
 Economic Importance
1) Silk – Queen of fibers, admire all over the world due to it’s beauty,
color and effect.
2) Filament of mulberry silkworm is used for water absorption,
dyeing, thermo-tolerance, insulation, luster.
3) Silkworm pupae are used for oil extraction, protein extraction,
amino acid, vitamin B2, vitamin K, vitamin E.
4) Excreta of silkworm larvae are used for chlorophyll extraction, acid
resistant plastic sheet preparation, good source of organic manure.
5) Every part of mulberry pant are utilized.
Leaves………………..silkworm feeding, foliage for livestock
Fruit…………………….Wine preparation
Bark………………………High grade fiber
Root………………………Prevent soil erosion.
6) Employment opportunity , family friendly occupation.
 Classification of Mulberry Silkworm

Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Sub-class: Pterygota
Division: Endopterygota
Order: Lepidoptera
Family: Bombycidae
Genus: Bombyx
Species: B.mori
 Species of Silkworm

Mulberry silkworm belong to Bombycidae family whereas,

others belongs to Saturniidae family.
1) Mulberry silkworm : Bombyx mori , feed on the
mulberry plant , 90% of silk production in world.
2) Tasar silkworm : Antheraea mylitta, feed on Shorea
robusta (sal), Syzygium cumini (Jamun).
3) Eri silkworm : Samia ricini, feed on caster plant (Ricinus
communis).
4) Muga silkworm : Antheraea assamensis, feed on
aromatic leaves.
Life cycle
 Biology of silkworm / Life cycle
Eggs
• Univoltine race …….Deposit egg in spring
Undergo dipause
Hatch out in next spring
• Multivoltine race……..Lays non –hibernating eggs
2-7 generation a year
 Eggs are laid in clusters on the surface of mulberry leaf or
artificially prepared butter cups.
 400-500 eggs
 9-11 days to hatch out
 Biology of silkworm/ life cycle

Larva
 Newly hatched, tiny dark or black colour
 Five larval instar
 First three instar – Young worms
 Last two – Grown- up worms
 Tiny larvae after hatching feed up in the mulberry leaves.
 Last instar larvae raise their head begin to spin .
 Larval stages lasts for 18 -24 days.
Pupae
Fully grown larvae produces a long continuous strand of
silk from silk gland to form an oval cocoon which takes
about 1-2 days to finish.
Cocoon is oval shape and white or yellow in color.
After completing the process of silk secretion (constant
movement of head of the fully grown larvae( 55-65 turns
per minute)).
Pupation lasts for 11-14 days.
Adult
Adult emerge out from the cocoon.
Creamy white color
Male < Female
Male died after few days of mating .
 Methods of rearing silkworms
Temperature requirement for silkworm rearing: 25 to 30 °C and
humidity: 70 to 80% RH.
A. Cultivation of mulberry plants-----Moriculture
Mulberry silkworm are the monophagous insects, they required
high quality of the mulberry leaves to produce the
1) Climate & Soil
 Plain & Sloppy Area
 Loam to sandy loam soil
 50%-60% moisture
 20° - 30° C temperature
 100-500 mm rainfall
 Necessary nutrients and required irrigation
2) Planting : At field preparation, recommended dose of fertilizer
applied on the basis of soil test.
Propagated by :
Sapling : Sexually through seed. Planted during spring season.
Cutting : 22-23 cm long with 3-4 buds are obtained from mature
stem. Firstly in nursery than field.
Planting number varies with location, variety, planting & pruning
system.
In close spacing high density ,
9600 Plants/hec, in wide spacing 6,000 plants per hec.
Pruning of the plant ( growth and sprouting of new shoots)
3) Harvesting
Harvesting of leaves for feeding larvae is done in three ways:
• Leaf picking
• Branch cutting
• Top shoot harvesting
It is estimated that 20,000 to 25,000 kg of leaves can be
harvested per hectare per year under optimum conditions.

Yield : 25-30 ton / hectare

 B. Rearing equipment's
1) Rack (Bamboo rack for placement of caterpillar)
2) Rearing trays ( made up of bamboo for keeping eggs)
3) Circular trays
4) Ant well ( prevent crawling of ants on tray)
5) Paraffin paper (used for rearing early instars, prevent
transpiration loss)
6) Baskets (Baskets are used to fetch leaves)
7) Chopping knife (To cut leaves)
8) Hygrometers and thermometers (Humidity & temperature)
9) Feeding stand (Used for holding trays during feeding &bed
cleaning)
10) Mountages (Used to support silkworm for spinning
cocoons.)
 C. Procedure of Sericulture
Parental seed cocoons are reared under optimum
conditions.
1) Seed cocoon preservation: Well aerated, 23-25
°C, 75-80% RH, Spread in single layer in tray.
2) Separation of sexes: Sexual dimorphism
observed in pupal stage. Before emergence of
moth, the two sexes race are separated.
3) Pairing of adults after emergence : Adults
emerge after 12-14 days of cocoon formation.
Healthy male and female are selected for mating.
4) Allowing oviposition
Several methods by which eggs of moths are procured.
 Cellular bag method
 Cellular card method
 Flat card method
5) Rearing of silkworm
1) Preparation of rearing room
65-78°F, room should be disinfected by spraying 2-4%
formaldehyde. Room is kept open for another 24 hours.
2) Rearing Environment
Temperature and humidity should be differ with the growth of
silkworm.
3) Ant collection
Hatching of silkworm egg takes place in morning time.
A suitable time for collection is after 3-4 hours of hatching.
Hatched larvae uniformly crawl on tender leaves and start to feeds.
4) Feeding worms
Silkworm larvae feeding varies with their stages.
1-3 instars : Feeds on superior quality leaves
4-5 instars : Feeds on whole leaves, shoots and small branches in trays
or on the floor.
Feeding is done 4-7 times in a day .
5) Bed cleaning
Bed cleaning is frequently required .
Excreta of worm may enhance the disease.
For 1st stage –once cleaning that increase with the successive instar.
As food consumption rate and the by products increases.
6) Spacing
Silkworms grow and develop very fast.
With increase in instar , the required space should be increase.

Table 1. Optimum temperature and humidity, spacing and bed cleaning, and
feeding requirements of worms (one box egg) during different instars.

Instar Temperature Humidity Spacing Bed cleaning Feeding

(°C) (%) (m) (freq) (kg)
I 27-28 85 0.82 1-2 1.54
II 26-27 85 1.64 2-3 5.10
III 25-26 80 3.28 3-4 18.50
IV 23-25 75 7.30 3-4 137.50
V 22-24 70 18.90 4-8 875.00
7. Moulting
 5 instars, 4 moulting stage
 At each moulting, worms stop feeding, the separation of cuticle
take s place.
 Newly molted worms have a larger head loose and less shiny skin
and have more appetite.
 Humidity should be reduced to 70%.
8. Mounting
 Transferring mature fifth instar larvae to mountages is called
mounting.
 When the larvae fully mature, translucent, stop feeding, body
shrinks, and start searching a suitable place for spinning and
pupation.
 By continuous movement of head, silk fluid is released in minute
quantity which hardens to form a long continuous filament.
9. Cocoon harvest
Harvesting time should be exact. For univoltine or
bivoltine, seven or eighth days of spinning where, for
multivoltine fifth or sixth days of spinning.
Stifling : The process of killing pupa inside cocoon is termed
as stifling.
Reeling : The process of removing the threads from killed
cocoon is called reeling.
Spun silk : The outer layers of cocoons and damaged
cocoons are combed, teased and then spun into filaments
which is known as Spun silk.
 Silkworm pests
Silkworm diseases and pests
1) Diseases
 Grasserie
 Flacherie
 Muscardine
 Pebrine
2) Pests
 Tachnid fly
 Diseases
1) Grasserie or Milky disease
Causal agent : Virus (Bombyx mori Nuclear Polyhedrosis Virus)
Symptoms
Swelling of larval body
Weak integument, breakdown release milky fluid.
Management
Practice disinfection and hygiene.
Dust calcium hydroxide (slaked lime) on silkworm settled for moult.
2) Flacherie
Causal agent : Virus - cum- bacterial disease
Symptoms
Infected larvae become thin, give out the green fluid & die.
Management
Bleaching powder solution mixed with leaf helps reducing larval mortality.
3) Muscardine
Causal agent : Fungus, white muscardine ( Beauveria bassiana)
Symptoms
Infected worms become soft and die and mummified with mould of different
color may be green, white or yellow.
Management
Disinfection of rearing room with 3-5% formalin solution.
4) Pebrine
Causal agent : Nosema bombysis (Protozoans) affects the larvae and adults.
Disease transmitted through eggs.
Symptoms
Loss of appetite, retard growth, irregular moulting, disease larvae reveal pale
and flaccid body.
Management
Egg from healthy mothers should be selected.
Disinfecting of eggs in 4% formalin solution.
 Pests

Tachnid fly
 Adults female lays eggs in the insect pest body.
 Upon hatching, maggots bore into the insects body of worms
and develop inside.
Management
2% bleaching powder mixed with leaves and fed to the last instar
larvae prevents their entry into the room.
Thank You
 Insect Morphology

Thorax: segmentation, structure, legs and their

modification

Wing venation and their modifications

Abdomen: segmentation, structure and

appendages
 Thorax
The insect thorax composed of three segments:
• Anterior prothorax
• Middle mesothorax
• Posterior metathorax

Each segments bears a pair of legs.

• The last two segments often called as pterothorax may bears
wings.
• Synthorax : Mesothorax and metathorax are fused. E.g.
Dragonfly.
• Propodeum : First segment of abdomen fused with thorax E.g.
Bee, Wasp.
• Each thoracic segment typically can be divided into four
distinct regions :
 A dorsal tergum
 A pair of bilateral pleura
 A ventral sternum

 Sclerite of dorsal region of thorax is tergum or notum in case

of winged insects, ventral region is called sternum and lateral
region is called pleuron.

 Legs origin : Pleura and sterna meet

 Wings origin : Tergal and pleural region meet
Notum divided into three parts :
 Prescutum
 Scutum Alinotum
 Scutellum

Sternum divided into 3 main regions

 Presternum
 Basisternum
 Sternellum

Pleuron divided into

 Episternum
 Epimeron
Insect legs and their
modifications
 Structure of legs
Typical legs consist of six parts
1) Coxa : It is the basal segment articulated with the thorax in
the pleural region.
2) Trochanter : It is the small second segment articulated with
coxa.
3) Femur : It is the first thickest largest and stoutest segment of
insect leg.
4) Tibia : It is the slender and second largest part of the leg
articulated with the femur by dicondylic joint.
5) Tarsus : Tarsus is the subdivided into 2 to 5 tarsomeres.
Pretarsus is the end of the tarsus that bears claws and pegs and
placed flat upon the ground.
The basic walking legs show modifications in various ways to
serve different functions. The followings are the major
modifications of insect legs:

1.Fossorial or digging: The legs modified for digging are best

known in mole crickets. The forelegs are very short and broad,
the tibia and tarsomeres bearing stout lobes which are used in
digging.
2.Cursorial or walking-running type: A typical insect leg used for
walking. It has five segmented tarsus, both femur and tibia bears
spines. Eg. Mesothoracic legs of cockroach.
3.Saltatorial or jumping type: Hind femur is greatly enlarged.
The power for jumping is provided by sudden extension of the
hind tibia. Eg. Hind legs of grasshopper.
4. Raptorial or grasping legs: Coxa is elongated; femur and tibia
bear rows of spines. This type of leg modification is found in
predatory insects and helps in catching the prey. Eg. Forelegs of
praying mantids.
5. Natatorial or swimming: Coxa is long, tibias and tarsi bear
hairs and flattened to form an oar like structure for swimming.
Eg. Hind legs of water scavenger beetle.
6.Scansorial or clinging type: Tarsus is single segmented and
terminated into a powerful claw for clinging. Eg. Fore legs of
body louse.
7.Polleniferous or pollen carrying: The femur and tibia of hind
legs are provided with brush like hairs; the tibia is broadened
with concave outer surface fringed with long curved spines and
acts as pollen basket. Eg. The workers of Honey bee.
Insect wings and their
modifications
 Introduction
• The insects are the only invertebrates having the wings.
• Wings are the outgrowth of the body wall located
dorsolaterally between the tergal and pleural sclerites.

Some major functions of the wings are:

 Forage far and wide to find suitable food.
 Fly quickly from enemies and other dangers.
 Disperse widely and intimately to find mates and lay eggs.
 Select nesting sites not accessible to many of their animal
enemies.
Apterygotes :
(Silverfish, springtails)
vs Pterygotes :
Wings bearing ( Lice, fleas )

Exopterygotes vs
Endopterygotes:
 Wings & it’s structure
The wings appear as the thin or thick transparent or leathery ,
partially pigmented or dark sclerotized fan like, flattened
membranous structures.

The wings bear group of sclerites at their base, a complex of

longitudinal and cross veins throughout the wing body and
various types of sense organs and pigments.

The wing areas : The margins of wings are named as the anterior
margin or costal margin, the posterior margin or anal margin and
outer margin or apical margin.
 Wing venation
• The veins are hollow, sclerotised structures and each is
typically provided with a nerve, trachea and the circulating
blood.
Comstock-Needham system of nomenclature was followed as:
1 ) Longitudinal veins :
a) The costa ( C ): It is anterior marginal vein.
b) The subcosta (Sc): It is the second vein and distally divided
into two branches.
c) The radius (R) : It starts from the anterior end of the
secondary axillary sclerite at the base of the wing. The third
vein is the radius (R), which is branched into five separate
veins. The radius is generally the strongest vein of the wing.
Toward the middle of the wing, it forks into a first undivided
branch (R1) and a second branch, called the radial sector
(RS), which subdivides into four distal branches (R2, R3, R4,
R5).
d) The media (M) : It is the fourth major vein , starting from the
distal medial plate and mostly fused with the radius , which has
four terminal branches (M1, M2, M3, M4).
e) The cubitus (Cu) : It is the fifth vein and starts from the distal
medial plate at the wing base. The primary forking of the takes
place near the base of the wing, forming the two principal
branches (Cu1, Cu2).
f) The anal (A) : This veins start from the base of the third axillary
sclerite and constitute three veins at the anal regions(A1, A2,
A3).
g) The Jugal veins (J) : Two unbranched jugal veins present in
some insects.
2) Cross veins
Longitudinal veins are linked each other by the cross veins as :
a) Humeral (h)
b) Radial (r)
c) Sectoral (s)
d) Radio-medial (rm)
e) Media (m)
f) Media-cubital (m-cu)
g) Cubito-anal (cu-a)

A1 Cu2 Cu1b Cu1a

 Modification of wings

• The wings are the organs of aerial locomotion and have gone
extensive adaptive modifications. The followings are the
major:
1. Elytron: The forewing thickened, leathery or hard sheath like
and arched forming a protective armour or protective dress
for membranous hind wings. These are not useful in flight.
Eg: beetles and weevils.
2. Hemielytron: Partly thickened or hardened mesothoracic
wings at the half base with distal portion membranous. For eg.
True bugs.

3. Scaly: The fore and hind wings are covered with scales or
setae but have few cross veins. Eg: butterflies and moths, Order
Lepidoptera
4. Halter: The metathoracic wings rudimentary, not functional,
slender proximately and modified into a small knob like structure
to form a balancing organ called halters distally. The
mesothoracic wing is membranous. Eg: house fly, mosquito,
Order Diptera.
5. Stigma: Thickened opaque spot along the costal margin of
equal sized, net veined, membranous wings. Eg: dragonflies
and damselflies

6. Fringed: Wing slender having well developed fringes or long

hairs, which is feather like in appearance. It functions in
flight. Eg: thrips, Order Thysanoptera.

7. Tegmina: The mesothoracic wings elongated, thickened,

parchment like with many veins. The metathoracic wings are
wider, membranous, fanlike or folded. Its function is to protect
hind wings. Eg: grasshoppers, cockroaches and mantids.
8. Hamuli: Series of minute hooks present on the anterior
margins of hind wings called hamuli. Eg: honey bees and wasps.

9. Membranous: Both fore and hind wings are thin, firm and
more or less transparent with well-developed venation. Eg:
dragonflies.
 Abdomen is the third or hind part of the insect body.

 The segmentation of the abdomen takes place as soon as

the segmentation of head and thorax has been completed.

 Abdomen of embryo of various insects : 12

 The usual number of segments in the abdomen of adult

insect is 9 or 10 or 11.
 Collembola order insect : 6

 It is more obviously segmental in origin, consisting of a series

of similar segments but with posterior segments modified for
mating and oviposition.

 The female gonopore is usually on or posterior to the eighth or

ninth segments.

 The male external copulatory apparatus is usually borne on

the ninth abdominal segments.
 Abdominal appendages:

The various appendages present in abdomen are genitalia

appendages, cerci, caudal filaments and pre genital appendages.

The pterygote adults are devoid of any appendages in the

abdomen but occurs in larva.

The major abdominal appendages may be classified into three

major heading which are given as follows:
 Pregenital appendages
The appendages prior to eighth segments are called pre-genital
appendages.
1) Styliform appendages
Apterygota commonly have the styliform pregential appendages.
Styliform appendages located on abdominal segments 7-9.
2) Collembolan appendages
Upto 3 abdominal segments, a median lobe called ventral tube
projects and at its tip long and tubular eversible vesicles are present
in pair.
The ventral tube functions as an adhesive organ to walk over smooth
and steep surfaces and also helps to absorb the water from the
substratum.
3) Cornicles
 Aphids have secretory structure on the abdomen projecting
from the dorsum of 5th or 6th segment have the defensive
function.
 Release alarm pheromone
4) Gills
 Many aquatic larvae bears the gills in the body.
 Gills help in gaseous exchange with the water.
5. Prolegs or pseudolegs
Except 3 pairs of thoracic legs,leg like outgrowths of the body
wall in abdominal region of holometabolous insects called
prolegsor pseudolegs or false legs.
On the basis of prolegs,
Caterpillar : larvae with 5 pairs of prolegs, one pair each on 3-6
and 10 segments. E.g. cabbage butterfly larvae.
Pseudocaterpillar: The larvae with 6-9 pairs of prolegs one pair
each on 2 to 7th segments, example: mustard sawfly larvae.
Loopers: Larvae with only 2 pairs of prolegs one pair each on 6th
and 10th segments, example inchworm larvae.
Semiloopers: The larvae with 3 pairs of prolegs, example
cabbage semi-loopers.
 Genital appendages

• The genital segments 8-10th in male and 8th and 9th in female
bear a group of appendages commonly called the genital
organs and they constitute a well-defined male and female
external genitalia respectively.

• The main genital organ in the male the intromittent organ or

terminalia or aedeagus or penis while in the female is the
ovipositor.

• In fruit fly, the tips of abdomen is hardened and forms a sharp

point enabling to insert its eggs in small holes and cervices.
 Post genital appendages

1) Cerci
A pair of sensory structures on 11th abdominal segments.
In mayfly and silverfish cerci are long and filamentous.
In cockroach the cerci is segmented.
In earwigs female has powerful, straight and unarmed forceps
like cerci and male cerci are incurved.
2) Caudal filaments
In silverfish and mayfly a median process projecting from the last
segment resembling the cerci is called media caudal filament.

3) Terminal spines
The 10th abdominal segment of hawk moths bear spine like
structures called terminal spine.