Exercise
Given is a cross-sectional view of a groundwater system, for top to bottom consisting of a phreatic
(unconfined) aquifer, an aquitard, and an artesian (confined) aquifer. The dimensions, the hydraulic
conductivities and the porosities are shown in the figure. The groundwater heads is measured in six
locations with piezometers; indicated in the figure are the long term average values, written next to
the screens of the piezometers. Calculate the groundwater flows, fluxes, flow rates, velocities, and
water balance. Consider a width of 1000 m in the third dimension, perpendicular to the cross-
section. Also, estimate the groundwater recharge and the travel time of water particles that start in
the phreatic aquifer at the far side of the valley and move to the river according to different possible
flow paths.
1000 m 1000 m
Water table
Ground surface
350.0
river m
346.5 m Phreatic aquifer:
n=0.30 K=6 m/d
15 m 340.0 m
Aquitard:
15 m n=0.45 K=0.05 m/d
340.5 m 346.4 m Artesian aquifer: 349.7 m
30 m
n=0.15 K=5 m/d
1
Solution
The groundwater flows are (because the hydraulic conductivity of the aquitard is very low, the
horizontal draw in the aquitard will be neglected)
1000 m 1000 m
Water table
Ground surface
350.0
river m
346.5 m
2 3
1
15 m 340.0 m
15 m 4 6
5
340.5 m 346.4 m 349.7 m
30 m
7 8 9
The groundwater fluxes can be calculated with the Darcy’s law
𝑑ℎ 𝛥ℎ
𝑞=𝐾∗ =𝐾∗
𝑑𝑙 𝛥𝑙
1000 m 1000 m
Water table
Ground surface
350.0 m
river
346.5 m
15 m 340.0 m q = 0,021 m/d
q = 0,039 m/d
15 m q = 0,001 m/d
q = 0,00033 m/d
340.5 m 346.4 m 349.7 m
30 m
q = 0,00167 m/d q = 0,0295 m/d q = 0,0165 m/d
2
The different groundwater fluxes have been calculated as follow
𝛥ℎ 𝑚 350 𝑚 − 346,5 𝑚 𝑚
𝑞3→2 = 𝐾 ∗ =6 ∗ = 0,021
𝛥𝑙 𝑑 1000 𝑚 𝑑
𝛥ℎ 𝑚 346,5 𝑚 − 340 𝑚 𝑚
𝑞2→1 = 𝐾 ∗ =6 ∗ = 0,039
𝛥𝑙 𝑑 1000 𝑚 𝑑
𝛥ℎ 𝑚 349,7 𝑚 − 346,4 𝑚 𝑚
𝑞9→8 = 𝐾 ∗ =5 ∗ = 0,0165
𝛥𝑙 𝑑 1000 𝑚 𝑑
𝛥ℎ 𝑚 346,4 𝑚 − 340,5 𝑚 𝑚
𝑞8→7 = 𝐾 ∗ =5 ∗ = 0,0295
𝛥𝑙 𝑑 1000 𝑚 𝑑
For the vertical fluxes we assume that the potential difference is only across the aquitard, because
the aquitard have a hydraulic conductivity much lower than the other two layers.
𝛥ℎ 𝑚 350 𝑚 − 349,7 𝑚 𝑚
𝑞3→6 = 𝑞6→9 = 𝐾 ∗ = 0,05 ∗ = 0,001
𝛥𝑙 𝑑 15 𝑚 𝑑
𝛥ℎ 𝑚 346,5 𝑚 − 346,4 𝑚 𝑚
𝑞2→5 = 𝑞5→8 = 𝐾 ∗ = 0,05 ∗ = 0,00033
𝛥𝑙 𝑑 15 𝑚 𝑑
𝛥ℎ 𝑚 340,5 𝑚 − 340 𝑚 𝑚
𝑞4→1 = 𝑞7→4 = 𝐾 ∗ = 0,05 ∗ = 0,00167
𝛥𝑙 𝑑 15 𝑚 𝑑
The groundwater flow rates can be calculated as
𝑑ℎ 𝛥ℎ
𝑄 =𝑆∗𝐾∗ =𝑆∗𝐾∗ =𝑆∗𝑞
𝑑𝑙 𝛥𝑙
1000 m 1000 m
Water table
Ground surface
350.0
river m
346.5 m
15 m 340.0 m Q = 488 m³/d
Q = 712 m³/d m/d
15 m Q = 500 m³/d
Q = 333 m³/d
340.5 m 346.4 m 349.7 m
30 m
Q = 833 m/d Q = 885 m³/d Q = 495 m³/d
3
The different groundwater flow rates have been calculated as follow
𝑚 𝑚3
𝑄3→2 = 𝑆 ∗ 𝑞3→2 = 23,25 𝑚 ∗ 1000 𝑚 ∗ 0,021 = 488
𝑑 𝑑
𝑚 𝑚3
𝑄2→1 = 𝑆 ∗ 𝑞2→1 = 18,25 𝑚 ∗ 1000 𝑚 ∗ 0,039 = 712
𝑑 𝑑
𝑚 𝑚3
𝑄9→8 = 𝑆 ∗ 𝑞9→8 = 30 𝑚 ∗ 1000 𝑚 ∗ 0,0165 = 495
𝑑 𝑑
𝑚 𝑚3
𝑄8→7 = 𝑆 ∗ 𝑞8→7 = 30 𝑚 ∗ 1000 𝑚 ∗ 0,0295 = 885
𝑑 𝑑
𝑚 𝑚3
𝑄3→6 = 𝑄6→9 = 𝑆 ∗ 𝑞3→6 = 𝑆 ∗ 𝑞6→9 = 500 𝑚 ∗ 1000 𝑚 ∗ 0,001 = 500
𝑑 𝑑
𝑚 𝑚3
𝑄2→5 = 𝑄5→8 = 𝑆 ∗ 𝑞2→5 = 𝑆 ∗ 𝑞5→8 = 1000 𝑚 ∗ 1000 𝑚 ∗ 0,00033 = 333
𝑑 𝑑
𝑚 𝑚3
𝑄4→1 = 𝑄7→4 = 𝑆 ∗ 𝑞4→1 = 𝑆 ∗ 𝑞7→4 = 500 𝑚 ∗ 1000 𝑚 ∗ 0,00167 = 833
𝑑 𝑑
The groundwater velocities are given by (formula 1 p 25 part1 groundwater hydrology)
𝐾 ∗ 𝑑ℎ 𝑞
𝑣= =
𝑛 ∗ 𝑑𝑙 𝑛
1000 m 1000 m
Water table
Ground surface
350.0
river m
346.5 m
15 m 340.0 m v = 0,07 m/d
v = 0,13 m/d
15 m v = 0,00222 m/d
v = 0,00074 m/d
340.5 m 346.4 m 349.7 m
30 m
v = 0,0037 m/d v = 0,1967 m/d v = 0,11 m/d
4
For each of the nine cells we will make a water balance. In the perfect case the input must be equal
to the output, but they are always errors on the measured potential heights and the calculations are
also rounded.
1000 m 1000 m
Water table
Ground surface
350.0
river Q = 488 m³/d m
346.5 m
Q = 712 m³/d m/d 3
2
1
15 m 340.0 m
15 m Q = 333 m³/d Q = 500 m³/d
4 5 6
Q = 833 m/d
340.5 m 346.4 m 349.7 m
30 m
7 8 9
Q = 885 m³/d Q = 495 m³/d
Cell 6
𝑚3
𝑄𝑖𝑛 = 𝑄3→6 = 500
𝑑
𝑚3
𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑄6→9 = 500
𝑑
𝑚3
⇒ 𝑄𝑖𝑛 = 𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 500
𝑑
Cell 5
𝑚3
𝑄𝑖𝑛 = 𝑄2→5 = 333
𝑑
𝑚3
𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑄5→8 = 333
𝑑
𝑚3
⇒ 𝑄𝑖𝑛 = 𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 333
𝑑
Cell 4
𝑚3
𝑄𝑖𝑛 = 𝑄1→4 = 833
𝑑
5
𝑚3
𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑄4→7 = 833
𝑑
𝑚3
⇒ 𝑄𝑖𝑛 = 𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 833
𝑑
For previous tree cells we remark that there is no problem with the water balance, the input is the
same as the output. We also observe that the water balance through the aquitard layer is ok. Right of
the river there goes a flow rate of 833 m³/d through the aquitard to the artesian (confined) aquifer.
Under the river there goes also a flow rate of 833 m³/d through the aquitard from the artesian
aquifer to the river. The water balance for the other cells is
Cell 9
𝑚3
𝑄𝑖𝑛 = 𝑄6→9 = 500
𝑑
𝑚3
𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑄9→8 = 495
𝑑
⇒ 𝑄𝑖𝑛 ≈ 𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡
In this case there is a little difference between the input and the output.
Cell 8
𝑚3
𝑄𝑖𝑛,𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 𝑄9→8 = 495
𝑑
𝑚3
𝑄𝑖𝑛,𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒 = 𝑄5→8 = 333
𝑑
𝑚3 𝑚3 𝑚3
𝑄𝑖𝑛 = 𝑄𝑖𝑛,𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 + 𝑄𝑖𝑛,𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒 = 495 + 333 = 828
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
𝑚3
𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑄8→7 = 885
𝑑
⇒ 𝑄𝑖𝑛 ≈ 𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡
In this case the difference between the input and the output is more than in the previous case.
Cell 7
𝑚3
𝑄𝑖𝑛 = 𝑄8→7 = 885
𝑑
𝑚3
𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑄7→4 = 833
𝑑
⇒ 𝑄𝑖𝑛 ≈ 𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡
As in the previous case, there is a difference between the input en the output.
6
Cell 1
The input flow rate is (in this cell we may neglect the groundwater recharge)
𝑚3
𝑄𝑖𝑛,𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 𝑄2→1 = 712
𝑑
𝑚3
𝑄𝑖𝑛,𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 = 𝑄4→1 = 833
𝑑
𝑚3 𝑚3 𝑚3
𝑄𝑖𝑛 = 𝑄𝑖𝑛,𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 + 𝑄𝑖𝑛,𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 = 712 + 833 = 1545
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
In this case the output is the flow rate to the river, it is given by
𝑚3
𝑄𝑡𝑜 𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟 = 𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 1545
𝑑
Cell 3
The output flow rates are given by
𝑚3
𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡,𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 = 𝑄3→2 = 488
𝑑
𝑚3
𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡,𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 = 𝑄3→6 = 500
𝑑
𝑚3 𝑚3 𝑚3
𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡,𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 + 𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡,𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 = 488 + 500 = 988
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
The input flow rate is the groundwater recharge due to precipitation. In this cell the groundwater
recharge is consequently given by
𝑚3
𝑄𝑟𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒,𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙3 = 𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡,𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙3 = 988
𝑑
Cell 2
𝑚3
𝑄𝑖𝑛 = 𝑄3→2 = 488
𝑑
𝑚3
𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡,𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 = 𝑄2→1 = 712
𝑑
𝑚3
𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡,𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 = 𝑄2→5 = 333
𝑑
𝑚3 𝑚3 𝑚3
𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡,𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 + 𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡,𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 = 712 + 333 = 1045
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
The groundwater balance for this cell is given by
𝑄𝑟𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒,𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙2 + 𝑄𝑖𝑛 = 𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡
7
The groundwater recharge in this cell is consequently given by
𝑚3 𝑚3 𝑚3
𝑄𝑟𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒,𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙2 = 𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝑄𝑖𝑛 = 1045 − 488 = 557
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
The total groundwater recharge is given by
𝑚3 𝑚3 𝑚3
𝑄𝑟𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 = 𝑄𝑟𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒,𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙3 + 𝑄𝑟𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒,𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙2 = 988 + 557 = 1545
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
The global water balance says that the groundwater recharge is equal to the flow rate that goes to
the river
𝑄𝑟𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 = 𝑄𝑡𝑜 𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟 ? ? ?
𝑚3
𝑄𝑟𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 = 1545
𝑑
𝑚3
𝑄𝑡𝑜 𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟 = 1545
𝑑
⇒ 𝑄𝑟𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 = 𝑄𝑡𝑜 𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑂𝐾
Below in the figures there is an estimation of the travel time of water particles that start in the
phreatic aquifer at the far side of the valley and move to the river according to different possible flow
paths.
1000 m 1000 m
Water table
Ground surface
350.0
river m
346.5 m
15 m 340.0 m v = 0,07 m/d
v = 0,13 m/d
15 m
𝐿1 𝐿2 1000 𝑚 1000 𝑚
𝑡= + = 𝑚 + 𝑚 = 21978 𝑑 349.7 m
30 m
340.5 m 𝑣1 𝑣
346.4
2 0,07
m 0,13
𝑑 𝑑
= 60,2 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠
8
1000 m 1000 m
Water table
Ground surface
350.0
river m
346.5 m
15 𝑚 1000 𝑚 1000 𝑚 15 𝑚
𝑡= 𝑚+ 𝑚 + 𝑚+ 𝑚 = 24986 𝑑
15 m 340.0 m 0,00222 0,11 0,1967 0,0037
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
15 m = 68,5 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠 v = 0,00222 m/d
340.5 m 346.4 m 349.7 m
30 m
v = 0,0037 m/d v = 0,1967 m/d v = 0,11 m/d
1000 m 1000 m
Water table
Ground surface
350.0
river m
346.5 m
15 m 340.0 m v = 0,07 m/d
15 m v = 0,00074 m/d 1000 𝑚 15 𝑚 1000 𝑚
𝑡= 𝑚 + 𝑚+ 𝑚
0,07 0,00074 0,1967
340.5 m
𝑑 𝑑
349.7 m 𝑑
30 m 346.4 m 15 𝑚
+ 𝑚 = 43694 𝑑
v = 0,0037 m/d v = 0,1967 m/d 0,0037
𝑑
= 120 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠
We can see that it take much more time to move to the river if the water goes in the artesian
(confined) aquifer and passes through the aquitard.
