KHOA CƠ KHÍ
BỘ MÔN CHẾ TẠO MÁY
Manufacturing processes
PLASTICS AND COMPOSITE
MATERIALS
FORMING AND SHAPING
SHAPING PROCESSES FOR PLASTICS
1. Properties of Polymer Melts
2. Extrusion
3. Production of Sheet, Film, and Filaments
4. Coating Processes
5. Injection Molding
6. Other Molding Processes
7. Thermoforming
8. Casting
9. Polymer Foam Processing and Forming
10. Product Design Considerations
Plastic Products
• Plastics can be shaped into a wide variety of products:
• Molded parts
• Extruded sections
• Films
• Sheets
• Insulation coatings on electrical wires
• Fibers for textiles
Plastic Shaping Processes are Important
• Almost unlimited variety of part geometries
• Plastic molding is a net shape process
• Further shaping is not needed
• Less energy is required than for metals due to much lower processing
temperatures
• Handling of product is simplified during production because of lower
temperatures
• Painting or plating is usually not required
Two Types of Plastics
1. Thermoplastics
• Chemical structure remains unchanged during heating and shaping
• Comprises ~ 70% of total plastics tonnage
2. Thermosets
• Undergo a curing process during heating and shaping, causing a permanent
change in molecular structure (called cross-linking)
• Once cured, they cannot be remelted
3. Elastomer
Classification of Shaping Processes
• Extruded products with constant cross section
• Continuous sheets and films
• Continuous filaments (fibers)
• Molded parts that are mostly solid
• Hollow molded parts with relatively thin walls
• Discrete parts made of formed sheets and films
• Castings
• Foamed products
Polymer Melts
• To shape a thermoplastic polymer it must be heated so that it softens
to the consistency of a liquid
• In this form, it is called a polymer melt
• Important properties of polymer melts:
• Viscosity
• Viscoelasticity
• Fluid property that relates shear stress to shear rate during flow
• Due to its high molecular weight, a polymer melt is a thick fluid with high
viscosity
• Most polymer shaping processes involve flow through small channels or die
openings
• Flow rates are often large, leading to high shear rates and shear stresses, so significant
pressures are required in these processes
Viscosity and Shear Rate (tốc độ trượt)
• Viscosity of a polymer melt decreases
with shear rate
• Thus the fluid becomes thinner (flows
more easily) at higher shear rates
Viscosity and Temperature
• Viscosity
decreases with
temperature
• Thus the fluid
becomes thinner
at higher
temperatures
Viscoelasticity
• Combination of viscosity and elasticity
• Example: die swell in extrusion - hot plastic expands when exiting the
die opening (memory)
©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Extrusion
• Material is forced to flow through a die orifice to provide long
continuous product whose cross section is determined by the shape
of the orifice
• Widely used for thermoplastics and elastomers to mass produce items such as
tubing, pipes, hose, structural shapes, sheet and film, continuous filaments,
and coated electrical wire
• Carried out as a continuous process; extrudate is then cut into desired lengths
Extruder
• Components and features of a (single-screw) extruder for plastics and
elastomers
Extruder Components
• Two main components
of an extruder:
1. Barrel
2. Screw
• The die is not an
extruder component
• It is a special tool that
must be fabricated for
the particular profile to
be produced
Extruder Barrel
• Internal diameter typically ranges from 25 to 150 mm (1.0 to 6.0
in.)
• L/D ratios usually ~ 10 to 30: higher ratios for thermoplastics, lower
ratios for elastomers
• Feedstock fed by gravity onto screw whose rotation moves material
through barrel
• Electric heaters melt feedstock; subsequent mixing and mechanical
working adds heat which maintains the melt
Extruder Screw
• Divided into sections to serve several functions:
• Feed section - feedstock is moved from hopper and preheated
• Compression section - polymer is transformed into thick fluid, air
mixed with pellets is extracted from melt, and material is compressed
• Metering section - melt is homogenized and sufficient pressure
developed to pump it through die opening
Die End of Extruder
• Progress of polymer melt through barrel leads ultimately to the die
zone
• Before reaching the die, the melt passes through a screen pack -
series of wire meshes supported by a stiff plate containing small axial
holes
• Functions of screen pack:
• Filters out contaminants and hard lumps
• Builds pressure in metering section
• Straightens flow of polymer melt and removes its "memory" of circular
motion from screw
Die End of Extruder
Die Configurations and Extruded Products
• The shape of the die orifice determines the cross-sectional shape of
the extrudate
• Common die profiles and corresponding extruded shapes:
• Solid profiles
• Hollow profiles, such as tubes
• Wire and cable coating
• Sheet and film
• Filaments
Extrusion of Solid Profiles
• Regular shapes such as
• Rounds
• Squares
• Irregular cross sections such as
• Structural shapes
• Door and window moldings
• Automobile trim
• House siding
Extrusion Die for Solid Cross Section
• (a) Side view cross section of extrusion die for solid regular shapes,
such as round stock; (b) front view of die, with profile of extrudate
Hollow Profiles
• Examples: tubes, pipes, hoses, and other cross sections containing
holes
• Hollow profiles require mandrel to form the shape
• Mandrel held in place using spider legs
• Polymer melt flows around legs supporting the mandrel to reunite into a monolithic
tube wall
• Mandrel often includes an air channel for blowing air to maintain hollow
form of extrudate
Extrusion Die for Hollow Shapes
• Side view of extrusion die for hollow cross sections; Section A-A is a front
view of how mandrel is held in place; Section B-B shows tube prior to
exiting die; die swell enlarges diameter
Wire and Cable Coating
• Polymer melt is applied to bare wire as it is pulled at high speed
through die
• A slight vacuum is drawn between wire and polymer to promote
adhesion of coating
• Wire provides rigidity during cooling
• Usually aided by passing coated wire through a water trough
• Product is wound onto large spools at speeds up to 50 m/s
(10,000 ft/min)
Extrusion Die for Coating Wire
Polymer Sheet and Film
• Film - thickness below 0.5 mm (0.020 in.)
• Packaging - product wrapping material, grocery bags, and garbage bags
• Stock for photographic film
• Pool covers and irrigation ditch liners
• Sheet - thickness from 0.5 mm (0.020 in.) to about 12.5 mm (0.5 in.)
• Flat window glazing
• Thermoforming stock
Sheet and Film Production Processes
• Most widely used processes are continuous, high production
operations
• Processes include:
• Slit-Die Extrusion of Sheet and Film
• Blown-Film Extrusion Process
• Calendering
©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Slit-Die Extrusion of Sheet and Film
• Production of sheet and film by conventional extrusion, using a
narrow slit as the die opening
• Slit may be up to 3 m (10 ft) wide and as narrow as around 0.4 mm (0.015 in)
• A problem is thickness uniformity throughout width of stock, due to drastic
shape change of polymer melt as it flows through die
• Edges of film usually must be trimmed because of thickening at edges
Blown-Film Extrusion Process
• Combines extrusion and blowing to produce a
tube of thin film
• Process sequence:
1. Extrusion of tube
2. Tube is drawn upward while still molten
and expanded by air inflated into it
through die
• Air is blown into tube to maintain uniform
film thickness and tube diameter
Blown-film
Process
Calendering (Cán nhựa(
• Feedstock is passed through a series of rolls
to reduce thickness to desired gage
• Expensive equipment, high production rates
• Process is noted for good surface finish and high
gage accuracy
• Typical materials: rubber or rubbery
thermoplastics such as plasticized PVC
• Products: PVC floor covering, shower curtains,
vinyl table cloths, pool liners, and inflatable toys
Materials for Fibers and Filaments
• Fibers can be natural or synthetic
• Natural fibers constitute ~ 25% of total market
• Cotton is by far the most important staple
• Wool production is much less than cotton
• Synthetic fibers constitute ~ 75% of total fiber market
• Polyester is the most important
• Others: nylon, acrylics, and rayon
Melt Spinning (kéo sợi)
• Starting polymer is heated to molten state and pumped through spinneret
• Typical spinneret is 6 mm (0.25 in) thick and contains ~ 50 holes of diameter 0.25 mm
(0.010 in)
• Filaments are drawn and air cooled before being spooled onto bobbin
• Final diameter wound onto bobbin may be only 1/10 of extruded size
• Used for polyester and nylon filaments
• Melt spinning
of continuous
filaments (kéo
sợi)
Injection Molding
• Polymer is heated to a highly plastic state and forced to flow under high
pressure into a mold cavity where it solidifies and the molding is then
removed from the cavity
• Produces discrete components to net shape
• Typical cycle time 10 to 30 sec, but cycles of one minute or more are not
uncommon
• Mold may contain multiple cavities, so multiple moldings are produced each cycle
Injection Molded Parts
• Complex and intricate shapes are possible
• Shape limitations:
• Capability to fabricate a mold whose cavity is the same geometry as part
• Shape must allow for part removal from mold
• Part size from 50 g (2 oz) up to 25 kg (more than 50 lb), e.g.,
automobile bumpers
• Injection molding is economical only for large production quantities
due to high cost of mold
Injection Molded Parts
A collection of
plastic injection
molded parts
(courtesy of George
E. Kane
Manufacturing
Technology
Laboratory, Lehigh
University)
Polymers for Injection Molding
• Injection molding is the most widely used molding process
for thermoplastics
• Some thermosets and elastomers are injection molded
• Modifications in equipment and operating parameters must be
made to avoid premature cross-linking of these materials before
injection
Injection Molding Machine
• Two principal components:
1. Injection unit
• Melts and delivers polymer melt
• Operates much like an extruder
2. Clamping unit
• Opens and closes mold each injection cycle
Injection Molding Machine
A large (3000 ton capacity) injection molding machine (Photo
courtesy of Cincinnati Milacron)
Injection Molding Machine
Diagram of an injection molding machine, reciprocating screw
type (some mechanical details are simplified)
Injection Unit of Molding Machine
• Consists of barrel fed from one end by hopper containing supply of
plastic pellets
• Inside the barrel is a screw with two functions:
1. Rotates for mixing and heating polymer
2. Acts as a ram (i.e., plunger) to inject molten plastic into mold
• Non-return valve near tip of screw prevents melt from flowing backward along screw
threads
• Later in cycle ram retracts to its former position
Clamping Unit of Molding Machine
• Functions:
1. Holds two halves of mold in proper alignment with each other
2. Keeps mold closed during injection by applying a clamping force sufficient
to resist injection force
3. Opens and closes mold at the appropriate times in molding cycle
Injection Molding Cycle
• (1) Mold is closed • (2) Melt is injected into cavity
• (3) screw is retracted • (4) mold is opened and part is ejected
The Mold
• The special tooling in injection molding – custom designed and
fabricated for the part to be produced
• When production run is finished, the mold is replaced with a new
mold for the next part
• Various types of molds for injection molding:
• Two-plate mold
• Three-plate mold
• Hot-runner mold
©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
The Mold
Two-Plate Mold
• Details of a two-plate
mold for thermoplastic
injection molding: (a)
closed
• Mold has two cavities
to produce two
cup-shaped parts with
each injection shot
Two-Plate Mold
• Details of a two-plate
mold for
thermoplastic
injection molding: (b)
open
More Two-Plate Mold Features
• Ejection system – to eject molded part from cavity at end of molding
cycle
• Ejector pins built into moving half of mold usually accomplish this function
• Cooling system - consists of external pump connected to passageways
in mold, through which water is circulated to remove heat from the
hot plastic
• Air vents – to permit evacuation of air from cavity as polymer melt
rushes in
Hot-Runner Mold
• Eliminates solidification of sprue and runner by locating heaters
around the corresponding runner channels
• While plastic in mold cavity solidifies, material in sprue and runner
channels remains molten, ready to be injected into cavity in next cycle
• Advantage:
• Saves material that otherwise would be scrap in the unit operation
Injection Molding Machines
• Injection molding machines differ in both injection unit and clamping
unit
• Name of injection molding machine is based on the type of injection
unit used
• Reciprocating-screw injection molding machine
• Plunger-type injection molding machine
• Several clamping designs
• Mechanical (toggle)
• Hydraulic
Shrinkage
• Polymers have high thermal expansion
coefficients, so significant shrinkage occurs during
solidification and cooling in mold
Plastic Typical Shrinkage, mm/mm (in/in)
Nylon-6,6 0.020
Polyethylene 0.025
Polystyrene 0.004
PVC 0.005
©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Compression Molding
• (1) TS charge is loaded, (2) and (3) compression and curing, and (4)
part is ejected and removed
Molds for Compression Molding
• Simpler than injection molds
• No sprue and runner system in a compression mold
• Process itself generally limited to simpler part geometries due to
lower flow capabilities of TS materials
• Mold must be heated, usually by electric resistance, steam, or hot oil
circulation
©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Compression Molding Materials and Products
• Molding materials:
• Phenolics, melamine, urea-formaldehyde, epoxies, urethanes, and elastomers
• Typical compression-molded products:
• Electric plugs, sockets, and housings; pot handles, and dinnerware plates
Pot Transfer Molding
• (1) Charge loaded into pot, (2) soft polymer is pressed into mold cavity and cured, and (3)
part is ejected
Plunger Transfer Molding
• (1) Charge loaded into pot, (2) soft polymer is pressed into mold cavity and cured, and (3)
part is ejected
Blow Molding
• Molding process in which air pressure is used to inflate soft plastic
into a mold cavity
• Important for making one-piece hollow plastic parts with thin walls, such as
bottles
• Because these items are used for consumer beverages in mass markets, production is
typically organized for very high quantities
Blow Molding Process
• Accomplished in two steps:
1. Fabrication of a starting tube, called a parison
2. Inflation of the tube to desired final shape
• Forming the parison is accomplished by either
• Extrusion or
• Injection molding
Extrusion Blow Molding
• (1) Extrusion of parison; (2) parison is pinched at top and sealed
at bottom around blow pin as the mold closes; (3) tube is
inflated; and (4) mold is opened
Injection Blow Molding
• (1) Parison is injected molded around blowing rod; (2) mold is opened and parison is
moved to blow mold; (3) soft polymer is inflated; and (4) mold is opened
Stretch Blow Molding
• Variation of injection blow molding in which blowing
rod stretches the soft parison for a more favorable
stressing of polymer than conventional blow
molding
• Resulting structure is more rigid, more transparent, and
more impact resistant
• Most widely used plastic is polyethylene terephthalate
(PET) which has very low permeability and is
strengthened by stretch blow molding
• Ideal as container for carbonated beverages
©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Stretch Blow Molding
• (1) Injection molding of parison; (2) stretching; and (3) blowing
Blow Molding
• The parison is then clamped into a mold and air is pumped into it.
• The air pressure then pushes the plastic out to match the mold.
• Once the plastic has cooled and hardened the mold opens up and the part is ejected.
Blow Molding
Blow Molding
Blow Molding
Materials and Products in Blow Molding
• Blow molding is limited to thermoplastics
• Materials: high density polyethylene, polypropylene (PP),
polyvinylchloride (PVC), and polyethylene terephthalate
• Products: disposable containers for beverages and other liquid
consumer goods, large shipping drums (55 gallon) for liquids and
powders, large storage tanks (2000 gallon), gasoline tanks, toys, and
hulls for sail boards and small boats
©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Rotational Molding
• Process uses gravity inside a rotating mold to produce a hollow part
shape
• Alternative to blow molding for larger parts with more complex external
geometries
• But lower production rates than blow molding
• Mostly for thermoplastic polymers but thermoset and elastomer applications
are not uncommon
• Products: boat hulls, sandboxes, buoys, garbage cans, large containers and
storage tanks
Rotational Molding
Performed on
three-station
indexing table: (1)
unload-load, (2)
heat and rotate
mold, (3) cool the
mold
©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Thermoforming
• Flat thermoplastic sheet or film is heated and deformed into desired
shape using a mold
• Heating usually accomplished by radiant electric heaters located on one or
both sides of starting plastic sheet or film
• Widely used in packaging of products and to fabricate large items such as
bathtubs, contoured skylights, and internal door liners for refrigerators
©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Vacuum Thermoforming
(2) The softened sheet is (3) Vacuum draws the
(1) Flat plastic placed over a concave
sheet is softened sheet into the cavity
mold cavity
by heating
(4) plastic hardens on
contact with the cold
mold surface, and the
part is removed and
later trimmed from the
web
©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Negative Molds vs. Positive Molds
• Negative mold has concave cavity, as in previous series of diagrams
• Positive mold has convex shape
• Both types are used in thermoforming
• For positive mold, heated sheet is draped over convex form and negative or
positive pressure forces plastic against mold surface
©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Vacuum Thermoforming using a Positive Mold
(1) Heated plastic
sheet is positioned
above the convex
mold
(2) Clamp is lowered into
position, draping the
sheet over the mold as a
vacuum forces the sheet
against the mold surface
©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Materials for Thermoforming
• Only thermoplastics can be thermoformed,
• Sheets of thermosetting or elastomeric polymers have already been
cross-linked and cannot be softened by reheating
• Common TP polymers: polystyrene, cellulose acetate, cellulose
acetate butyrate, ABS, PVC, acrylic (polymethylmethacrylate),
polyethylene, and polypropylene
Applications of Thermoforming
• Thin films: blister packs and skin packs for packaging commodity
products such as cosmetics, toiletries, small tools, and fasteners
(nails, screws, etc.)
• For best efficiency, filling process to containerize item(s) is immediately
downstream from thermoforming
• Thicker sheet stock: boat hulls, shower stalls, advertising displays and
signs, bathtubs, certain toys, contoured skylights, internal door liners
for refrigerators
©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Casting
• Pouring liquid resin into a mold, using gravity to fill
cavity, where polymer hardens
• Both thermoplastics and thermosets are cast
• Thermoplastics: acrylics, polystyrene, polyamides (nylons) and
PVC
• Thermosets: polyurethane, unsaturated polyesters, phenolics,
and epoxies
• Simple mold
• Suited to low quantities
©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Polymer Foam
• A polymer-and-gas mixture that gives the material a porous or
cellular structure
• Most common polymer foams: polystyrene (Styrofoam, a trademark) and
polyurethane
• Other polymers: natural rubber ("foamed rubber") and polyvinylchloride
(PVC)
©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Properties of a Foamed Polymer
• Low density
• High strength per unit weight
• Good thermal insulation
• Good energy absorbing qualities
©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Polymer Foam Structures
• Two polymer foam structures: (a) closed cell and (b) open cell
Extrusion of Polystyrene Foams
Product Design Guidelines: General
• Strength and stiffness
• Plastics are not as strong or stiff as metals
• Avoid applications where high stresses will be encountered
• Creep resistance is also a limitation
• Strength-to-weight ratios for some plastics are competitive with metals in
certain applications
©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Product Design Guidelines: General
Product Design Guidelines: General
Product Design Guidelines: General
Product Design Guidelines: General
Product Design Guidelines: General
• Impact Resistance
• Capacity of plastics to absorb impact is generally good; plastics compare
favorably with most metals
• Service temperatures
• Limited relative to metals and ceramics
• Thermal expansion
• Dimensional changes due to temperature changes much more significant than
for metals
Product Design Guidelines: General
• Many plastics are subject to degradation from sunlight and other
forms of radiation
• Some plastics degrade in oxygen and ozone atmospheres
• Plastics are soluble in many common solvents
• Plastics are resistant to conventional corrosion mechanisms that
afflict many metals
©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Product Design Guidelines: Extrusion
• Wall thickness
• Uniform wall thickness is desirable in an extruded cross section
• Variations in wall thickness result in non-uniform plastic flow and uneven
cooling which tend to warp extrudate
©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Product Design Guidelines: Extrusion
• Hollow sections
• Hollow sections complicate die design and plastic flow
• Desirable to use extruded cross sections that are not hollow yet satisfy
functional requirements
©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Product Design Guidelines: Extrusion
• Corners
• Sharp corners, inside and outside, should be avoided in extruded cross
sections
• They result in uneven flow during processing and stress concentrations in the
final product
©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Product Design Guidelines: Moldings
• Economic production quantities
• Each part requires a unique mold, and the mold for any molding process can
be costly, particularly for injection molding
• Minimum production quantities for injection molding are usually ~ 10,000
pieces
• For compression molding, minimum quantities are 1000 parts, due to
simpler mold designs
• Transfer molding lies between injection molding and compression molding
©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Product Design Guidelines: Moldings
• Part complexity
• An advantage of plastic molding is that it allows multiple functional features
to be combined into one part
• Although more complex part geometries mean more costly molds, it may
nevertheless be economical to design a complex molding if the alternative
involves many individual parts that must be assembled
©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Product Design Guidelines: Moldings
• Wall thickness
• Thick cross sections are wasteful of material, more likely to cause warping due
to shrinkage, and take longer to harden
• Reinforcing ribs
• Achieves increased stiffness without excessive wall thickness
• Ribs should be made thinner than the walls they reinforce to minimize sink
marks on outside wall
Product Design Guidelines: Moldings
• Corner radii and fillets
• Sharp corners, both external and internal, are undesirable in molded parts
• They interrupt smooth flow of the melt, tend to create surface defects, and
cause stress concentrations in the part
• Holes
• Holes are quite feasible in plastic moldings, but they complicate mold design
and part removal
Product Design Guidelines: Moldings
• Draft
• A molded part should be designed with a draft on its sides to facilitate
removal from mold
• Especially important on inside wall of a cup-shaped part because plastic
contracts against positive mold shape
• Recommended draft:
• For thermosets, ~ 1/2 to 1
• For thermoplastics, ~ 1/8 to 1/2
©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Product Design Guidelines: Moldings
• Tolerances
• Although shrinkage is predictable under closely controlled conditions,
generous tolerances are desirable for injection moldings because of
• Variations in process parameters that affect shrinkage
• Diversity of part geometries encountered
