MODULE 3

WATER
• A single water molecule is composed of two atoms of hydrogen attached to one atom
of oxygen (H2O) by covalent bonds

• About 71 percent of the Earth's surface is water-covered

• Oceans hold about 96.5 percent of all Earth's water
• Water also exists in the air as water vapor, in rivers and lakes, in icecaps and glaciers,
in the ground as soil moisture and in aquifers, and even in you and another organism

SOURCES AND AVAILABILITY OF FRESHWATER

• Water resources are sources of water that are useful or potentially useful
• Uses of water include agricultural, industrial, household, recreational and
environmental activities

• Virtually all of these human uses require fresh water

• 97.5% of the water on the Earth is salt water
• Only 2.5% is fresh water

• slightly over two thirds of this is frozen in glaciers and polar ice caps
• The remaining unfrozen freshwater is found mainly as groundwater, with only a small
fraction present above ground or in the air

SOURCES OF FRESH WATER

1. Surface Water
• Surface water is water in a river, lake or fresh water wetland
• Surface water is naturally replenished by:
➢ Precipitation and naturally lost through discharge to the oceans
➢ Evaporation
➢ Evapotranspiration
➢ Groundwater recharge

2. Under River Flow

• Under river flow is the water that flows through the rocks and sediments below a
river. This flow is often called the hyporheic zone
• The hyporheic zone is the area below a river were water flows through rocks and
sediments
• The hyporheic zone can be a significant part of a river's flow, especially in large
valleys
• The hyporheic zone can exchange water with aquifers, which are large underground
areas that store water

3. Groundwater
• Groundwater is fresh water located in the subsurface pore space of soil and rocks
• It is also water that is flowing within aquifers below the water table
• Sometimes it is useful to make a distinction between groundwater that is closely
associated with surface water and deep groundwater in an aquifer (sometimes called
"fossil water").
 4. Frozen Water
• Frozen water, primarily in the form of glaciers and ice caps, holds about 68% of the
Earth's fresh water
• As climate change accelerates ice melt, this frozen water becomes a significant source
of fresh water for rivers and lakes
• In regions like the Himalayas and the Andes, glacial meltwater sustains agriculture
and drinking supplies for millions
• However, excessive melting can lead to water scarcity in the long term as glaciers
shrink.
5. Desalination
• Desalination is an artificial process by which saline water (generally sea water) is
converted to fresh water
• The most common desalination processes are distillation and reverse osmosis
• Desalination is currently expensive compared to most alternative sources of water,
and only a very small fraction of total human use is satisfied by desalination

WATER CONSERVATION
• The process of saving water for future utilization is called water conservation.

• With the increase in population, quality & quantity of water has declined.

Water conservation strategies

1. Reducing evaporation
• Evaporation of water is commonly found in humid regions
• It can be reduced by placing horizontal barriers of asphalt below the soil surface, which
increases water availability and crop yield

2. Reducing irrigation loss

• Water loss during irrigation can be reduced by the following methods
a. Growing hybrid crop varieties
b. Irrigation in early morning or later evening
c. Using drip irrigation or sprinkler irrigation

3. Re-use of water
• Treated water can be used for fertile-irrigation
• Grey water can be used for washing cars, watering gardens, etc
• Water used for washing vegetables and fruits can be used to water plants

4. Preventing wastage of water

 • Wastage of water can be prevented by:
➢ Closing the taps when not in use
➢ Repair any leakage from pipes
➢ Use small capacity taps
5. Decrease runoff loss
• Run-off can be reduced by allowing water to infiltrate into the soil
• This can be done by contour cultivation or terrace farming
6. Avoid discharge of sewage
• Discharge of untreated sewage into natural water resources must be prevented
Methods of water conservation
• There are many methods available for conservation of water, some of the important
measures are:
1. Rainwater harvesting

• Rainwater harvesting is a technique of collecting and storing rainwater in natural

reservoirs or tanks for future utilization
Objecting of rainwater harvesting:
a. To meet increasing demands of water
b. To reduce ground water contamination
c. To minimize eater crisis
d. To reduce soil erosion
e. To raise the water table by recharging the ground water
ROOFTOP RAINWATER HARVESTING

• It is a method of collecting rainwater from the roof of the building and storing it for
future use

• It is a low cost and effective technique for urban buildings

ADVANTAGES OF RAINWATER HARVESTING
• Improves the quality and quantity of ground water
• Reduces soil erosion and flooding
• Increases the availability of water
• Promotes water and energy conservation
2. Watershed management
Watershed
Land area from which water drains under the influence of gravity into a stream, lake,
reservoir or other body of surface water.
Watershed management
The management of rainfall and resultant runoff is called watershed management.

Factors affecting watershed:

• Overgrazing
• Deforestation
• Mining
• Construction activities
• Droughty climates
Objectives of watershed management

• To minimize the risks of floods, droughts and landslide

• To prevent soil erosion by runoff
• To raise the ground water level
• To generate employment opportunities
• To develop rural areas in the region
Watershed management techniques
1. Trenches: Trenches are dug at equal intervals to improve groundwater storage
 2. Earthen dam: It is constructed in the catchment area to check the water run-off

3. Farm pond: It can be built to improve water storage capacity of the catchment area

3. Dykes: It must be built along nullahs to raise the water table

WATER POLLUTION
• Water pollution can be defined as the presence of some foreign substances or
impurities in water in such a quantity so as to constitute a health hazard, thus making
water unfit for use.

• Water contained in water bodies like lakes, rivers and oceans are called surface water
 • Water stored in aquifers (underground rock structures) is called underground water
(subsurface water)

• Both surface and underground surface (subsurface water) are prone to pollution

The Water (Prevention and Control of pollution) Act, 1974

• The Water Act, 1974 is the first Indian law focused on the prevention of discharging
domestic and industrial wastewater into water bodies without treatment.
• This Act provides for the establishment of pollution control boards at Centre and States
to act as watchdogs for prevention and control of pollution.

• The Act was passed by the Parliament under Article 252 of constitution of India and
was amended in 1978 and 1988.
Objectives of Water Act

• Prevention and control of water pollution

• Maintaining or restoring the wholesomeness of water
• Establishment of boards of the prevention and control of water pollution
According to the Water Act, 'pollution' is defined as contamination of water or alteration of
the physical, chemical or biological properties of water, or the discharge of any sewage or trade
effluent (directly or indirectly) which is likely to render such water harmful or injurious to:

• Public health or safety

• Domestic, commercial, industrial, agricultural or other uses

• Life and health of plants, animals or aquatic organism

Water pollution caused by these sources can be minimized if the effluents from these sources
are controlled, treated up to acceptable levels and disposed of.

GROUNDWATER POLLUTION
• Water pollution is not confined to surface water alone.
• Various kinds of harmful materials like fertilizers, pesticides, metals, etc present in solid
waste (disposed on land) get dissolved or leaked into water.

• During rain these pollutants present in water percolate down into the soil and
contaminates the groundwater beneath.

WATER POLLUTANTS
Water pollutants are substances which causes water pollution.
Some of the commonly four pollutants in water are:
1) Inorganic salts
These include nitrates, phosphates, carbonate chlorides, sulphates of Ca, Mg, Fe etc. These
salts make water "hard". Hand water increases soap consumption and deposits scales on
pipelines. Iron causes spots and stains on white fabrics. Water bodies enriched with nitrates and
phosphates induce rapid growth of microscopic plant life which can lead to algal bloom
popularly known as Eutrophication.
2) Acids/Alkalis
Most freshwater bodies have a natural pH in the range of 6 to 8. Acids and alkalies are
discharged into streams by chemical industries and other industrial plants. High concentrations
of acid, sufficient to lower the pH to below 7.0 causes eye irritation to swimmers, rapid
corrosion of ship's hull, and deterioration of fishermen's nets. When the pH of water goes below
5, fish populations begin to disappear. Also, the efficiency of water-treatment plants is affected
by acidity. Alkalies (e.g. NaOH) appear in wastewater from soap manufacturing, textile dyeing,
rubber reclamation, leather tanning, etc. High pH is also detrimental to aquatic life.
3) Organic matter
Organic pollution occurs when large quantities of organic compounds which act as substrates
(food) for microorganisms, are released into water sources. During the decomposition of
organic pollutants, the dissolved oxygen in the receiving water may be used up at a greater rate
than it can be replenished, causing oxygen depletion. The minimum amount of dissolved
oxygen in water for sustenance of fish life is 3 to 4 mg/L.
4) Suspended solids
Suspended solids either settle to the bottom of remains suspended in the water body. These
solids increase the turbidity of the water body. Solids that gets deposited on the banks
decompose and causes odour nuisance.
5) Floating matter
These include oils, greases and other materials which float on the surface, and not only make
the river unsightly, but also obstruct passage of light through the water. Presence of floating
matter hinders the self-purification process of water bodies as well
6) Thermal discharges
Increase in the normal temperatures of natural waters is caused by nuclear power
plant/boiler/industrial discharges (where water is used as a cooling agent). Since warm water
is lighter than cold, stratification occurs in the water body, and this causes most of the aquatic
life to retreat to stream bottom. Also, bacterial action increases which in turn results in
accelerated depletion of the stream's dissolved oxygen content.
7) Colouring materials
Colour in water is an indicator of pollution (which often invites public attention). Colour
interferes with the transmission of sunlight into the stream, thus reducing its natural
disinfection action. Colour in water is contributed by the effluents discharged from textile
industries, paper mills, tanneries, slaughter houses etc.
8) Toxic chemicals
Highly complex both organic and inorganic toxic compounds produced by various chemical
industries have proved extremely toxic to aquatic life. These include cyanides, sulphide,
acetylene, alcohol, etc. Many of these have a cumulative effect on the aquatic environment.
For example, hexavalent Chromium found in wet cement is water soluble and can soak into
skin and produce an allergic reaction.
9) Micro-organisms
Domestic sector, food processing industries and slaughter houses, usually discharge wastes
containing micro-organisms. Diarrhoea and Pneumonia are the biggest killer diseases in
children aged under five years in India. Oral Rehydration Salts (ORS) with zinc
supplementation is the correct treatment for Diarrhoea (as per 2013 WHO recommendation).
Some of the water-borne diseases caused by pathogens are tabulated above: The above micro-
organisms mainly bacteria are of two types: a) Micro-organisms which assist in the degradation
of the organic matter b) Micro-organisms which are pathogenic in nature.
10) Radioactive materials
Radioactive waste typically comprises of a number of radio isotopes (which are unstable)
emitting ionizing radiation which can be harmful to humans and the environment. This
radiation is not readily detectable by the methods usually employed to determine the presence
of contaminants in the environment. Exposure to high levels of radioactive waste may cause
mutation and cancer.
11) Foam producing matter
Presence of foam producing matter leads to an undesirable appearance of the receiving streams
/water bodies which is usually discharged by textile mills, pulp and paper mills and some
chemical manufacturing industries.

• Some of the noticeable signs of water pollution are:

• Offensive odour from rivers, streams, lakes and oceans

• Oily and greasy material floating on the surfaces of water bodies

• Unchecked growth of aquatic weeds in water bodies
• Bad taste of drinking water

• Decrease of aquatic life in fresh water bodies

Impacts of water pollution

Water pollution can cause a variety of problems to human beings and other living things,
some of them are listed below:
1. Consuming contaminated water leads to a number of health problems due to water-
borne diseases (cholera, typhoid, jaundice, etc).
 • Excess amount of metals in drinking water (fluoride, lead, copper, etc) can cause
general body weakness, mental retardation, failure of internal organs, cancer and even
death
2. Pollutants in water leads to widespread destruction of aquatic life
3. Nutrient rich (nitrogen and phosphate) wastewater leads to abundant growth of algae which
results in eutrophication
4. Toxic pollutant in water, easily enters the food chain which results in bio-magnification
[Bio-magnification is the increase in the concentration of a pollutant from one link to another
in a food chain].
CONTROL MEASURES OF WATER POLLUTION
1. Drinking water should be boiled, cooled and then used
2. Disinfection of drinking water should be done by using chemicals like bleaching powder
3. Pesticides and insecticides should be prevented from nearby use of water lakes, ponds and
pools
4. Drainage water should not be allowed to mix with drinking water
5. Drainage system should be maintained properly
6. Chlorination process is to be adopted for drinking water.
7. Appropriate wastewater treatment is to be provided before discharging wastewater
from industries and domestic sectors
8. Using phosphate free detergents and reducing the use of fertilizers (in agriculture), the
phenomenon of eutrophication can be controlled
9. The public should be made aware of the ill-effects of disposing wastewater onto
waterbodies
10. Legislative measures have to be made more stringent and the principle of PPP
(Polluter Pays Principle) should be strictly followed [i.e. polluter should bear the cost
of cleanup operations, since polluter is responsible for pollution]

WATER QUALITY STANDARDS (IS 10500:2012)

Characteristics Parameters Acceptable Limit Permissible Limit

1. Physical Colour 5 Hazen 15 Hazen

Turbidity 1 NTU 5 NTU

Taste Agreeable Agreeable

Odour Agreeable Agreeable

Total Dissolved Solids 500 mg/L 2000 mg/L

 2. Chemical pH 6.5-8.5 No relaxation

Alkalinity 200 mg/L 600 mg/L

Hardness 200 mg/L 600 mg/L

Chloride (Cl) 250 mg/L 1000 mg/L

Nitrate (NO-3) 45 mg/L No relaxation

Iron (Fe) 0.3 mg/L No relaxation

Chromium (Cr) 0.05 mg/L No relaxation

Characteristics Parameters Requirements

3. Biological E. Coli or thermotolerant Shall not be detectable in any

coliform bacteria 100 ml sample

(Also Refer IS:10500-2012)

Water Quality Index (WQI)

• WQI indicates the quality of water in terms of index number
• It represents overall quality of water for any intended use
• It is defined as a rating reflecting the composite influence of different water quality
parameters were taken into consideration for the calculation of water Quality index
(WQI)
• The indices are among the most effective ways to communicate the information on
water quality trends to the general public or to the policy makers and in water quality
management
• In formulation of water quality index, the relative importance of various parameters
depends on intended use of water
• Mostly it is done from the point of view of its suitability for human consumption
Water Treatment
• Water treatment is the process of removing contaminants from wastewater and
household water.
 • It includes physical, chemical, and biological processes to remove physical, chemical
and biological contaminants.
• Its objective is to produce an environmentally safe fluid waste stream and a solid
waste suitable for disposal or reuse.

OVERVIEW OF WATER TREATMENT PLANT

Water Treatment Methods

Water Treatment methods include:
• Screening
• Aeration
• Plain sedimentation
• Sedimentation aided with coagulation
• Filtration
• Disinfection
• Softening
• Miscellaneous methods
SCREENING
Screens are fixed in the intake works or at the entrance of treatment plant. the filtration of
coarser floating and suspended materials. So, the larger materials like we may have papers
coming in the water wood, leaves, aquatic plants then polyethene, these kinds of things may
come floating with the water and then they need to be filtered out so that it does not enter into
our main basin or through equipment and pump and do not spoil them. The screens should
preferably be located just before grit chambers at an angle of 30° to 60° with the direction of
flow.

AERATION
Aeration is usually effective against several pollutants are discussed the dissolved gases like
random carbon dioxide, some taste and odour producing compounds like methane hydrogen
sulphide, the volatile organic compounds like MTB or industrial solvents, it can also raise the
pH of water and it can be used for precipitation and removal of iron and manganese
SEDIMENTATION
Sedimentation is the process which removes the suspended particles from the water which
could not be removed in the screening process. Following are the shapes of settling tank:
• Rectangular tanks with horizontal flow
• Circular tanks with radial or spiral flow

Rectangular sedimentation
tank

Circular sedimentation
tank
SEDIMENTATION AIDED WITH COAGULATION
When water contains fine clay and colloidal impurities which are electrically charged are
continually in motion and never settle down due to gravitational force. Certain chemicals are
added to the water so as to remove such impurities which are not removed by plain
sedimentation. The chemical form insoluble, gelatinous, flocculent precipitate absorbs and
entangle very fine suspended matter and colloidal impurities during its formation and descent
through water. These coagulants further have an advantage of removing colour, odour and taste
from the water.

FILTERATION
The process of passing the water through beds of sand or other granular materials is known as
filtration. Filters are used for removing bacteria, colour, taste, odours and producing clear and
sparkling water. By sand filtration 95 to 98% suspended impurities are removed. Filtration
carries out in three types of filters: Slow sand filter, Rapid sand filter, Trickling Filter, Pressure
filter

DISINFECTION
The filtered water may normally contain some harmful disease producing bacteria in it. These
bacteria must be killed in order to make the water safe for drinking. The process of killing these
bacteria is known as Disinfection.
1. Boiling: The bacteria present in water can be destroyed by boiling it for a long time.
However, it is not practically possible to boil huge amounts of water. Moreover, it cannot take
care of future possible contaminations.
2. Treatment with Excess Lime: Lime is used in water treatment plant for softening. But if
excess lime is added to the water, it can in addition, kill the bacteria also. Lime when added
raises the pH value of water making it extremely alkaline. This extreme alkalinity has been
found detrimental to the survival of bacteria. This method needs the removal of excess lime
from the water before it can be supplied to the general public. Treatment like recarbonation for
lime removal should be used after disinfection.
3. Treatment with Ozone: Ozone readily breaks down into normal oxygen, and releases nascent
oxygen. The nascent oxygen is a powerful oxidising agent and removes the organic matter as
well as the bacteria from the water.
4. Chlorination: The germicidal action of chlorine, according to which the chlorine enters the
cell walls of bacteria and kill the enzymes which are essential for the metabolic processes of
living organisms.

PHYSICAL METHODS
• Boiling: Boil the water for 15 to 20 minutes and kills the disease-causing bacteria. This
process is applicable for individual homes.
• Ultra-Violet Rays: Water is allowed to pass about 10cm thickness by ultraviolet rays.
This process is very costly and not used at water works. Suitable for institutions.
• Ultrasonic rays: Suitable for institutions.

CHEMICAL METHODS
• Chlorination: Using chlorine gas or chlorine compounds.
• Bromine and iodine: It is expensive and leaves taste and odour
• Potassium permanganate: This method is used for disinfection of dug well water, pond
water or private source of water.
• Ozone: Very expensive process, leaves no taste, odour or residual.
Sustainable water use
• Sustainable water use is the practice of managing water resources in a way that meets
current and future needs without harming the environment
• It involves reducing consumption, reusing water, and using new technologies
Principles of Sustainable Water Use
• Efficiency: Maximizing water use with minimal waste
• Equity: Ensuring that all sectors (domestic, agriculture, industry) have fair access to
water resources
• Environmental Protection: Maintaining healthy ecosystems that depend on water, such
as wetlands, rivers, and aquifers
• Resilience: Ensuring that water resources can withstand and recover from stresses such
as droughts, floods, and pollution.
Importance of Sustainable Water Use

• Resource Scarcity: With growing water demand, especially in arid and semi-arid
regions, sustainable management ensures continued access to freshwater
• Climate Change: Unpredictable weather patterns increase the need for adaptive water
management
• Public Health: Clean water is essential for health, and sustainable practices help
maintain water quality.

CONFLICTS OVER-WATER RESOURCE

• Competition for Limited Resources: When water is scarce or unevenly distributed,

competition between sectors (agriculture, industry, domestic) increases
• Transboundary Water Issues: Shared rivers and aquifers often lead to conflicts between
countries or regions over water rights and usage
• Pollution: Contamination of water sources can lead to disputes over water quality and
access
• Climate Change: Changes in rainfall patterns and rising temperatures exacerbate water
scarcity, leading to conflicts over access to available water resources

Impact of Water Conflicts

• Social and Political Instability: Conflicts over water can lead to regional tensions and
even military conflicts
• Economic Consequences: Water scarcity can lead to reduced agricultural yields,
industrial output, and power generation, impacting economies
• Environmental Degradation: Over-extraction of water can harm ecosystems, causing
river drying, habitat loss, and biodiversity reduction
Global Case Studies

Nile River Conflicts

Ethiopia - Background
• Treaties regarding Nile River water rights date back to the colonial period and continue
to be referenced today in legal matters.
• In the colonial period of the early 20th century, historically significant treaties were
signed between colonial powers and Nile River riparian states, including the Treaty
Between Great Britain and Ethiopia, the Tripartite Treaty, and the Agreement between
Egypt and Anglo-Egyptian Sudan.
• The treaties significantly undermined Ethiopia’s rights to the Nile River, despite the
Blue Nile running through Ethiopia’s sovereign land, and favored Egypt and Sudan’s
rights to the Nile’s water.
Egypt and Sudan - Background

• Both Egypt and Sudan are Lower Nile Basin countries and receive relatively low
rainfall levels compared to Upper Nile Basin states, making them highly dependent on
the Nile River for water supply.
• According to the UN, Egypt has an annual water deficit of around seven billion cubic
meters and is projected to completely water-scarce by 2025.
• Egypt’s water scarcity resulted in protests in 2007, known as the “Revolution of the
Thirsty,” after residents of the Nile Delta reported putrid water in their limited water
supply.
• As such, both countries continue to reference these colonial-era treaties in a bid to
remain water-secure despite environmental pressures. However, Ethiopia refuses to
recognize the treaty’s validity due to its colonial context and unadulterated bias against
Ethiopian water rights
• Tensions in 1978 following Ethiopia’s proposal of dam construction on the Blue Nile.
• Ethiopia’s proposal was met with significant Egyptian backlash that ultimately led to
the failure of the project.
• In 2010, Ethiopia announced its intention to build the largest and most expensive
hydroelectric dam in Africa. The proposal was immediately met with Egyptian and
Sudanese backlash, with Egypt calling for African Union (AU) and United Nations
(UN) intervention on the matter and then Egyptian Minister of Water and
Environmental Resources, Mohamed Nasr Eldin Allam, forming an agreement with the
Sudanese government to preserve “the historical rights of both countries to the Nile’s
water.”
• Although Sudan declared neutrality in the dispute in 2014, negotiations between all
three states continue today to no avail and tensions continue today with the construction
of the Ethiopian Grand Renaissance Dam.
The Colorado River
• United States and Mexico over water rights to the Colorado River.
• The Colorado River provides water to more than 40 million people across seven
southwestern states, 29 tribal nations and Mexico
• In Las Vegas, 90% of its water supply comes from the river. In Phoenix and was it's
50% and in Los Angeles it's 25%.
• According to a 1922 agreement, each of these seven states have a legal right to a certain
amount of the river's water. But this compact was made under the assumption that there
was more water than there actually was.
• Scientists have been predicting for years that the Colorado River would continue to
deplete due to global warming and increased water demands
• Between January 2000 and April 2023, the amount of water stored in Lake Mead and
Lake Powell, the two largest reservoirs in the United States, declined by 33.5 million
acre feet (41.3 billion cubic meters).

Interstate River disputes in India

• Krishna water dispute between states of Maharashtra, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh
(old)
• Godavari water dispute between states of Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka,
Madhya Pradesh and Goa
• Narmada water dispute between the states of Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat and
Maharashrtra
• Cauvery water dispute between the states of Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Union
Territory of Pondicherry
• Mahadayi/Mandovi water dispute between the states of Goa, Karnataka and
Maharashtra

Wastewater
Wastewater or sewage is the byproduct of many uses of water. There are the household uses
such as showering, dishwashing, laundry and, of course, flushing the toilet. Additionally,
companies use water for many purposes including processes, products, and cleaning or rinsing
of parts. After the water has been used, it enters the wastewater stream, and it flows to the
wastewater treatment plant. When people visit a treatment plant for the first time, often it is not
what they perceived it would be. These wastewater plants are complex facilities and provide a
high-quality end product

Need of Wastewater treatment

Need of Wastewater treatment is to remove the wastewater pollutants to protect the
environment and protect public health. When water is used by our society, the water becomes
contaminated with pollutants. If left untreated, these pollutants would negatively affect our
water environment. For example, organic matter can cause oxygen depletion in lakes, rivers,
and streams. This biological decomposition of organics could result in fish kills and/or foul
odors. Waterborne diseases are also eliminated through proper wastewater treatment.
Additionally, there are many pollutants that could exhibit toxic effects on aquatic life and the
public. Necessity of waste water treatment includes:

• Wastewater treatment plant plays an important role for the mankind.

• The main function of these plants is to make the water of the waste water that comes
from home, commercial and industrial sectors.
• The treatment of waste water has become the need of the hour as it stops spreading the
diseases and illness caused by the waste water.
• It helps society in making the water as well as environment clean.
• The treatment plant works composed of 3. The three stages of these plants include the
primary stage, the secondary stage and the tertiary stage.

• In the primary stage, the contaminants that are easy to eliminate are taken out from
the waste water. These substances may include oils, grease and fats that can be easily
removed from the surface area. The solids things like grits, stones, rocks etc are
strained.
• At the secondary stage, the removal of biological contaminants in wastewater takes
place.
• At the tertiary treatment, which is the last stage of the plant, the water is get cleaned
purely to get discharged in the environment. This is composed of man-made or artificial
systems that help in filtration. At this stage, the nitrogen and phosphorous content is
eliminated from the water. In addition to this, the water is further disinfected using
chemicals like chlorine as well as treatment of UV.

Through these stages, the final water that comes out is clean and free from pollutants that can
be safely released to the environment.

SOURCES OF WATER POLLUTION

1. Point Source
• Sources which can be readily identified at a single location (direct discharges from a
single point)
• Some of the examples are wastewater discharge from industries, wastewater discharge
from the domestic sector, etc.
2. Non-point Source or Diffused Sources
• Non-point sources are diffused across a broad area
• Their source of origin cannot be traced to a single discharge point (whose location
cannot be easily identified)
• Examples include run off from agriculture lands, mining area etc.
• It is very difficult to control pollution from non- point sources
Natural Sources of Water Pollution
• Rain water
• Atmosphere
• Underground rocks
• Volcanoes
Anthropogenic Sources of Water Pollution
• Oil spills
• Industrial wastewater discharges
• Solid-waste disposal
• Runoff from agricultural fields
• Wastewater from automobile garages, etc
In India, water pollution comes mainly from the following three sources:
• Domestic wastewater
• Agricultural Runoff
• Industrial Effluent
1. Domestic sewage
• Domestic sewage is the wastewater generated from the household activities (residential
community) that originates from residential areas, commercial places, institutions and
other public places
• Generally domestic sewage consists of 99.9% of water and 0.1% of solids
• These solids are mostly organic (which is extremely putrescible) with a small fraction
of inorganic matter
• Its decomposition produces large quantities of malodorous gases and contains a number
of pathogens (harmful micro-organisms)
• Domestic wastewater can be divided into two categories:
• Black water (wastewater containing human excreta and urine)
• Grey water (wastewater generated from bathroom and kitchen)

2. Agricultural Wastewater
• Agricultural wastewater is the run-off from the agricultural fields and animal farms
 • This wastewater is considerably rich in Nitrogen, Phosphate, Organic matter and
Pesticides.
• Water bodies enriched with nutrients (Nitrogen and Phosphate) induce rapid growth of
microscopic plant life (algae) in surface waters which lead to algal bloom thus reducing
the oxygen content in the aquatic environment popularly known as Eutrophication
(which is most common in stagnant water bodies such as ponds and lakes).
3. Industrial Wastewater
• Industrial wastewater (effluents) is the one which results from industrial operations
• Every year, the world generates around 400 billion tons of industrial waste, much of
which is discharged into rivers, oceans and other waterways.
• Industrial wastewater may have pollutants of almost all kinds ranging from simple
nutrients and organic matter to complex toxic substances
• The nature and composition (characteristics) of the industrial wastewater vary widely
from industry to industry, and even for the same industry depending upon: Raw
materials, Processes & Operational factors.

WASTEWATER QUALITY

1. Physical characteristics
Characteristics Fresh sewage Septic sewage

Temperature Approximately 25-30⁰C >30⁰C

Turbidity Less turbid More turbid

Odour Musty smell Foul smell

Colour Lighter shade (Yellowish, Grey or Darker shade (Black or

light brown) dark brown)

2. Chemical characteristics

1.Total solids, suspended solids, and settleable solids

• Suspended solids - remain floating in sewage
• Dissolved solids - dissolved in sewage just as salt in water
• Colloidal solids are finely divided solids remaining either in solution or in suspension
• Settleable solids are that portion of solid matter which settles out, if sewage is allowed
to remain undisturbed for a period of 2 hours
2. pH value
• If the pH value is less than 7, the sewage is acidic
 • If the pH value is more than 7, the sewage is alkaline
• The lesser is the pH value, the lesser is the alkalinity
• The pH value can be measured – potentiometer
• Fresh sewage is alkaline in nature
• Septic sewage is acidic in nature
3. Chloride content
• Chlorides are generally found present in municipal sewage
• It is derived from the kitchen wastes, human feces, and urinary discharges, etc
• The chloride content can be measured by titrating the wastewater (i.e. sewage) with
• as indicator, as is done for testing water supplies
4. Nitrogen content
• The presence of nitrogen in sewage indicates the presence of organic matter, and may
occur in one or more of the following forms:
(a) Free ammonia, called ammonia nitrogen
(b) Albuminoid nitrogen, called Organic nitrogen
(c) Nitrites
(d) Nitrates
• The free ammonia indicates the very first stage of decomposition of organic matter
(thus indicating recently, staled sewage)
• Albuminoid nitrogen indicates quantity of nitrogen present in sewage before the
decomposition of organic matter is started
• Nitrites indicate the presence of partly decomposed (not fully oxidized) organic matter
• Nitrates indicate the presence of fully oxidized organic matter
5. Presence of fats, greases, and oils
• Greases, fats and oils are derived in sewage from:
• discharges of animals and vegetable matter
• from the industries like garages, kitchens of hotels and restaurants, etc
• Such matter form scum on the top of the sedimentation tanks and clog the voids of the
filtering media
6. Dissolved Oxygen (D.O.)
• It is necessary to ensure at least 4 ppm of D.O. in it; as otherwise, fish are likely to be
killed, creating nuisance near the vicinity of disposal
• To ensure this, D.O. tests are performed during sewage disposal treatment processes
• DO is determined by Winkler’s method
7. Bio-Chemical Oxygen Demand (B.O.D)
Organic matter is of two types
(i) Biologically oxidized (i.e. oxidized by bacteria) and is called biologically active or
biologically degradable
(ii) Organic matter which cannot be oxidized biologically, and is called biologically
inactive
8.COD
• Chemical oxygen demand (COD) is a measure of how much oxygen is needed to break
down organic and inorganic compounds in water
Applicable wastewater discharge standards – Refer The
Environment (Protection) Rules, 1986

Typical flow schemes for sewage treatment plant

The sewage treatment units can be broadly classified as

• Primary treatment
• Secondary treatment
• Final treatment

PRIMARY TREATMENT: In primary treatment, the larger solids from the sewage are
removed during the treatment process. The more complex compounds are broken up and
converted into simpler compounds by decomposition. The primary treatment includes screen,
grit chambers, detritus tanks skimming tanks and sedimentation tanks with or without use of
chemicals.

SCREENING

The main purpose of the installation of screens is to remove the floating matter of
comparatively large size to prevent the possible damage of pumps and other equipment's. Types
of screens Racks or bar-screens, Perforated or fine screens, Comminutors or cutting screens.
The screens should preferably be located just before grit chambers at an angle of 30° to 60°
with the direction of flow. The screens are sometimes accommodated in the body of grit
chambers. The screening element may consist of parallel bars, rods, gratings or wire meshes or
perforated plates and openings may be of any shape generally they are circular or rectangular.

SKIMMING TANKS
These tanks are used to remove oil, grease, soap; wood pieces; fruit skins etc. Air diffusers are
provided at the bottom of the tank for efficient working of skimming tank. The period of
aeration and quantity of air will depend upon the quality of sewage. The compressed air sets
up the currents and it results in the floating matter of sewage

SETTLING TANKS
The primary clarifier is located after screens and grit chambers and reduces the organic load
on secondary treatment units. It is used to remove inorganic suspended solids or grit if it is not
removed in grit chamber described earlier, Organic and residual inorganic solids, free oil and
grease and other floating material and chemical flocs produced during chemical coagulation
and flocculation. secondary clarifier is located after the biological reactor and is used to
separate the bio-flocculated solids or bio flocs of biological reactors. In some cases where two
stage bio reactors are used, the clarifiers after the first stage of bioreactor is referred to as
intermediate clarifiers.

SECONDARY TREATMENT
The effluent that is coming out from primary clarifies contains 45 to 50 percent of the unstable
or organic matter originally present in the sewage as solution or suspension or colloidal matter.
The sewage to this extent is prepared to receive the secondary treatment. The main function of
the secondary treatment of sewage is to convert the remaining organic matter into stable form
by oxidation or nitrification. The secondary treatment involves the following methods.
• Filtration (attached growth process)
• Activated sludge process. (suspended growth process)
The filters which are commonly employed in the secondary treatment of sewage are of
following types
• Contact beds
• Intermittent sand filters
• Trickling filters

DISINFECTION
The filtered water may normally contain some harmful disease producing bacteria in it. These
bacteria must be killed in order to make the water safe for drinking. The process of killing these
bacteria is known as Disinfection. If pathogenic organisms are present in the treated wastewater
this process needs to be done.

Disposal of Sewage effluent

1. Disposal on Water body (dilution)
a) In river
b) In lake water
c) In sea water
2. Disposal on land
1. Disposal of Wastewater by dilution

• Sewage treatment by dilution is the process of discharging treated sewage into a body
of water, such as a river, lake, or ocean
• The sewage is diluted into the water's large volume, which eventually purifies the
sewage through natural processes known as self-purification process of natural waters

Conditions Favouring Disposal by Dilution

• When sewage is comparatively fresh (4 to 5 hr old), and free from floating and
settleable solids, (or are easily removed by primary treatment).
• When the diluting water (i.e. the source of disposal) has a high dissolved oxygen
(D.O.) content
• Where diluting waters are not used for the purpose of navigation or water supply for
at least some reasonable distance downstream from the point of sewage disposal
• Where the flow currents of the diluting waters are favorable, causing no deposition,
nuisance or destruction of aquatic life. It means that swift forward currents are helpful,
as they easily carry away the sewage to the points of unlimited dilution. On the other
hand, slow back currents tend to cause sedimentation, resulting in large sludge deposits
• When the outfall sewer of the city or the treatment plant is situated near some natural
waters having large volumes
1a) Dilution in River and Self Purification of Natural Streams

The various natural forces of purification which help in effecting self-purification process are
summarized below:
1. Physical forces are :
(i) Dilution and dispersion
(ii) Sedimentation
(iii) Sunlight (acts through bio-chemical reactions)
2. Chemical forces aided by biological forces (called bio chemical forces) are:
(i) Oxidation (Bio)
(ii) Reduction

OXYGEN SAG CURVE - Zone of Pollution in a River-Stream

A polluted stream undergoing self-purification can be divided into the following four zones:
(i) Zone of degradation
(ii) Zone of active decomposition
(iii) Zone of recovery
(iv) Zone of cleaner water
 Fig. Oxygen sag curve

(i) Zone of degradation

Zone of degradation is also known as Zone of pollution. This zone is found for a certain
length just below the point where sewage is discharged into the river-stream. This zone is
characterized by water becoming dark and turbid with formation of sludge deposits at the
bottom. D.O. is reduced to about 40% of the saturation value. There is an increase in
carbon dioxide content, reoxygenation (i.e. re-aeration) occurs but is slower than de-
oxygenation. These conditions are unfavorable to the development of aquatic life; and as
such, algae die out, but fish life may be present feeding on fresh organic matter.

(ii) Zone of active decomposition

Zone of active decomposition zone is marked by heavy pollution. It is characterized by water
becoming greyish and darker than in the previous zone. D.O. concentration falls down to
zero, and anaerobic conditions may set in with the evolution of gases like methane, carbon
dioxide, hydrogen sulphide, etc., bubbling to the surface, with masses of sludge forming an
ugly scum layer at the surface. As the organic decomposition slackens due to stabilization of
organic matter, the re-aeration sets in and D.O. again rises to the original level (i.e. about 40%).
In this zone, bacteria flora will flourish. At the upper end, anaerobic bacteria will replace
aerobic bacteria, while at its lower end, the position will be reversed. Protozoa and fungi will
first disappear and then reappear. Fish life will be absent.

(ii) Zone of recovery

In this zone, the river stream tries to recover from its degraded condition to its former
appearance. The water becomes clearer, and so the algae reappears while fungi decrease.
B.O.D. falls down and D.O. content rises above 40% of the saturation value, Protozoa, and
large plants like Sponges, Bryozons, etc. also reappear. The organic material will be
mineralized to form nitrates, sulphates, phosphates, carbonates, etc.

(iv) Zone of cleaner water

In this zone, the river attains its original conditions with D.O. rising up to the saturation
value. Water becomes attractive in appearance, and Game fish (which requires at least 4 to 5
mg/l of D.O.) and usual aquatic life prevails. Same pathogenic organisms may still, however,
survive and remain present, which confirms the fact that "when once a river water has been
polluted, it will not be safe to drink it, unless it is properly treated."

De-oxygenation & Re-oxygenation Curve

• Curve I – Deoxygenation curve or curve showing depletion of D.O. in the

absence of aeration
• Curve II – Re-oxygen curve (DO content supplied)
• Curve III – Oxygen sag curve or oxygen deficit curve

De-oxygenation Curve
• In a polluted stream, the D.O. content goes on reducing due to decomposition of volatile
organic matter
• The rate of de-oxygenation depends upon the amount of the organic matter remaining
to be oxidized at the given time (i.e. L₁) as well as on the temperature of reaction (i.e.
T)
• Hence, at a given temperature, the curve showing depletion of D.O. with time, i.e.
deoxygenation curve (curve I) is similar to the first stage B.O.D. curve
Re-oxygenation Curve

• In order to counter-balance the consumption of D.O. due to de-oxygenation,

atmosphere supplies oxygen to the water, and the process is called re-oxygenation.
• The rate at which the oxygen is supplied by the atmosphere to the polluted water
depends upon:
(i) the depth of the receiving water (rate is more in a shallow depth)
(ii) the condition of the body of water (rate is more in a running stream than in a pond)
(iii) the saturation deficit or the oxygen deficit (i.e. the deficit of D.O. below the saturation
value)
(iv) the temperature of water.
• Depending upon these factors, the rate of re-oxygenation can also be expressed
mathematically and plotted in the form of a curve called re-oxygenation curve (Curve
II)
1b) Disposal of Wastewater in lake water

• Disposal of wastewater in confined in much more harmful than its disposal in flowing
streams and rivers
• River is a flowing water body while lake has stagnant waters, so in lakes only top
surface would become saturated with DO, but the bottom layers would not have enough
oxygen
• Overturning of layers would not occur frequently, so that DO content would not be
uniform throughout the depth of lake
• Overturning takes place only when there is change in the season due to which there will
be temperature difference between water in different layers which cause change in the
densities of different layers and overturning occurs

1c) Disposal of Wastewater in Sea water

• Sea water normally contains 20% less oxygen than that contained in fresh water of a
river stream
• Moreover, sea water normally contains a large amount of dissolved matter
• As such, the capacity of sea water to absorb sewage solids is not as high as that of fresh
water of a stream
• Moreover, sewage solids, when thrown into sea water, chemically react with the
dissolved matter of sea water, resulting in precipitating some of the sewage solids,
giving a milky appearance to sea water and forming sludge banks
• These sludge banks are undesirable, as they are likely to produce offensive hydrogen
sulphide gas by reacting with the sulphate rich water of the sea

2. Disposal of Sewage Effluents on Land for Irrigation

In this method, the sewage effluent (treated or diluted) is generally disposed of by applying it
on land. The percolating water may either join the water-table, or is collected below by a system
of under-drains. This method can then be used for irrigating crops.

This method, in addition to disposing of the sewage, may help in increasing crop yields (by
33% or so) as the sewage generally contains a lot of fertilising minerals and other elements.
However, the sewage effluent before being used as irrigation water, must be made safe. In order
to lay down the limiting standards for sewage effluents, and the degree of treatment required,
it is necessary to study as to what happens when sewage is irrigation water. applied on to the
land as irrigation water.

When raw or partly treated sewage is applied on to the land, a part of it evaporates, and the
remaining portion percolates through the ground soil. While percolating through the soil, the
suspended particles present in the sewage are caught in the soil voids. If proper aeration of
these voids is maintained, the organic sewage solids caught in these voids get oxidised by
aerobic process. Such aeration and aerobic conditions will more likely prevail, if the soil is
sufficiently porous and permeable (such as sands and porous loams). However, if the land is
made up of heavy, sticky and fine-grained materials (such as clay, rock, etc.), the void spaces
will soon get choked up, and thus resulting in non-aeration of these voids. This will lead to the
developing of non-aerobic decomposition of organic matter, and evolution of foul gases.
Moreover, excessive clogging may also result in ugly ponding of sewage over the farm land,
where mosquitoes may breed in large number, causing further nuisance.

DECENTRALIZED WASTEWATER TREATMENT

• Decentralized systems are small, individual or cluster type wastewater facilities
• Done to provide wastewater treatment services to residents
• Wastewater can be treated onsite through aerobic and anaerobic techniques
• Decentralized wastewater management (DWWM) systems treat wastewater of
individual houses, or apartment blocks, or small communities close to their origin.
• Decentralized system is a combination of many technologies namely onsite systems,
low-cost collection systems and dispersed siting of treatment.
• Decentralized Wastewater treatment systems includes septic tanks, pit latrines,
DEWATS etc.
❖ These systems are used for partially treating wastewater in individual residences or a
small cluster of houses, are termed as “On Site Wastewater Treatment (OSWT)”
systems.
1. DEWATS
Anaerobic modules comprise of:
1. Settlers
 • Primary treatment, which includes pre-treatment and sedimentation in settlement tank
or septic tank
• Also known as a sedimentation basin, settling tank, or clarifier
• Device which separates the liquid from the solid
• Retention time is only 2 hours
• Pollution reduction is around 30%

2. Baffle reactors

• A device with several identical chambers

• Through the chamber the effluent moves from top to bottom
• Retention time is 24 hours
• Pollution reduction is around 80%

3. Anaerobic filters

• A device filled with a filter material (cinder) through Which the effluent moves from
top to bottom
• Retention time is around 8 hours
• Total pollution reduction is around 90%
• At this stage CPCB(Central pollution control board) standards are met but the effluent
still has an odour
Aerobic modules comprise of:
1. Horizontal planted gravel filters

• Structure filled with gravel material

• Planted with water resistant plants
• Plant provide oxygen to the passing effluent
• Retention time is 1½ day
• Pollution reduction is around 90%

2. Polishing ponds

• Polishing pond is the final stage of treatment

• Acting as an open, shallow water body
• Partially treated wastewater undergoes further biological purification through natural
processes like sunlight exposure
• It gives a high-quality effluent suitable for reuse or discharge into the environment
• “Polishing" the water to a clean state before final disposal
• It usually comes after a planted gravel filter in the DEWATS system
2. SEPTIC TANK

• Septic tank, is a horizontal continuous flow type of a sedimentation tank

• It directly admits raw sewage
• It works on the principle of anaerobic decomposition
• Detention period 12 to 36 hours
• Due to anaerobic decomposition of the settled sludge, foul gases will be evolved in the
tank
• Septic tank will be a completely covered tank, provided with a high vent shaft for escape
of gases
• It removes about 60 to 70% of the dissolved matter
• Effluent from such a tank will be sufficiently foul in nature

• It has to be disposed of either for sub-surface irrigation or in cess-pools or soak pits, or

to be treated in trickling filters

• The sludge settled at the bottom of the tank, oils and greasy matter rising to the top
surface of sewage as scum, are allowed to remain in the tank for a period of several
months

• They are decomposed by the anaerobic bacteria to form gases and liquids by the process
of sludge digestion
Advantages of Decentralized Wastewater treatment
• Flows at any point in the system would remain small, implying less environmental
damage from any mishap
• System construction results in less environmental disturbances as smaller pipes would
be installed at shallow depths and could be more flexibly routed

• The system expansion is easier, new treatment centers can be added without routing
ever more flows to existing centers

• Entry of industrial waste could be more easily monitored

• Sector wise treatment permits sewage transmission over shorter distances
• Treatment units are close knit and are free from odours and insects

• Lesser investment is required for the sewer pipelines

• Quality of treatment is more efficient than traditional system due to accurate estimation
of wastewater generation and lower quantity of wastewater

• Treated sewage can be effectively used within the sector for applications like toilet
flushing, landscape irrigation and cooling tower make ups

• Maintenance of the sewerage system is easier

Dis-advantages of Decentralized Wastewater treatment

• Policies regarding installation, operation and maintenance are not yet well established
in many of the developing countries

• Standardization of the systems is difficult as significant variation exists with regard to

technical design to suit the local geography and climatic conditions

NATURAL METHODS OF WASTEWATER TREATMENT

1. Constructed Wetlands
❖ Processes involved are wetland vegetation and soils, for treating wastewater
❖ Constructed wetlands consist of the following:

• Impermeable liner

• Distribution media
• Plants (Macrophytes)
• Under drainage system
1. Liner is used to keep the wastewater inside the system so that groundwater remains
uncontaminated
2. Distribution media is usually crushed rock, which spreads the wastewater across the width
of the wetland
3. Locally adapted species of plants that can grow at optimum efficiency are used such as
cattails, bulrushes, reeds, and sedges
4. Under-drain system can simply be a slotted pipe covered with distribution media and
moves the treated effluent out of the wetland

Constructed Wetlands (CWs) are classified into:

1. Free water surface flow CWs

• Designed to simulate natural wetlands, with the water flowing over the soil surface at
shallow depths
2. Surface flow CWs

• Designed to create subsurface flow through a permeable medium, keeping the water
being treated below the surface

• Helping to avoid the development of odours and other nuisance problems

2. Lagooning

• Lagoons include ponds like bodies of water or basins

• Designed to receive hold and treat wastewater for a predetermined period of time

• Lagooning is a natural and energy efficient method for treating wastewater

• The method involves in the accumulation of wastewater in ponds or basins, known as
biological or stabilization ponds
 • The depth of ponds ranges from 1 to 5 m
• Wastewater stays in the ponds from two to ten days in order to be purified

Advantages

• Lagooning is a very effective and low-cost solution because of both initial

implementation and low maintenance

• Lagoon purification is very efficient as wastewater treatment method to purify

wastewater from small or medium communities and from communities having
variable population
• The effluents from lagoon systems are suitable for irrigation purposes due to its high
nutrient and low pathogen content
3. Aerated lagoon

• Aerated lagoons are relatively shallow lagoons

• In this wastewater is added at a single point either at the edge or middle of the lagoon
• Effluent is removed from another point
• They use aerators to mix the contents of the pond and add oxygen to the wastewater
• Retention time may vary from 6 to 18 days
• Removal of BOD from domestic wastewater varies from 75 to 90%
• Oxygen is supplied by means of surface aerators or by diffused aeration units
• Lagoons may be operated as either aerobic or as aerobic-anaerobic systems
• In aerobic lagoons all biological solids are in continual suspension and stabilization of
the organics occurs under aerobic conditions
• Aeration increases the efficiency of treatment and requires only shorter detention period

4. Oxidation ponds
• An oxidation pond is a secondary treatment system
• Wastewater treated using the principle of algal bacterial symbiosis
• They treat partially treated wastewater in earthen basins with a depth of about 1-1.5 m
• The bacteria will feed on the waste utilizing the oxygen generated by algae during
photosynthesis
• The combined action of bacteria and algae helps to effectively treat the wastewater