Engineering mathematics for electrical

engineering students (EMA154X)

Prepared
by
Mr. S. Mhlongo
 Engineering functions: Introduction

Functions

 Central to engineering mathematics.

 Used to describe the way quantities change over time or position,

etc.

 To understand a function, it is useful to sketch a graph in order to

understand its behavior.

 Let us start with some concepts that are prerequisites to

understanding functions.
 Engineering functions: Numbers and intervals
Numbers fall under various classes:

Integers: … , −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, …

Natural numbers ℕ: 0, 1, 2, 3, …
Positive integers ℕ+ : 0, 1, 2, 3, …
𝑝𝑝
Rational numbers ℚ: They are numbers of the form , where 𝑝𝑝 and 𝑞𝑞
𝑞𝑞
are integers and 𝑞𝑞 ≠ 0. Examples: 5/2, 7/118, -1/9 and 3/1.
Rational numbers expressed as decimal fractions either terminate or
recur infinitely:
5/2 = 2.5 (fraction terminates or is of finite length)
1/8 = 0.125 (fraction terminates or is of finite length)
1/9 = 0.111111… (Infinitely recurring)
1/11 = 0.090909… (Infinitely recurring)
 Engineering functions: Numbers and intervals
Numbers fall under various classes (cont…):

Irrational numbers: numbers that cannot be expresses in the form p/q.

When expressed as a decimal fraction, irrational numbers have infinite
length and are non-recurring.

Examples: 2 and 𝜋𝜋.

Real numbers ℝ: Numbers that can be represented as by points on the

real line.
 Engineering functions: Numbers and intervals
Intervals

• Are a small section of the real line.

• Can be expressed as [1,3], if the interval closed between 1 and 3, and
1 and 3 are included in the interval.
• Thus [1,3] has real numbers 1 ≤ 𝑥𝑥 ≤ 3.
• Square brackets mean the interval is closed.
• An open interval example is (1,3) and contains real numbers 1 < 𝑥𝑥 < 3.
The numbers 1 and 3 do not form part of the interval.
• An interval may be both open and closed, e.g., (1,3], and consists of
real numbers of 1 < 𝑥𝑥 ≤ 3.The interval is also known as a semi-open
interval.
 Engineering functions: Numbers and intervals
Intervals cont…

• Open and closed intervals can be represented on the line.

• Open end on is denoted as ○ on the number line and the closed
end is denoted as •
• Upper bound of a set of numbers is any number greater than or
equal to every number in the given set.
• Similarly, a lower bound of a set is any number less than or
equal to every number in a given set.
Engineering functions: Basic concepts of functions

A function f can be thought of as a predictor, such that if given

an input, it provides an estimate or expected output for input
provided.

The input into a function is often called the argument!

Engineering functions: Basic concepts of functions
Engineering functions: Basic concepts of functions
Engineering functions: Basic concepts of functions
Engineering functions: Basic concepts of functions
Engineering functions: Basic concepts of functions
Graph of a function
𝑥𝑥 and 𝑦𝑦 are variables: they can have any number.

𝑥𝑥 is independent, and 𝑦𝑦 is a dependent variable,

thus we use 𝑦𝑦(𝑥𝑥) to express this dependency.

Domain of the function: the set of values that 𝑥𝑥 is

allowed to take. Domain may be specified, but if it I
not, then it is taken to be the largest set possible.

𝑔𝑔 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥 2 − 4 has domain −∞, ∞ since it is

defined for every value of 𝑥𝑥 if domain has not been
explicitly given.
Engineering functions: Basic concepts of functions
Graph of a function cont…

The set of values of 𝑥𝑥 that a function can take is

called a range.

The range of the function 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 3𝑥𝑥 + 1 is [-14,31];

the range of 𝑔𝑔 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥 2 − 4 is −4, ∞ .
Engineering functions: Basic concepts of functions
One-to-many

If a rule produces many outputs from one input, it is said to be

one-to-many. A one-to-many rule is not a function.

A function is a rule that is specifically defined and produce a

single output from a single input.
 Engineering functions: Basic concepts of functions
Many-to-one and one-to-one functions
Consider: 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥 2 .This function produces 4
for 𝑥𝑥 = 2 and 𝑥𝑥 = −2. The function is thus a
many-to-one function.

Many-to-one functions are recognized from

their graphs (see Figure 2.7). If a horizontal line
intercepts the graph more than once then it is a
many-to-one function.

One-to-one functions always produce different

outputs. A horizontal line on the graph
intercepts only one place (See Figure 2.8).
 Engineering functions: Basic concepts of functions
Composition of functions
Consider 𝑦𝑦 𝑥𝑥 = 2𝑥𝑥 2 If ℎ 𝑥𝑥 = 2𝑥𝑥 and 𝑔𝑔 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥 2 then it
𝑦𝑦 𝑥𝑥 has two functions: i) Square the suffices to say:
input, ii) Double the input, as shown 𝑦𝑦(𝑥𝑥) = 2𝑥𝑥 2 = 2 𝑔𝑔 𝑥𝑥 = ℎ(𝑔𝑔 𝑥𝑥 )
in Figure 2.9.
The form is ℎ(𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥)) is known as a
composition of the functions ℎ and
𝑔𝑔.
 Engineering functions: Basic concepts of functions
Composition of functions
Example 2.5
Engineering functions: Basic concepts of functions
Composition of functions

Solution to example 2.5 (a)

Engineering functions: Basic concepts of functions
Composition of functions

Solution to example 2.5 (b)

 Engineering functions: Basic concepts of functions
Inverse of a function

Consider 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 . It is a function that produces 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) when 𝑥𝑥 is input. If a

function 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) yields 𝑥𝑥 when 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) is input, then 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) is an inverse of
𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥). In summary:

If input 𝑥𝑥 in 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥);and if 𝑔𝑔(𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)) = 𝑥𝑥 then 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) is an inverse

of 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) and is denoted 𝑓𝑓 −1 (𝑥𝑥). See Figure 2.10.
Engineering functions: Basic concepts of functions
Inverse of a function
Example 2.6

Solution
Engineering functions: Basic concepts of functions
Inverse of a function
Example 2.7

Solution
Engineering functions: Basic concepts of functions
Inverse of a function
Example 2.8

Solution
 Engineering functions: Basic concepts of functions
Inverse of a function
Notes:
• Inverse functions are themselves functions.

• If f(x) is an inverse function of g(x), then g(x) is also an inverse

function of f(x).

• Not all functions possess an inverse function, e.g., 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑥𝑥 2 .

• Only one-to-one functions have an inverse function. Restricting the

domain of 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑥𝑥 2 to x ≥ 0 results into a one-to-one function.
This technique is commonly used to convert one-to-many functions
to one-to-one functions.
 Engineering functions: Basic concepts of functions
Continuous and piecewise functions

1
Consider 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = :
𝑥𝑥

𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) is discontinuous at 𝑥𝑥 = 0.

If the graph of a function, f(x) contains a

break, then f(x) is discontinuous.

A function whose graph has no breaks is a

continuous function.
 Engineering functions: Basic concepts of functions
Continuous and piecewise functions

A function can be defined by different

rules at different intervals of the domain;
e.g.:

The domain is [0,3] but the rule on [0,1) is different to that on [1,3] (see
Fig. 2.12).

Each component (piece) of the graph is continuous and 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡) is thus

piecewise continuous. A piecewise continuous function has a finite
number of discontinuities in any given interval.
 Engineering functions: Basic concepts of functions
Continuous and piecewise functions

Not all functions defined differently on

different intervals are discontinuous, case
in point:

2 0 < 𝑡𝑡 < 1
𝑔𝑔 𝑡𝑡 = �
2𝑡𝑡 1 ≤ 𝑡𝑡 < 3

is a continuous function on the interval

(0,3) (see Fig.2.13).
 Engineering functions: Basic concepts of functions
Periodic functions

Periodic functions have a definite pattern repeated at regular intervals.

A function f(t) is periodic if

𝑓𝑓 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡 + 𝑇𝑇)

for all values of 𝑡𝑡.

The constant 𝑇𝑇 = 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓.

Engineering functions: Basic concepts of functions
Periodic functions

Example 2.9
 Engineering functions: Basic concepts of functions
Periodic functions
Examples of periodic functions:

 sin 2𝜋𝜋 + 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 period is 2𝜋𝜋

 cos 2𝜋𝜋 + 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑥𝑥 Period is 2𝜋𝜋

 cot 𝜋𝜋 + 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑥𝑥 Period of 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 is 𝜋𝜋

 tan 𝜋𝜋 + 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑥𝑥 Period of 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑥𝑥 is 𝜋𝜋

 c𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 2𝜋𝜋 + 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑥𝑥 Period of 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 is 2𝜋𝜋

 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 2𝜋𝜋 + 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 Period of 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 is 2𝜋𝜋

Engineering functions: Basic concepts of functions
Periodic functions

sin 2𝜋𝜋 + 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 period is 2𝜋𝜋

Image source: Higher Engineering Math by John Bird, p227

Engineering functions: Basic concepts of functions
Periodic functions

The period of sin 2𝜋𝜋 + 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 is 2𝜋𝜋

What is the period of sin(4𝑥𝑥 + 5)?

1
Answer: 𝜋𝜋
2

54
What is the period of 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇(3𝑥𝑥) + 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆( )?
2

Answer: 4𝜋𝜋

2𝜋𝜋
In general, if y = sin 𝛼𝛼𝑥𝑥 , then the period of the function y is .
𝛼𝛼
 Engineering functions: Basic concepts of functions
Periodic functions

Another example of a periodic function. The function

has a period 2pi

Figure adapted from Higher Engineering Mathematics by John Bird

Engineering functions: Basic concepts of functions
Engineering functions: Basic concepts of functions
Engineering functions: Basic concepts of functions
Engineering functions: Basic concepts of functions
Engineering functions: Common engineering functions and
techniques

 Polynomial functions
 Rational functions
 Exponential functions
 Logarithmic functions
 Hyperbolic functions
 The modulus function
 The ramp function
 The unit step function
 The delta function or unit impulse function
Engineering functions: Common engineering functions and
techniques
Polynomial functions
Recall:
Engineering functions: Common engineering functions and
techniques
Polynomial functions
Engineering functions: Common engineering functions and
techniques
Rational functions

Examples
Engineering functions: Common engineering functions and
techniques
Rational functions

Consider

Note that as 𝑥𝑥 approaches infinity, 𝑦𝑦 tends

to 2. The graph never reaches 2; thus the
graph has an asymptote at 𝑦𝑦 = 2.

The graph also tends to 0 as 𝑥𝑥 approaches

0. Therefore, the graph has an asymptote at
𝑥𝑥 = 0.
Engineering functions: Common engineering functions and
techniques
Rational functions
Now consider other examples:
Asymptotes
Horizontal: y=3
Vertical: x=0
Engineering functions: Common engineering functions and
techniques
Rational functions
Now consider other examples:

Asymptotes
Horizontal: y=1
Vertical: x=-2
Engineering functions: Common engineering functions and
techniques
Rational functions

Asymptotes
The asymptote is 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 + 3
It is neither horizontal or vertical. This asymptote
is called an oblique asymptote.

The oblique asymptote occurs when the algebraic

fraction (function) has 𝑛𝑛 − 𝑑𝑑 = 1 (i.e., degree of
numerator is greater than that of the denominator
by 1).
Engineering functions: Common engineering functions and
techniques
Rational functions
Engineering functions: Common engineering functions and
techniques
Rational functions

Example 2.10
Solution
Engineering functions: Common engineering functions and
techniques
Rational functions
Solution cont…
 Engineering functions: Common engineering functions and
techniques
Rational functions
Solution cont…
Engineering functions: Common engineering functions and
techniques
Rational functions: Different approach for finding asymptotes

Alternative approach of finding horizontal asymptotes of Rational

functions

(i) If 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑑𝑑, divide coefficients of leading terms

(ii) If 𝑛𝑛 < 𝑑𝑑, the H.A. is y=0
(iii) If 𝑛𝑛 > 𝑑𝑑, there is no horizontal asymptote

(3𝑥𝑥 2 +6𝑥𝑥)
E.g. for 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 2 , the H.A. is 𝑦𝑦 = 3/1 = 3
𝑥𝑥 +𝑥𝑥
Engineering functions: Common engineering functions and
techniques
Rational functions: Different approach for finding asymptotes

Alternative approach of finding vertical asymptotes of Rational functions

(i) Simplify the function to lower terms first (simplify).

(ii) You will notice that some factors are holes (they are present in both
the numerator and denominator)
(iii) Set denominator equal to zero and solve for 𝑥𝑥.
(iv) You can also inspect for poles – which are values that make the
denominator to be equal to zero. The poles are vertical asymptotes.

(3𝑥𝑥 2 +6𝑥𝑥)
E.g., for 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 2 , V.A is 𝑥𝑥 = −1
𝑥𝑥 +𝑥𝑥
Engineering functions: Common engineering functions and
techniques
Rational functions: Exercises
Engineering functions: Common engineering functions and
techniques
Rational functions: Exercises
Engineering functions: Common engineering functions and
techniques
Rational functions: Exercises
Engineering functions: Common engineering functions and
techniques
Rational functions: Solutions to exercises
Engineering functions: Common engineering functions and
techniques
Hyperbolic functions

Hyperbolic function examples:

𝑦𝑦 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜, 𝑦𝑦 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠ℎ𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠ℎ𝑥𝑥,

𝑦𝑦 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐ℎ𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠ℎ𝑥𝑥

Cosh = contracted form of hyperbolic cosine, and so is sinh.

𝑒𝑒 −𝑥𝑥 +𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 𝑒𝑒 −𝑥𝑥 −𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥

cosh −𝑥𝑥 = = cosh 𝑥𝑥 and sinh −𝑥𝑥 = = −𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
2 2
Engineering functions: Common engineering functions and
techniques
Hyperbolic functions
Hyperbolic functions are combinations of 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 and 𝑒𝑒 −𝑥𝑥 .

Since the combinations of 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 and 𝑒𝑒 −𝑥𝑥 are encountered frequently in

engineering, 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 and 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 are discussed.

Values of hyperbolic functions

for various values of x can be
found using a scientific
calculator.
Engineering functions: Common engineering functions and
techniques
Hyperbolic functions

Example 2.19 Solution

Engineering functions: Common engineering functions and
techniques
Hyperbolic functions
Hyperbolic identities
Engineering functions: Common engineering functions and
techniques
Hyperbolic functions
Example 2.20

Solution
Engineering functions: Common engineering functions and
techniques
Hyperbolic functions: inverse hyperbolic functions

 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 and 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 are one-to-one functions, thus no domain

restriction is required for an inverse to be defined.

 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 is a many-to-one function on (−∞, ∞); if domain is

restricted to [0, ∞) it becomes a one-to-one and inverse thus
becomes defined.

 Inverse of hyperbolic functions can be found using calculator and

is denoted with superscript -1, e.g., 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐−1 𝑥𝑥.
Engineering functions: Common engineering functions and
techniques
Hyperbolic functions: inverse hyperbolic functions

Example 2.21

Solution
Engineering functions: Common engineering functions and
techniques
Hyperbolic functions: Exercises
Engineering functions: Common engineering functions and
techniques
Hyperbolic functions: Exercises

Solutions
Engineering functions: Common engineering functions and
techniques
The modulus function
The modulus of a positive number is the number itself.

Modulus of a negative number is the positive number of the same

magnitude.

A number is enclosed in vertical lines to show that it is expressed as its

modulus, e.g., |3| = 3 and |-3| = 3.
Engineering functions: Common engineering functions and
techniques
The modulus function
Modulus of a quantity is never negative.

|a-b| = |b-a| = distance from a to b.

Engineering functions: Common engineering functions and
techniques
The modulus function

Example 2.22

Solutions
Engineering functions: Common engineering functions and
techniques
The modulus function

From the definition of the modulus function it follows:

Engineering functions: Common engineering functions and
techniques
The modulus function
Example 2.23

Solutions
Engineering functions: Common engineering functions and
techniques
The modulus function

The modulus function can be used to describe regions in the x-y plane.
Example 2.24
Solutions
Engineering functions: Common engineering functions and
techniques
The modulus function: Exercises
Engineering functions: Common engineering functions and
techniques
The ramp function
Engineering functions: Common engineering functions and
techniques
The unit step function, u(t)

Discontinuity at t = 0.
0 is part of the function defined on 𝑡𝑡 ≥ 0

The position of the discontinuity may be

shifted (see Fig. 2.49):
Engineering functions: Common engineering functions and
techniques
The unit step function, u(t)
Example 2.25

Solutions

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Engineering functions: Common engineering functions and
techniques
The unit step function, u(t): Exercises
Engineering functions: Common engineering functions and
techniques
The unit step function, u(t): Exercise solutions
Engineering functions: Common engineering functions and
techniques
The delta function or unit impulse function
Engineering functions: Common engineering functions and
techniques
The delta function or unit impulse function
Engineering functions: Common engineering functions and
techniques
The delta function or unit impulse function
Example 2.6

Solution