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Crystal Growth
Semiconductor wafers are cut from large crystals of the
Crystal Growth semiconducting material. These crystals, also called
, are grown from chunks of the intrinsic material,
which have a polycrystalline structure and are undoped.
The process of converting the polycrystalline chunks to a
large crystal of single-crystal structure, with the correct
orientation and the proper amount of N- or P-type, is
called crystal growing.
Three different methods are used to grow crystals:
– 1. Czochralski,
– 2. Float Zone, &
– 3. Liquid Encapsulated Czochralski
Crystal Growth:
1. Czochralski (CZ) method Czochralski (CZ) method....
The majority of silicon crystals are grown by the CZ method (Fig. Single Crystal Silicon Seed
3.8). The equipment consists of a quartz (silica) crucible that is
heated by surrounding coils that carry radio frequency (RF) Quartz Crucible Single Crystal
waves or by electric heaters. silicon Ingot
The crucible is loaded with chunks of polycrystalline of the
semiconductor material and small amounts of . First, the
poly and dopants are heated to the liquid state at 1415°C (Fig.
Molten Silicon RF Heating
3.9).
1415 °C Coils
Next, a seed crystal is positioned to just touch the surface of the
liquid material (called the melt). The seed is a small crystal that
has the same crystal orientation required in the finished crystal. Graphite Crucible
Seeds can be
Figure 3.8 Czochralski crystal-growing system.
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CZ Method....... CZ Crystal Pulling
• Crystal growth starts as the seed is slowly raised above
the melt. The surface tension between the seed and the
melt causes a thin film of the melt to adhere to the seed
and then to cool. During the cooling, the atoms in the
melted semiconductor material orient themselves to the
crystal structure of the seed.
• To achieve doping uniformity, crystal perfection, and
diameter control, the seed and crucible (along with
the pull rate) are rotated in opposite directions during
the entire crystal-growing process.
• The CZ method is capable of producing crystals several Source:
feet in length and with diameters up to 12 or more inches. http://www.fullman.com/semiconductors/_crystalgrowing.html
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2. Float zone technique Float-zone Technique: overview
• These crystals are more expensive and have very low oxygen
• A drawback to the CZ method is the inclusion of and carbon.
oxygen from the crucible into the crystal. • Carrier concentrations down to 1011 atoms/cm3 is possible to
– For some devices, higher levels of oxygen are intolerable. achieve.
For these special cases, the crystal might be grown by the • It is far less common, and is reserved for situations where
float zone technique, which produces a lower oxygen oxygen and carbon impurities cannot be tolerated.
content crystal.
• Float-zone does not allow as large Si wafers as CZ does
(200mm and 300mm) and radial distribution of dopant in FZ
• This limits the resistivity to 20Ωcm, while intrinsic Si wafer is not as uniform as in CZ wafer.
is 230kΩcm. • It is good for solar cells, power electronic devices (thyristors and
rectifiers) that use the entire volume of the wafer not just a thin
surface layer, etc.
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Float Zone (FZ)
Float Zone Method
* Float zone (FZ) crystal growth requires
a bar of the polysilicon. The seed is
fused to one end of the bar and the
Poly Si
assemblage placed in the crystal grower. Rod
Molten Silicon
* Crystal growing starts when an RF coil Heating Coils
heats the interface region of the bar and Movement Heating
Coils
seed.
* The coil is then moved along the axis
of the bar, heating it to the liquid point a Single Crystal
Silicon
small section at a time.
* Within each molten region, the atoms
align to the orientation started at the Seed Crystal
seed end.
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Comparison between CZ and FZ 3. Liquid encapsulated Czochralski
method (LEC)
• CZ method is more popular LEC crystal growing is used for the growing of gallium arsenide
– Cheaper crystals. It is essentially the same as the standard CZ process
– Larger wafer size (300 mm in production) but with a major modification for gallium arsenide.
– Reusable materials The modification is required because of the evaporative property
of the arsenic in the melt. At the crystal growing temperature,
• FZ method the gallium and arsenic react, and the arsenic can
– Pure silicon crystal (no crucible) evaporate, resulting in a nonuniform crystal.
– More expensive, smaller wafer size (150 mm)
– Mainly for power devices. Two solutions to the problem are available.
• Pressurize the crystal growing chamber to suppress the
evaporation of the arsenic.
• Use a layer of boron trioxide (B2O3) floating on top of the
melt to suppress the arsenic evaporation.
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LEC….. Crystal and Wafer Quality
The pre-synthesised polycrystalline
GaAs (or elemental Ga & As) are • Semiconductor devices require a high degree of crystal
placed in the growth crucible along perfection. But even with the most sophisticated techniques, a
with a pellet of boron trioxide. The perfect crystal is unobtainable.
crucible is placed inside a • The imperfections, called crystal defects cause an uneven
crystal puller & heated up. silicon dioxide film growth, poor epitaxial film deposition,
uneven doping layers in the wafer, and other problems.
At 460°C the boron trioxide melts to • In finished devices, the crystal defects cause unwanted
form a thick, viscous liquid which current leakage and may prevent the devices from operating
coats the entire melt. at required voltages.
There are three major categories of crystal defects:
This layer, in combination with the
A seed crystal is then dipped, • 1. Point defects
pressure in the crystal puller,
through the boron trioxide layer, • 2. Dislocations
into the melt & is rotated and prevents sublimation of the volatile
slowly withdrawn and a single group V element • 3. Growth defects
crystal propagates from the seed.
