Natural stone

- Natural stones are extracted from quarries or mines and can be reshaped and carved into a
variety of unique shapes and sizes for applications in construction projects.

What makes stone such a popular material?

* There are several reasons why stone has become probably the most fundamental construction
material on earth.

- It is widely available
*The main reason why stone has been used for construction so frequently is that it is
widely available in nature. Small amount of stones to build walls of small houses can be found
anywhere and larger amount can be extracted from natural deposits.
- It is durable
*The second reason is that stone is durable and gives people the opportunity to build
something that could last for thousands of years. The evidence is everywhere. There are
historical buildings that have been standing there for centuries and people can still enjoy their
beauty.
- It is low maintenance
*Unlike other materials, stone is very easy to maintain once the building has been
completed. Good quality stone is easy to clean, and it does not need a new coat of paint or re-
finishing.
- It has a low environmental impact
*Stone is the ‘greenest’ building material available because it does not need processing.
The only part of stone construction that requires energy is the initial quarrying phase. Stone also
does not contain any pollutants.

Which types of natural stones are frequently used in construction?

Definitions:
Basalt - Dark and heavy, this extrusive, igneous rock makes up most of the planet’s oceanic
crust. Basalt is black, but after extensive weathering, may turn green or brown. Additionally, it
contains some light-colored minerals like feldspar and quartz, but these are difficult to see with
the naked eye. Rich in iron and magnesium, basalt is used in construction to make building
blocks, cobblestones, flooring tiles, road stone, rail track ballasts, and statues. 90% of all
volcanic rock is basalt.

Granite - This coarse-grained intrusive igneous rock is composed chiefly of quartz, feldspar, and
plagioclase. Granite gets its signature color speckles from crystallization — the longer the
molten rock has to cool, the larger the grains of color.

Marble - Loved, throughout the ages, for its luxury and opulence, marble is a beautiful
metamorphic rock that forms when limestone is subjected to high pressure or heat. It usually
contains other minerals like quartz, graphite, pyrite, and iron oxides that give it a range of hues
from pink to brown, gray, green, black, or variegated coloration.
Sandstone - Sandstone is a classic sedimentary rock made from sand-sized silicate grains of
quartz and feldspar. Tough and resistant to weather, this building material stone is often used
for cladding facades and interior walls, as well as garden benches, paving material, patio tables,
and swimming pool edges. This stone may be any color like sand, but the most common colors
are tan, brown, gray, white, red, and yellow. If it has a high quartz content, sandstone may even
be crushed and used as a source of silica for glass manufacturing.

Slate - Slate is a fine-grained, foliated, homogenous sedimentary rock derived from shale rock
composed of clay or volcanic ash. The original clay minerals in shale alter to micas when
exposed to increasing levels of heat and pressure. Gray in color, slate contains quartz, feldspar,
calcite, pyrite, and hematite, among other minerals. It’s a desirable building stone that’s been
utilized in construction since ancient Egyptian times. Today, it’s used as roofing, flagging,
decorative aggregates, and flooring because of its attractiveness and durability.

Limestone - Composed of calcite and magnesium, this soft sedimentary rock is usually gray but
may also be white, yellow, or brown. From a geological perspective, limestone is formed either
in deep marine water or due to water evaporation during cave formation.

APPLICATIONS:
- Basalt
- Basalt stone, which is also known as traps, is commonly used in construction of roads,
river walls, dams, as aggregate in concrete production, and rubble masonry works for bridge
piers because it is weather and moisture resistant. The basalt stone structure is medium to fine
grained. The colour of basalt changes from dark gray to black, depending on weather
conditions.

- Granite
- Granite is an extremely hard and durable stone that is frequently used in construction
of bridge piers, dams, curbs, retaining walls and stone columns because it has a good
resistance to water and frost. It is very versatile, and it can be finished to a very high standard
so polished granite is often used to manufacture table tops or for cladding for columns and
walls. The colour varies from light grey to pink. It is also extremely hard and durable, making it
suitable for a range of different construction purposes.
- Marble
- Marble is a quite strong stone uniform in texture. It can be easily cut and carved into
different shapes and later polished so it is frequently used for columns, flooring, steps, facing
and ornamental works. Marble can be seen in many historic buildings. It is available in various
shades of colours like white, grey, and pink.
- Sandstone
- Sandstone is easily weathered by rain, so it must be used in combination with silica
cement. It is often used in the construction of heavy structures such as dams, bridge piers, and
river walls. It is composed of quartz and feldspar and found in various colours such as white,
yellow, red, brown, and grey.
- Slate
- Slate is commonly used for roofing tiles. However, it also has other uses in modern
construction, it is for example frequently used on building slabs and pavements. Slate consists
of quartz, mica, and clay minerals, and its building properties depend on the thickness of the
sheets and the colour of the rock. Its color can be various shades of grey or black.
- Limestone
- Limestone has high resistance to corrosion so it is widely used in construction; it is for
example used for building houses, retaining walls and floors. Limestone is strong and durable,
and it can be shaped into large blocks. Some of the icons of world architecture such as the
great pyramids of Egypt have been built from limestone.

Pros of natural stone

Longevity
- Natural stone is incredibly durable and can last for centuries if properly maintained. It is
capable of withstanding severe weather conditions, heavy traffic, and the wear and tear of daily
use.
Unique character
- No two pieces of natural stone are exactly the same. This uniqueness allows for the
creation of distinctive and personalised spaces.
Adds value to property
- Incorporating natural stone into a property can significantly increase its value. Its
aesthetic appeal and durability make it a desirable feature for potential buyers.
Low maintenance
- Once installed and sealed correctly, natural stone requires relatively low maintenance
to keep it looking its best. Simple cleaning and occasional sealing are usually sufficient.
Versatility
- Natural stone can be used in various applications, from flooring and wall cladding to
countertops and decorative features. It suits different styles, from rustic to modern.
Natural insulator
- Stone has natural insulating properties, helping to maintain consistent indoor
temperatures. It can keep spaces cooler in the summer and warmer in the winter.
Fire resistance
- Unlike many synthetic materials, natural stone is fire-resistant, making it a safe choice
for fireplaces, exterior walls, and other areas exposed to high temperatures.

Cons of natural stone

Cost
- While natural stone can add value to a property, its initial acquisition and installation
costs can be higher than those of other materials. This is due to the quarrying, cutting, and
transportation of the stone, as well as the specialised labour required for its installation.
Weight
- Natural stone's durability and longevity come with the trade-off of it being quite heavy.
This can limit its application in certain environments without proper structural support, leading to
additional costs or engineering considerations.
Availability
- Depending on the type of stone and its origin, there can be limitations on availability.
Some stones are quarried in specific parts of the world, which might affect lead times and
availability for your project.
Installation challenges
- The installation of natural stone requires skilled craftsmanship, and errors can be costly
to rectify. The process can be more time-consuming and complex compared to installing
manufactured materials.

NATURAL STONES APPLICATIONS

Flooring
Natural stone flooring is a popular flooring choice. The wide range of natural stones available
means homeowners can create a desirable floor that fits their own style. Granite, marble and
limestone are all popular choices, particularly in bathrooms and kitchens.

Wall cladding
Natural stone is a popular cladding material wall cladding choice. Materials such as limestone,
sandstone, bluestone and granite. The raw, natural beauty these stones offer make it popular in
coastal areas, and homes built to fit a traditional, historical style. Natural stone can be used on
the exterior and interior of a home.

Countertops and work surfaces

Natural stones are often used for countertops in kitchens and bathrooms because of their
longevity, resistance to scratches and heat and unique designs. Granite and marble are popular
choices.

Landscaping
In landscaping, natural stone is used for pathways, patios, garden steps, and retaining walls due
to its ability to blend with natural surroundings

Architectural features
Stone can be used to create unique architectural features such as fireplaces, fountains, and
archways. Natural stones can also be cut and shaped to fit specific design requirements,
allowing for custom applications.

Monuments and sculptures

The use of natural stone in monuments and sculptures is age-old. Artists and sculptors choose
specific types of stone for their texture, colour, and workability.

Properties of stones

Physical Properties
Hardness: Measured by the Mohs scale; natural stones vary in hardness (e.g.,
diamond = 10, marble ≈ 3-4, granite ≈ 6-7).

Density: Mass per unit volume; dense stones like basalt and granite are heavier.

Porosity: The volume of pores or voids in the stone; affects water absorption and durability.

Water Absorption: The stone’s ability to absorb moisture; low absorption is ideal for outdoor and
wet environments.

Texture: Determined by grain size and mineral composition; can be fine-grained (slate) or
coarse-grained (granite).

Color: Varies based on mineral composition; often a key aesthetic feature.

Mechanical Properties

Compressive Strength: Resistance to crushing loads; granite and basalt have high compressive
strength.

Tensile Strength: Resistance to being pulled apart; usually lower in natural stone.

Flexural Strength: Ability to resist deformation under bending forces.

Impact Resistance: Ability to withstand sudden shocks without breaking.

Chemical properties

Mineral Composition: Determines the stone’s reactivity, color, and durability (e.g., calcite in
limestone reacts with acids).

Acid Resistance: Important for stones exposed to acidic environments (granite is more acid-
resistant than marble).

Weathering Resistance: Ability to resist chemical degradation over time.

Thermal Properties

Thermal Conductivity: Some stones retain and conduct heat better (e.g., soapstone).

Expansion/Contraction: Stones expand or contract slightly with temperature changes; important

for installation.
Fire Resistance: Natural stones are generally fire-resistant but can spall or crack under intense
heat.

Aesthetic Properties

Color and Pattern: Unique veins, spots, and variations add to visual appeal (e.g., marble, onyx).

Luster: The surface shine, especially after polishing (e.g., granite, marble).

Finish Options: Can be polished, honed, flamed, brushed, etc., for different looks and functions.

Testing of Natural stones according to ASTM Standards.

Major ASTM tests for natural stones along with their ASTM designations and specifications:

1. Compressive Strength Test

ASTM Designation: ASTM C170 / C170M

Title: Standard Test Method for Compressive Strength of Dimension Stone

Purpose: Measures the maximum load a stone can bear without crushing.

Specimen Size: Typically 2" x 2" x 4" or 50 mm x 50 mm x 100 mm

Units: psi or MPa

Application: Important for load-bearing structures and flooring.

2. Flexural Strength Test

ASTM Designation: ASTM C880 / C880M

Title: Standard Test Method for Flexural Strength of Dimension Stone

Purpose: Measures a stone’s ability to resist bending forces.

Specimen Size: ~1.25" x 1.25" x 14" (32 mm x 32 mm x 356 mm)

Test Method: Three-point or four-point bending.

Application: Critical for cladding panels, countertops, and thin stone veneers.

3. Modulus of Rupture Test

ASTM Designation: ASTM C99 / C99M
Title: Standard Test Method for Modulus of Rupture of Dimension Stone

Purpose: Measures stress at fracture under a bending load.

Specimen Size: Usually 1.25" x 1.25" x 14"

Application: Evaluates structural performance.

4. Absorption and Specific Gravity Test

ASTM Designation: ASTM C97 / C97M

Title: Standard Test Methods for Absorption and Bulk Specific Gravity of Dimension Stone

Purpose: Determines porosity and density.

Units: % for absorption; specific gravity is unitless.

Typical Limits:

Absorption: Should generally be < 1% for granites, < 0.2% for quartzite.

Specific Gravity: Usually between 2.4 to 3.0

Application: Helps in evaluating weather resistance and strength.

5. Abrasion Resistance Test

ASTM Designation: ASTM C241 / C241M

Title: Standard Test Method for Abrasion Resistance of Stone Subjected to Foot Traffic

Purpose: Measures wear under foot traffic.

Method: Rotary disk with abrasive load applied to the surface.

Result: Index number based on wear.

Application: Flooring and paving stones.

6. Freeze-Thaw Resistance Test

ASTM Designation: ASTM C666 / C666M (for general concrete)
ASTM C671 / C671M (specific to stone panels)
Title: Standard Test Method for Resistance of Concrete to Rapid Freezing and Thawing (or
Stone Panels)

Purpose: Determines durability under freeze-thaw cycles.

Cycles: Usually 50 or 100 cycles.

Application: Exterior applications in cold climates.

7. Thermal Expansion Test

ASTM Designation: ASTM C531

Title: Standard Test Method for Linear Shrinkage and Coefficient of Thermal Expansion of
Chemical-Resistant Mortars

Purpose: Measures dimensional change with temperature.

Units: µin/in/°F or µm/m/°C

Application: Cladding and installations in temperature-variable environments.

8. Shear Strength Test

ASTM Designation: ASTM C1354

Title: Standard Test Method for Strength of Individual Stone Anchorages in Dimension Stone

Purpose: Tests anchorage strength and stone’s shear capacity.

Application: Anchored cladding and façade systems.

9. Weathering Resistance Test

ASTM Designation: ASTM C1354

Title: Standard Test Method for Strength of Individual Stone Anchorages in Dimension Stone

Purpose: Tests anchorage strength and stone’s shear capacity.

Application: Anchored cladding and façade systems.