NONTRADITIONAL MACHINING

AND THERMAL CUTTING

PROCESSES
(16/04/2025)

1. Mechanical Energy Processes

2. Electrochemical Machining Processes
3. Thermal Energy Processes
4. Chemical Machining
5. Application Considerations
 Nontraditional Processes
Defined
▪ A group of processes that remove excess material by techniques
involving mechanical, thermal, electrical, or chemical energy (or
combinations of these energies)
▪ They do not use a sharp cutting tool in the conventional sense
▪ Developed since World War II in response to new and
unusual machining requirements that could not be satisfied by
conventional machining methods
 Importance of
Nontraditional Processes
▪ Need to machine newly developed metals and non-metals with
special properties that make them difficult or impossible to
machine by conventional methods
▪ Need for unusual and/or complex part geometries that cannot
readily be accomplished by conventional machining
▪ Need to avoid surface damage that often accompanies
conventional machining
 Classification of Nontraditional
Processes
▪ Mechanical - mechanical erosion of work material by a high
velocity stream of abrasives or fluid (or both)
▪ Electrical - electrochemical energy to remove material (reverse of
electroplating)
▪ Thermal – thermal energy applied to small portion of work surface,
causing that portion to be fused and/or vaporized
▪ Chemical – chemical etchants selectively remove material from
portions of workpart, while other portions are protected by a mask
 Mechanical Energy Processes

▪ Ultrasonic machining
▪ Water jet cutting
▪ Abrasive water jet cutting
▪ Abrasive jet machining
▪ Abrasive flow machining
 Ultrasonic Machining (USM)

▪ Abrasives contained in a slurry are driven at high velocity

against work by a tool vibrating at low amplitude and high
frequency
▪ Tool oscillation is perpendicular to work surface
▪ Abrasives accomplish material removal
▪ Tool is fed slowly into work
▪ Shape of tool is formed into part
 USM Applications

▪ Hard, brittle work materials such as ceramics, glass, and carbides

▪ Also successful on certain metals, such as stainless steel and
titanium
▪ Shapes include non-round holes, holes along a curved axis
▪ “Coining operations” - pattern on tool is imparted to a flat work
surface
 USM

Advantages Disadvantages
Machining of any material regard less of conductivity Low material removal rate
Precision machining of brittle hard materials Tool wears fast
Does not produce e lectric, thermal or chemical defects at Machining area and depth are quite restricted
the surface
Can drill circular or non-circular holes in very hard
materials
Less stress because of its non-thermal nature
 Water Jet Cutting (WJC)

▪ Uses high pressure,

high velocity stream of
water directed at work
surface for cutting
 WJC Applications

▪ Usually automated by CNC or industrial robots to manipulate

nozzle along desired trajectory
▪ Used to cut narrow slits in flat stock such as plastic, textiles,
composites, floor tile, carpet, leather, and cardboard
▪ Not suitable for brittle materials (e.g., glass)
 WJC Advantages

▪ No crushing or burning of work surface

▪ Minimum material loss
▪ No environmental pollution
▪ Ease of automation
 Abrasive Water Jet Cutting
(AWJC)
▪ When WJC is used on metals, abrasive particles must be added to
jet stream usually
▪ Additional process parameters: abrasive type, grit size, and flow rate
▪ Abrasives: aluminum oxide, silicon dioxide, and garnet (a silicate mineral)
▪ Grit sizes range between 60 and 120
▪ Grits added to water stream at about 0.25 kg/min after stream exits nozzle
 Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM)

▪ High velocity stream of gas containing small abrasive particles

 AJM Application Notes

▪ Usually performed manually by operator who aims nozzle

▪ Normally used as a finishing process rather than cutting process
▪ Applications: deburring, trimming and deflashing, cleaning, and
polishing
▪ Work materials: thin flat stock of hard, brittle materials (e.g., glass,
silicon, mica, ceramics)
 Abrasive Flow Machining

▪ Abrasive particles mixed in viscoelastic polymer are forced to flow

through and around part surfaces and edges
▪ Polymer has consistency of putty
▪ Applications: deburring and polishing difficult-to-reach areas of parts
▪ Particularly well-suited for internal passageways that may not be accessible by
conventional methods
 Electrochemical Machining
Processes
▪ A group of processes in which electrical energy is used in
combination with chemical reactions to remove material
▪ Reverse of electroplating
▪ Work material must be a conductor
▪ Processes:
▪ Electrochemical machining (ECM)
▪ Electrochemical deburring (ECD)
▪ Electrochemical grinding (ECG)
 Electrochemical Machining (ECM)

▪ Material removal by
anodic dissolution, using
electrode (the tool) in
close proximity to work
but separated by a
rapidly flowing
electrolyte
 ECM Operation

▪ Material is deplated from anode workpiece (positive pole) and

transported to a cathode tool (negative pole) in an electrolyte bath
▪ Electrolyte flows rapidly between two poles to carry off deplated material, so
it does not plate onto tool
▪ Electrode materials: Cu, brass, or stainless steel
▪ Tool has inverse shape of part
▪ Tool size and shape must allow for the gap
 Physics of ECM

▪ Based on Faraday's First Law: amount of chemical change (amount

of metal dissolved) is proportional to the quantity of electricity passed
(current x time)
V= C l t
where V = volume of metal removed; C = specific removal rate which work material; l =
current; and t time
Example 1:
 Example 2:

The frontal working area of the electrode in an ECM operation is 1250 mm2. Applied current
= 1000 A and voltage = 12 volts. The material being cut is aluminum (valence = 3).
(a) If the process is 95% efficient, determine the rate of metal removal in mm3/min.
(b) If the electrolyte resistivity = 125 ohm-mm, determine the working gap.
Solution:
(a) From Table 26.1, the specific removal rate C = 3.44  10-2 mm3/A-s
RMR = frA = (CI/A)A = CI = (3.44  10-2 mm3/A-s)(1000 A) = 34.4 mm3/s
= 2064 mm3/min
At 95% efficiency RMR = 0.95(2064 mm3/min) = 1961 mm3/min
(b) Given resistivity r = 125 ohm-mm, I = EA/gr
Rearranging, g = EA/Ir
g = (12 V)(1250 mm2)/(1000 A)(125 ohm-mm) = 0.12 mm
 Example 3:
Solution:
An ECM operation is used to cut a square-
shaped blind hole into a nickel block (valence (a) From Table 26.1, the specific removal rate
= 2). The frontal working area of the electrode C = 3.42  10-2 mm3/A-s
is 1583.2 mm2. Applied current = 1200 A and RMR = frA = (CI/A)A = CI = (3.42  10-2 mm3/A s)(1200 A)
voltage = 12 volts. = 41.04 mm3/s = 2462 mm3/min
(a) If the process is 90% efficient, determine At 90% efficiency RMR = 0.9(2462 mm3/min) = 2216 mm3/min
the rate of metal removal in mm3/min. (b) Given resistivity r = 150 ohm-mm, g = EA/Ir
(b) If the electrolyte resistivity = 150 ohm-mm, g = (12 V)(1583.2 mm2)/(1200 A)(150 ohm-mm) = 0.1056
determine the working gap. mm
(c) If the gap created at the sides of the square- (c) The dimension of each side of the square-shaped electrode
shaped electrode is equal to the working gap = (1583.2)0.5 = 39.79 mm
from part (b), determine the area of the square- Adding twice the gap size to this, the dimension of each side of
shaped hole that is created (ignore rounding at the square-shaped is:
corners). L = 39.79 + 2(0.1056) = 40.0006 mm,
(d) How much time is required to cut the blind hole area A = (40.0006)2 = 1600.05 mm2
hole to a depth of 20 mm? (d) feed rate fr = RMR/A = (2216 mm3/min)/1583.2 mm2 = 1.40
mm/min
Tm = depth/fr = 20/1.4 = 14.29 min
 ECM Applications

▪ Die sinking - irregular shapes and contours for forging dies,

plastic molds, and other tools
▪ Multiple hole drilling - many holes can be drilled simultaneously
with ECM
▪ Holes that are not round
▪ Rotating drill is not used in ECM
▪ Deburring
 Electrochemical Deburring (ECD)

▪ Adaptation of ECM to remove burrs or sharp corners on holes in

metal parts produced by conventional through-hole drilling.
 Electrochemical Grinding (ECG)

▪ Special form of ECM in which grinding wheel with conductive bond

material augments anodic dissolution of metal part surface
 Applications and
Advantages of ECG

▪ Applications:
▪ Sharpening of cemented carbide tools
▪ Grinding of surgical needles and other thin-wall tubes, and fragile parts
▪ Advantages:
▪ Deplating responsible for 95% of metal removal
▪ Because machining is mostly by electrochemical action, grinding wheel
lasts much longer
 Thermal Energy Processes -
Overview
▪ Very high local temperatures
▪ Material is removed by fusion or vaporization
▪ Physical and metallurgical damage to the new work surface
▪ In some cases, resulting finish is so poor that subsequent
processing is required
 Thermal Energy Processes

▪ Electric discharge machining

▪ Electric discharge wire cutting
▪ Electron beam machining
▪ Laser beam machining
▪ Plasma arc machining
▪ Conventional thermal cutting processes
 Electric Discharge Processes

▪ Metal removal by a series of discrete electrical discharges (sparks)

causing localized temperatures high enough to melt or vaporize the
metal
▪ Can be used only on electrically conducting work materials
▪ Two main processes:
▪ Electric discharge machining
▪ Wire electric discharge machining

(a) Setup of process and (b) close-up view of gap, showing discharge and metal removal
 EDM Operation

▪ One of the most widely used nontraditional processes

▪ Shape of finished work surface produced by a shape of electrode
tool
▪ Sparks occur across a small gap between tool and work
▪ Requires dielectric fluid, which creates a path for each discharge as
fluid becomes ionized in the gap
 Work Materials in EDM

▪ Work materials must be electrically conducting

▪ Hardness and strength of work material are not factors in EDM
▪ Material removal rate depends on melting point of work material
Example 4:
 EDM Applications

▪ Tooling for many mechanical processes: molds for plastic injection

molding, extrusion dies, wire drawing dies, forging and heading dies,
and sheet metal stamping dies.
▪ Production parts: delicate parts not rigid enough to withstand
conventional cutting forces, hole drilling where hole axis is at an
acute angle to surface, and machining of hard and exotic metals
 Wire EDM

▪ Special form of EDM that uses a small diameter wire as electrode

to cut a narrow kerf in work
 Operation of Wire EDM

▪ Work is fed slowly past wire along desired path

▪ Similar to a band-saw operation
▪ CNC used for motion control
▪ While cutting, wire is continuously advanced between supply
spool and take-up spool to maintain a constant diameter
▪ Dielectric required, using nozzles directed at tool-work interface
or submerging workpart
 Wire EDM

▪ Definition of kerf and overcut in electric discharge wire cutting

Overcut refers to the gap between the electrode (tool) in EDM on each side of
the tool and the machined hole, cavity, or kerf (in wire EDM).
 Example 5:

In a wire EDM operation performed on 12-mm-thick steel using a tungsten wire

electrode whose diameter = 0.125 mm, past experience suggests that the overcut
will be 0.02 mm, so that the kerf width will be 0.165 mm. Using a discharge current
= 15 amps, what is the feed rate that can be used in the operation? Use a melting
temperature of 1500C for 1080 steel.

Solution: Tm = 1500C for steel

RMR = 664(15)/(15001.23) = 9960/8065 = 1.232 mm3/s = 73.92 mm3/min

Frontal area of kerf A = 0.165(12.0) = 1.98 mm2

fr = 73.92/1.98 = 37.33 mm/min

 Wire EDM Applications

▪ Ideal for stamping die components

▪ Since kerf is so narrow, it is often possible to fabricate punch and
die in a single cut
▪ Other tools and parts with intricate outline shapes, such as lathe
form tools, extrusion dies, and flat templates
 Electron Beam Machining (EBM)

▪ Uses high velocity

stream of electrons
focused on workpiece
surface to remove
material by melting and
vaporization
 EBM Operation

▪ EB gun accelerates a continuous stream of electrons to about 75%

of light speed
▪ Beam is focused through electromagnetic lens, reducing diameter
to as small as 0.025 mm
▪ On impinging (to have an effect) work surface, kinetic energy of
electrons is converted to thermal energy of extremely high density
which melts or vaporizes material in a very localized area
 EBM Applications

▪ Works on any material

▪ Ideal for micromachining
▪ Drilling small diameter holes - down to 0.05 mm
▪ Cutting slots only about 0.025 mm wide
▪ Drilling holes with very high depth-to-diameter ratios
▪ Ratios greater than 100:1
 Laser Beam Machining (LBM)

▪ Uses the light energy from a

laser to remove material by
vaporization and ablation
 Laser Beam Machining

▪ Laser = Light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation"

▪ Laser converts electrical energy into a highly coherent light beam
with the following properties:
▪ Monochromatic (single wave length)
▪ Highly collimated (light rays are almost perfectly parallel)
▪ These properties allow laser light to be focused, using optical
lenses, onto a very small spot with resulting high power densities
 Laser Beam
Machining

▪ Laser beam cutting operation

performed on sheet metal
(photo courtesy of PRC Corp.)
 LBM Applications

▪ Drilling, slitting, slotting, scribing, and marking operations

▪ Drilling small diameter holes - down to 0.025 mm (0.001 in)
▪ Generally used on thin stock
▪ Work materials: metals with high hardness and strength, soft
metals, ceramics, glass and glass epoxy, plastics, rubber, cloth,
and wood
 Laser Beam Machining

Parts produced by
LBM. The model
bicycles are about
20 mm long
(Courtesy of George
E. Kane
Manufacturing
Technology
Laboratory, Lehigh
University)
 Plasma Arc Cutting (PAC)

▪ Uses plasma stream operating at very high temperatures to cut metal

by melting
 Operation of PAC

▪ Plasma is a superheated, electrically ionized gas

▪ PAC temperatures: 10,000C to 14,000C
▪ The plasma flows through water-cooled nozzle that constricts and directs
stream to desired location
▪ The plasma arc is generated between electrode in torch and anode
workpiece
 Applications of PAC

▪ Most applications of PAC involve cutting of flat metal sheets and

plates
▪ Hole piercing and cutting along a defined path
▪ Can be operated by hand-held torch or automated by CNC
▪ Can cut any electrically conductive metal
▪ Most frequently cut metals: carbon steel, stainless steel, aluminum
 Air Carbon Arc Cutting

▪ Arc is generated between a carbon electrode and metallic work,

and high-velocity air jet blows away melted portion of metal
▪ Can be used to form a kerf to sever a piece, or to gouge a cavity
to prepare edges of plates for welding
▪ Spattering of molten metal is a hazard and a disadvantage
▪ Work materials: cast iron, carbon steel, alloy steels, and various
nonferrous alloys
 Other Arc Cutting Processes

▪ Not as widely used as plasma arc cutting and air carbon arc
cutting:
▪ Gas metal arc cutting
▪ Shielded metal arc cutting
▪ Gas tungsten arc cutting
▪ Carbon arc cutting
 Oxyfuel Cutting (OFC)
Processes
▪ Use heat of combustion of fuel gases combined with exothermic
reaction of metal with oxygen
▪ Popularly known as flame cutting
▪ Cutting torch delivers a mixture of fuel gas and oxygen and directs
a stream of oxygen to cutting region
 Operation of OFC Processes

▪ Primary mechanism of material removal is chemical reaction of

oxygen with base metal
▪ Especially in cutting ferrous metals
▪ Purpose of oxyfuel combustion is to raise the temperature to
support the reaction
▪ Commonly used to cut ferrous metal plates
 OFC Fuels

▪ Acetylene (C2H2)
▪ Highest flame temperature
▪ Most widely used but hazardous
▪ MAPP (methylacetylene-propadiene - C3H4)
▪ Propylene (C3H6)
▪ Propane (C3H8)
 OFC Applications

▪ Performed manually or by machine

▪ Manual operation, examples of applications:
▪ Repair work
▪ Cutting scrap metal
▪ Trimming risers from sand castings
▪ Machine flame cutting allows faster speeds and greater
accuracies
▪ Machine operation often CNC controlled to cut profiled shapes
 Chemical Machining (CHM)

▪ Material removal through contact with a strong chemical etchant

▪ Processes include:
▪ Chemical milling
▪ Chemical blanking
▪ Chemical engraving
▪ Photochemical machining
▪ All use the same mechanism of material removal
 Steps in Chemical Machining

1. Cleaning - to insure uniform etching

2. Masking - a maskant (resist, chemically resistant to etchant) is
applied to portions of work surface not to be etched
3. Etching - part is exposed to etchant that chemically attacks
those portions of work surface not masked
4. Demasking - maskant is removed
 Maskant in Chemical Machining

▪ Materials: neoprene, polyvinylchloride, polyethylene, and other

polymers
▪ Masking accomplished by any of three methods:
▪ Cut and peel
▪ Photographic resist
▪ Screen resist
 Cut and Peel Maskant Method

▪ Maskant is applied over entire part by dipping, painting, or

spraying
▪ After maskant hardens, it is cut by hand using a scribing knife
and peeled away in areas of work surface to be etched
▪ Used for large workparts, low production quantities, and where
accuracy is not a critical factor
 Photographic Resist Method

▪ Masking materials contain photosensitive chemicals

▪ Maskant is applied to work surface and exposed to light through
a negative image of areas to be etched
▪ These areas are then removed using photographic developing
techniques
▪ Remaining areas are vulnerable to etching
▪ Applications:
▪ Small parts produced in high quantities
▪ Integrated circuits and printed circuit cards
 Screen Resist Method

▪ Maskant applied by “silk screening” methods

▪ Maskant is painted through a silk or stainless steel mesh
containing stencil onto surface areas that are not to be etched
▪ Applications:
▪ Between other two masking methods
▪ Fabrication of printed circuit boards
 Etchant

▪ Factors in selection of etchant:

▪ Work material
▪ Depth and rate of material removal
▪ Surface finish requirements
▪ Etchant must also be matched with the type of maskant to
insure that maskant material is not chemically attacked
 Material Removal Rate in CHM

▪ Generally indicated as penetration rates, mm/min, since rate of

chemical attack is directed into surface
▪ Penetration rate is unaffected by surface area
▪ Typical penetration between 0.020 and 0.050 mm/min
 Undercut in CHM

▪ Etching occurs downward and sideways under the maskant

 Example 6:

Chemical milling is used in an aircraft plant to create pockets in wing sections made of an
aluminum alloy. The starting thickness of a work part of interest is 30 mm. A series of
rectangular-shaped pockets 15 mm deep are to be etched with dimensions 200 mm by 400
mm. The corners of each rectangle have a radius = 15 mm. The etchant is NaOH. Consult
Table 22.2 for the penetration rate and etch factor. Determine (a) metal removal rate in
mm3/min, (b) time required to etch to the specified depth, and (c) required dimensions of the
opening in the cut and peel maskant to achieve the desired pocket size on the part.
Solution: From Table 22.2, the penetration rate for this combination = 0.025 mm/min and the
etch factor Fe = 1.75.

(a) Neglecting the fact that the initial area would be less than the given dimensions of 200 mm by 400 mm,
and that the material removal rate (RMR) would therefore increase during the cut as the area increased, area
A = 200 x 400 – (30 x 30 - (15)2) = 80,000 – 193 = 79,807 mm2
RMR = (0.025 mm/min)(79,807 mm2) = 1995.2 mm3/min
(b) Time to machine (etch) Tm = 15/0.025 = 600 min = 10.0 hr
(c) Given Fe = 1.75, undercut u = d/Fe = 15/1.75 = 8.57 mm
Maskant opening length = L – 2u = 400 – 2(8.57) = 382.86 mm
Maskant opening width = W – 2u = 200 – 2(8.57) = 182.86 mm
Radius on corners = R – u = 15 – 8.57= 6.43 mm
 Chemical Milling

▪ (1) Clean raw part, (2) apply maskant, (3) scribe, cut, and peel
maskant from areas to be etched, (4) etch, and (5) remove
maskant and clean finished part
 Applications of Chemical Milling

▪ Remove material from aircraft wing and fuselage panels for

weight reduction
▪ Applicable to large parts where substantial amounts of metal are
removed
▪ Cut and peel maskant method is used
 Chemical Blanking

▪ Chemical erosion to cut very thin sheetmetal parts - down to

0.025 mm thick and/or for intricate cutting patterns
▪ Conventional punch and die does not work because
stamping forces damage the thin sheetmetal, or tooling cost
is prohibitive, or both
▪ Maskant methods are either photoresist or screen resist
 Chemical Blanking

▪ Parts made by
chemical blanking
(courtesy of George
E. Kane
Manufacturing
Technology
Laboratory, Lehigh
University))
 Photochemical Machining (PCM)

▪ Uses photoresist masking method

▪ Applies to chemical blanking and chemical engraving when
photographic resist method is used
▪ Used extensively in the electronics industry to produce intricate
circuit designs on semiconductor wafers
▪ Also used in printed circuit board fabrication
 Possible Part Geometries in
Nontraditional Processes

▪ Very small holes

▪ Holes with large depth-to-diameter ratios
▪ Holes that are not round
▪ Narrow slots in slabs and plates
▪ Micromachining
▪ Shallow pockets and surface details in flat parts
▪ Special contoured shapes for mold and die applications
 Work Materials for
Nontraditional Processes
▪ As a group the nontraditional processes can be applied to
metals and non-metals
▪ However, certain processes are not suited to certain work
materials
▪ Several processes can be used on metals but not nonmetals:
▪ ECM
▪ EDM and wire EDM
▪ PAM
 Next lesson

▪ Chapter 8 – Rapid Prototyping

(End of semester lesson!)