IQTA- ARPIT MAURYA ‘ADVAIT’

 POSSIBLE QUESTIONS
 Examine the changing nature of the Iqta under the Delhi Sultans. In what ways did the
system lead to the growth of central administration?
 Discuss the evolution and working of the Iqtadari system in Delhi Sultanate.
 Give a survey of various stages in the evolution of Iqtadari system under Delhi
sultanate. How did it affect contemporary political and socio-economic milieu?
 Discuss the evolution of Iqta system in the Delhi Sultanate. Has recent research
changed the perception related to it?

1. INTRODUCTION
The Iqta system was a method of administration in the Sultanate period which involved
assigning land to people called Muqtis or Iqtadars or Walis. Muqtis collected taxes from
the peasants' agricultural surplus and kept a portion for themselves, while forwarding the
rest to the central authority. Literally, iqta means territorial assignment.
Moreland argues that when the Ghurid invasions took place in North India, the word iqta
was applied to any revenue charge. The sultans of Delhi effectively used the Iqtadari
system for their centralization of power. Nizamu’l Mulk Tusi in his book Siyasatnama said
that the muqti’s right to collect and appropriate taxes especially land revenue was all due
to the king’s pleasure. A sultan could increase or decrease the size of the iqta. But the
muqti had also had to fulfill certain obligations, the major one being the maintenance of
troops and to present it before the sultan whenever he needed it. They can’t exploit the
peasants and king has the right to transfer them anywhere.
The areas that weren’t given by the Sultan as iqtas were the areas known as the khalisa
where the sultan’s officials i.e. amils directly collected the taxes for the royal treasury.
This land was mostly central or core region, rest was in Iqta.
2. EVOLUTION OF THE IQTA SYSTEM
 ILTUTMISH
Muhammad Ghori was the first to introduce Iqta system in India. When the Ghorians
conquered northern India, the conquests were initially divided up among commanders
who maintained themselves and their troops by plunder and collection of tribute.
However, it was lltutmish (1210-36) who gave it an institutional form. Under the Iqta
system, the entire Delhi Sultanate was divided into several pieces of land which were
assigned to officials (muqtis).
Under this re-organized system the Iqtadar were responsible for, maintaining fixed
numbers of troops, looking after the administration of the area under control, collecting
revenue, and depositing Fawazal in the central treasury. From Illtutmish’s time, one could
see the practice of transferring muqti’s from one iqta to another.
The muqti could even maintain his own subordinates who could help him in revenue
collection by sub assigning small Iqtas withing his own larger Iqta. He appointed his
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personal retainers in core areas and these were called Qalb. Under this, he paid cavalary
soldiers of his own ‘central’ army 2000-3000 in number, by assigning them villages.

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 Balban
Under Balban (1266-86), Irfan Habib highlights that the same practices continued and
even more severe demand of depositing the excess amount collected (called fawazil) to
the Sultan’s treasury came up. An official called khwaja i.e., accountant was appointed to
monitor and check the revenue collection in Iqtas. All this points towards the increased
interest of the central government in the revenue collection and desire to increase their
own treasury. He also discontinued Qalb system.

 Allauddin Khilji
Allaudin Khilji (1296-1316) brought harsh changes and increased central intervention in
the Iqtadaari system in order to maintain his greatly expanded empire. For smooth
administration the territories near Delhi were brought under Khalisa whereas the distant
areas were assigned in iqta to muqtis. Now the cavalry soldiers were paid in cash from
the king’s treasury instead of assignment of village iqtas. Khilji got largely involved in
assessment and collection of agrarian taxes even in the areas which came under muqtis,
hence decreasing the autonomy of the iqtedaars.
Finance department i.e. the Diwan-I Wizarat was made responsible for estimating the tax
income (kharaj) from each Iqta which was enhanced from time to time. A part of Iqta land
was set apart by Diwan from which the Muqti was allowed to use the tax amount for
maintaining troops and the rest of the land was for paying his subordinates and for his
own personal income. After completing all these payments, the excess tax collected was
to be paid into the sultan’s treasury.
This strict division motivated the muqtis to conceal the real revenue amount in order to
diminish the excess payable to sultan. Whereas on the other hand the officials tried to
snaffle the Iqta’s to increase their own gains. Irfan Habib outlines that this led to an
increased amount of mistrust and corruption in the revenue collection. As a result,
Allaudin Khilji’s revenue minister Sharaf Qai got the accounts audited regularly and a
harsh system of punishment was set up including imprisonment and physical torture.
Muqtis and accountants were put through years of torture if they were found guilty of
fraud.

 Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq
Ghiyasuddin Tughluq brought some moderation and relaxation to the Iqta system. A cap
of one-tenth or one-eleventh was set to the increase in estimate of tax income in order
to prevent the increased burden from being ultimately passed on to the peasantry. Now
the muqtis were not to be subjected to harshness if they only took a little over their
permitted income. However, the iqta reserved for the troops was not to be infiltrated by
the muqtis. Overall, there was an ease in revenue collection and the atrocities were
abated.

 Mohammad Bin Tughlaq

The next sultan, Muhammad Tughluq (1325-51) radically changed the Iqta system by

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separating the two functions of tax collection and troop maintenance in order to obtain
larger income for the sultan’s treasury. The removal of obligation to maintain troops
allowed the Muqtis to collect more taxes. The system of contract farming i.e. Muqata was
also introduced.
Apportionment of the iqta reserved to be paid for soldiery was taken out of the hands of
the commanders altogether. Commanders now received only a part of the iqta that was
equivalent to his own salary. Lastly, Irfan Habib concludes that disagreements between
Muhammad Tughlaq and his army officials (centurians) were primarily rooted in the
arrangements within the iqta system that eventually led to the loss of extra revenue,
power and control of the commanders.

 Firoz Shah Tughlaq

Firoz Tughluq's accession took place amidst a severe political crisis and he began his reign
by promising concessions to the nobility. During his reign, Iqta the system was declared
hereditary. The figure was designated Jama' (a term used for the first time) and no change
was made in it for the remainder of the reign of the sultan. Fixity of the Jama' meant that
the muqti's would not be troubled on account of enhancements in the payments due from
them to the treasury. The auditing of their accounts at the court now became a
comfortable and even pleasant business for the muqti’s.
Firoz also increased the personal pay of his great nobles, whereas the highest personal
pay of nobles under Muhammad Tughluq was 200,000 tankas. Firoz gave the pay of
400,000, 600,000 or 800,000 tankas to his khans and maliks and to his vizier 1,300,000
tankas.
All these actions weighed heavy on the sultan’s treasury and Khalisa was drastically
reduced. He started paying the soldiers in terms of the revenues from villages termed as
‘wajh’ in lieu of the salaries were re-established, some were paid in cash. This allowed the
same family lineage to possess an iqta for a long period of time as after the death of the
muqti, it passed on to his sons, son in laws, slaves and widows. Central control was lost
due to these measures and muqtis gained local control and strengthened their roots in a
particular iqta increasing their influence and power over the region and people. Cases of
transfer and troop maintenance became rare in the coming successive reigns.

 Lodhis
The Lodhis did not bring any significant change to the Iqtedaari system except for changing
its name to sarkars and parganas. Each Sarkar comprised a number of parganas and was
assigned a jama (estimated revenue). Sikander Lodi was famous for allowing the muqti to
keep the excess income. Irfan habib concludes that the central control was weakened but
the essence of iqtadaari system was retained and passed on to the Mughals who
established their system of jagirs based on this.
3. HOW IT LED TO GROWTH OF CENTRAL ADMINISTRATION
Direct Appointment by the Sultan: One of the most significant changes in the Iqta system

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was the shift towards direct appointment by the Sultan. Initially, Iqta assignments were
often acquired through military conquests or as rewards for service, leading to a
decentralized system where regional governors wielded considerable autonomy.
However, the Delhi Sultans began to assert greater control over the appointment process,
granting Iqtas directly to individuals based on their loyalty and merit. This centralization
of authority allowed the Sultan to ensure that Iqta holders remained loyal to the central
government and facilitated greater coordination and coherence in the administration.
Centralized Revenue Collection: Under the Iqta system, holders were responsible for
collecting revenue from their assigned territories. However, as the Delhi Sultanate
expanded, the central administration began to exert more control over revenue
collection. The Sultanate implemented systematic fiscal policies, standardizing tax
collection methods and ensuring that revenue flowed directly to the central treasury. By
centralizing revenue collection, the Sultanate was able to finance its growing bureaucracy
and military, further strengthening central administration.
Regular Assessment and Rotation: To prevent the accumulation of power and wealth by
individual nobles, the Delhi Sultans introduced regular assessment and rotation of Iqta
assignments. This practice ensured that Iqta holders did not become too entrenched in
their positions and that power remained distributed among a broader segment of the
nobility. By periodically reassessing and redistributing Iqtas, the Sultanate maintained
greater control over its territories and prevented the emergence of regional strongmen
who could challenge central authority.
Integration of Non-Turkic Nobility: Initially dominated by Turkish nobles, the Iqta system
evolved to incorporate non-Turkic elements into the administration. As the Delhi
Sultanate expanded into diverse regions with varying cultural and ethnic compositions,
the Sultanate began granting Iqtas to non-Turkic nobles, thereby integrating them into
the central administration. This diversity in the nobility helped strengthen the Sultanate's
legitimacy and administrative capacity by drawing on a broader pool of talent and
expertise.
Standardization of Administration: As the Iqta system evolved, the Delhi Sultanate
implemented standardized administrative practices across its territories. This included the
establishment of bureaucratic institutions, such as diwans (departments) for finance,
justice, and military affairs, which operated under the direct supervision of the Sultan. By
standardizing administrative procedures and institutions, the Sultanate was able to exert
greater control over its vast and diverse territories, ensuring uniform governance and
efficient resource management.
4. HOW DID IT AFFECT CONTEMPORARY POLITICAL AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC MILIEU?
Political Centralization: The centralization of authority through the Iqta system led to
greater political stability and control over the vast territories of the Delhi Sultanate. By
directly appointing Iqta holders and centralizing revenue collection, the Sultanate
strengthened its grip on power, mitigating the risk of regional fragmentation and internal

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dissent. This centralization facilitated more effective governance and enabled the
Sultanate to project its authority over a diverse and expansive realm.
Socio-Economic Impact on Nobility: The Iqta system reshaped the socio-economic
landscape by creating a class of nobles whose status and wealth were tied to their
administrative and military service to the Sultan. As Iqta holders, these nobles enjoyed
privileges, including tax revenue from their territories, which bolstered their socio-
economic standing. However, the regular rotation and assessment of Iqtas meant that
their fortunes were subject to the Sultan's discretion, leading to competition and intrigue
among the nobility for favor and advancement.
Integration of Diverse Elements: The Iqta system facilitated the integration of diverse
ethnic, cultural, and religious groups into the administration. While initially dominated by
Turkish nobles, the system gradually accommodated non-Turkic elements, including
Persians, Afghans, and Indian Muslims. This integration helped legitimize the Sultanate's
rule among diverse populations and contributed to cultural and intellectual exchanges,
enriching the socio-political fabric of medieval India.
Economic Consequences: Centralized revenue collection under the Iqta system provided
the Sultanate with a stable source of income, enabling it to finance its bureaucracy,
military campaigns, and infrastructure projects. However, the burden of taxation often
fell heavily on the peasantry, leading to socio-economic disparities and occasional revolts
against oppressive taxation policies. Additionally, the efficient administration of Iqtas
facilitated trade and commerce, contributing to the prosperity of urban centers within the
Sultanate.
5. HAS RECENT RESEARCH CHANGED THE PERCEPTION RELATED TO IT?
Recent research has indeed brought about significant changes in the perception of the
Iqta system within the context of the Delhi Sultanate. Historians have offered nuanced
interpretations that challenge traditional views and provide a deeper understanding of its
evolution and implications. Some key shifts in perception include:
Centralization and Control: Scholars have emphasized the Sultan's efforts to centralize
control over the Iqta system. They argue that later Delhi Sultans actively sought to assert
greater authority by directly appointing Iqta holders and centralizing revenue collection.
This challenges the notion of the Iqta system as inherently decentralized and highlights
the Sultan's role in shaping its evolution towards greater centralization.
Diversity of Iqta Holders: Recent research has highlighted the diverse composition of the
Iqta-holding nobility, challenging the perception of Turkish dominance. Historians like
Sunil Kumar have demonstrated the presence of non-Turkic elements, including Persians,
Afghans, and Indian Muslims, among the ranks of Iqta holders. This underscores the
Sultanate's multicultural character and the integration of diverse ethnic and cultural
groups into its administration.
Economic and Social Dynamics: Scholars like Irfan Habib and Peter Jackson have
examined the economic and social dimensions of the Iqta system in greater detail. They

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have explored its impact on agricultural development, revenue extraction, and socio-
economic disparities within medieval Indian society. This nuanced analysis challenges
simplistic portrayals of the Iqta system solely as a mechanism for military provisioning and
emphasizes its broader socio-economic implications.
Military Organization and Decline: Recent scholarship has reevaluated the role of the Iqta
system in the organization and decline of the Sultanate's military forces. Historians argue
that factors such as factionalism among the nobility and the Sultanate's fiscal and logistical
constraints contributed to its military weaknesses and eventual disintegration.
6. CONCLUSION
From Irfan Habib’s account we can conclude that the most significant institution that
evolved and played an important role in effective governance of Delhi Sultanate was the
Iqta system. The iqtadari system witnessed numerous changes during the sultanate period
as observed above.
Initially iqta was a revenue-yielding piece of land which was assigned in lieu of salary.
However, during Firoz Tughlaq’s reign, it became hereditary. Iqta system was maintained
up to powerful rulers and weak rulers could not maintain this system. Results were
disastrous in the reign of weaker sultan. The Iqta served as the foundation of the political
and military system of the Sultans.

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