Investigating Interaction in an

Ecosystem

How Organisms Are Adapted to Their

Environment
Organisms have structural, behavioural, and physiological
adaptations that help them survive in their environment:

1. Structural Adaptations – Physical features of an organism that

have evolved over time to help it survive and reproduce in its
environment.

 These adaptations involve the actual body parts or characteristics of

an organism. This can include:

o Body shape and size

o Limb structure

o Coloration and camouflage

o Protective coverings (like fur, scales, or shells)

o Beak or mouth shape

o Internal organ adaptations.

 Survival and Reproduction: The purpose of structural adapta-

tions is to increase an organism's chances of survival and reproduct-
ive success. These adaptations can help with: Obtaining food,
Avoiding predators, Surviving in extreme climates & Attract-
ing mates.
Examples:

o Camouflage: helps insects (stick insects) or chameleons to

avoid predators by blending in with the surrounding
environment.

o The thick fur of arctic animal for insulation.

o The deep roots of desert plants to reach water.

o Mimicry: Some harmless species mimic harmful ones to

avoid predation. (e.g. a viceroy butterfly mimicking the
appearance of a monarch butterfly)

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 2. Behavioural Adaptations – Actions or learned behaviours that help
an organism survive and reproduce in its environment. They're
essentially how an organism acts to cope with its surroundings.

 Some behavioural adaptations are instinctive, meaning they're

inherited. Others are learned through experience.

 These adaptations involve what an organism does. This can include:

o Migration patterns

o Hunting strategies

o Mating rituals

o Communication methods

o Social behaviours (like living in groups)

o Defensive actions
 Survival and Reproduction: Like structural adaptations, behavioural
adaptations increase an organism's chances of survival and reproduct-
ive success.

Examples:

o Migration: Many birds migrate to warmer climates during the

winter to find food and avoid harsh conditions.

o Hibernation: Some animals, like bears, hibernate during the winter

to conserve energy when food is scarce.

o Hunting in Packs: Wolves hunt in packs to increase their chances

of catching prey.

o Mating Dances: Many birds have elaborate mating dances to at-

tract mates.

o Nocturnal vs. Diurnal Activity: Some animals are nocturnal,

meaning they are active at night, to avoid predators or hot daytime
temperatures. Other animals are Diurnal, meaning they are active
during the day.

3. Physiological Adaptations – Internal, functional changes within an

organism's body that help it survive and thrive in its environment.
They involve the organism's biochemistry, metabolism, and internal
processes.

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 These adaptations involve how an organism's body functions at a cellu-
lar and organ level. This can include:
o Metabolic changes

o Enzyme production

o Hormonal changes

o Temperature regulation

o Toxin production

o Water balance
 Survival and Function: Physiological adaptations enable organisms
to cope with environmental challenges, such as: Extreme temperat-
ures, Limited water availability, Oxygen deficiency & Presence
of toxins.

Examples:
 Temperature Regulation:

o Animals in cold climates may produce antifreeze proteins to

prevent their blood from freezing.

o Animals in hot climates may have mechanisms to sweat or

pant, which helps them cool down.

 Water Conservation: Desert animals, like camels, have physiolo-

gical adaptations that allow them to conserve water, such as highly
concentrated urine.

 Altitude Adaptation: Animals living at high altitudes may have ad-

aptations that allow them to utilize oxygen more efficiently, such as
increased red blood cell production.

 Venom Production: Snakes that produce venom have a physiolo-

gical adaptation that allows them to produce and deliver these tox-
ins.

Estimating Population Size Using Sampling

Techniques

a) Quadrat Sampling

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Quadrat sampling is a technique used to estimate the population size
and distribution of plants and slow-moving animals in an ecosystem. It
involves placing a quadrat frame (a square of known area) in different
locations and counting the organisms within it.

 Used for estimating population sizes of plants or slow-moving

organisms in a specific area.

Steps:
1. Place a quadrat frame randomly in the study area to avoid bias.

2. Count the number of individuals of the target species within the

quadrat.

3. Repeat the process multiple times to improve accuracy.

4. Calculate the average number of individuals per quadrat.

5. Apply the formula to estimate population size.

Use the formula:

Example of Calculation: 1

 Total Study Area = 5000 m²

 Quadrat Size = 1 m²

 Number of Quadrats Used = 10

 Total Individuals Counted = 200

1. Mean / Average Number per Quadrat:

2. Estimated Population Size:

So, the estimated population in the entire area is 100,000 individuals.

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Example of Calculation: 2

Scenario: Estimating the Population of Grasshoppers in a Field

Step 1: Define the Study Area

A farmer wants to estimate the number of grasshoppers in a 10,000
m² field.

Step 2: Place Quadrats Randomly

 The researcher uses 10 quadrats, each 1 m² in size.

 The quadrats are placed randomly across the field.

Step 3: Count the Grasshoppers in Each Quadrat

The number of grasshoppers found in each quadrat:

Step 4: Calculate the Mean Number per Quadrat

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 Step 5: Apply the Population Estimation Formula

Conclusion:
The estimated population of grasshoppers in the 10,000 m² field is
191,000 individuals.

Assumptions of Quadrat Sampling

o Organisms are Evenly Distributed – The species being studied are

spread relatively evenly across the area.

o No Significant Migration or Movement – The method is best for

plants or slow-moving animals that do not move in and out of quadrats.

o Accurate Counting – All individuals within the quadrat are counted

correctly.

o Random Placement of Quadrats – Ensures unbiased results and rep-

resents the whole population.

o Consistent Quadrat Size – The same size quadrat is used throughout

the study for accurate comparison.

o Stable Environmental Conditions – No major changes (e.g.,

weather, human activity) occur during sampling .

NB: Assumptions are conditions or factors that are expected to be true

for a method or experiment to work correctly. They help ensure that the
results are accurate and reliable.

Advantages of Quadrat Sampling

✔ Simple and cost-effective.

✔ Useful for studying plants and slow-moving animals.
✔ Provides an estimate of population size and distribution.

Disadvantages of Quadrat Sampling

✖ Not effective for mobile animals.

✖ Results can be inaccurate if the quadrats are not placed randomly.
✖ Does not work well in very large or uneven habitats.
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b) Capture-Recapture Method
The Capture-Recapture Method is a technique used to estimate the
population size of mobile animals in a given area. It is commonly used in
ecology for studying wildlife populations such as fish, insects, and birds.

 Used for mobile animals like insects, fish, and birds.

Steps:
1. Capture – A sample of organisms is caught from the population.

2. Marking – Each captured organism is marked in a way that does

not affect its survival (e.g., tags, paint, or bands).

3. Release – The marked organisms are returned to their habitat and

allowed to mix with the rest of the population.

4. Recapture – After some time, another sample is captured, and the

number of marked organisms in this second sample is recorded.

5. Calculation – The population size is estimated using the Lincoln

Index formula:

OR

Where:

 N = Estimated total population size

 M = Number of organisms marked in the first capture

 C = Total number of organisms captured in the second sample

 R = Number of marked organisms recaptured in the second sample

Example of Calculation: 1

 First capture: 40 fish are caught and marked.

 Second capture: 50 fish are caught, and 10 of them are marked.

 Using the formula:

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Thus, the estimated population size is 200 fish.

Example Of Calculation: 2

Scenario: Estimating the Population of Frogs in a Pond

A group of ecologists wants to estimate the population of frogs in a pond

using the Capture-Recapture Method.

Step 1: First Capture & Marking

The scientists go to the pond and capture 30 frogs. They mark these
frogs with a small, harmless dot of paint on their backs and then release
them back into the pond.

Step 2: Second Capture & Recapture

A few days later, they return and capture 50 frogs from the same pond.
Out of these 50 frogs, 15 have the paint mark from the first capture.

Step 3: Use the Capture-Recapture Formula

Where:

 M = 30 (frogs marked in the first capture)

 C = 50 (frogs captured in the second sample)

 R = 15 (marked frogs recaptured in the second sample)

Conclusion
The estimated total population of frogs in the pond is 100 frogs.

Assumptions:
o The population remains stable (no significant births, deaths, im-
migration, or emigration during the study).
o Marked individuals mix randomly with the rest of the population.
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 o Marking does not affect survival or behaviour.
o No marks are lost or removed between captures.

Advantages of the Capture-Recapture Method

✔ Non-invasive and does not harm animals.

✔ Can be used for mobile and nocturnal species.
✔ Provides a quick estimate of population size.

Disadvantages of the Capture-Recapture Method

✖ Not accurate if assumptions are violated (e.g., animals migrate or

marks fade).
✖ Some animals may avoid recapture or learn to evade traps.
✖ Marking may affect the behaviour or survival of the animals.

What is Population Dynamics?

 Definition: Population dynamics is the study of fluctuations in the

size and age composition of populations.

Factors Affecting Population Size in an

Ecosystem

Several factors influence population size, including:

1. Immigration – The movement of individuals into the population from

other areas.

o Increases population size.

o Brings new genetic material, enhancing diversity.

2. Birth Rate (Natality) – The number of new individuals born into the
population.; a high birth rate increases population size.
o Increases population size.
o Influenced by resource availability, environmental conditions, and
reproductive strategies.

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3. Death Rate (Mortality) – The number of individuals dying within the
population; a high death rate decreases population size.

o Decreases population size.

o Affected by predation, disease, resource scarcity, and environ-

mental stressors.

4. Competition – The struggle between organisms for limited resources.

Organisms compete for resources like food, water, mates, and space.
Intense competition can limit population growth.
o Can limit population growth by increasing death rates and decreas-
ing birth rates.
o Drives natural selection and adaptation.

5. Emigration – The movement of individuals out of the population to

other areas.
o Decreases population size.
o Can be driven by resource scarcity, overcrowding, or search for
better conditions.

Ecological Succession on a Piece of Land

Ecological succession is the gradual process by which ecosystems change
and develop over time. There are two types:

Primary Succession
Occurs on newly formed land (e.g., after volcanic eruptions or glacier
retreat).

1. Pioneer species (lichens, mosses) colonize barren land.

2. Organic matter accumulates, allowing small plants to grow.

3. More complex plants establish, improving soil conditions.

4. Eventually, a climax community forms, such as a mature forest.

Secondary Succession
Occurs in areas where an ecosystem previously existed but was disturbed
(e.g., after a fire, flood, or human activities).

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 1. Existing soil allows for faster recovery.

2. Grasses and small plants grow first.

3. Shrubs and trees gradually take over.

4. A stable ecosystem (climax community) is restored.

Significance of Ecological Succession

 Restores biodiversity and ecosystem stability.

 Recycles nutrients in the environment.

 Supports habitat development for different species.

Flow of Energy Through Food Chains

Feeding Relationships in an Ecosystem

Energy in an ecosystem flows from the sun to producers and then through
different trophic levels in a food chain. This process follows the 10% Rule,
where only about 10% of the energy is transferred to the next level, while
the rest is lost as heat through respiration, movement, and metabolic
processes.

Trophic Levels in a Food Chain

1. Producers (Autotrophs) – Plants, algae, and some bacteria
convert solar energy into chemical energy through photosynthesis.

2. Primary Consumers (Herbivores) – These feed on producers

(e.g., grasshoppers eating grass).

3. Secondary Consumers (Carnivores or Omnivores) – They feed

on primary consumers (e.g., frogs eating grasshoppers).

4. Tertiary Consumers – Feed on secondary consumers (e.g., snakes

eating frogs).

5. Apex Predators – Top predators with no natural enemies (e.g.,

eagles, lions).

6. Decomposers – Fungi and bacteria break down dead organisms,

returning nutrients to the soil.

Energy Flow in an Ecosystem

 Energy flows in one direction from the sun to producers and then
through the trophic levels of consumers.
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  At each level, only about 10% of energy is passed on, while 90%
is lost as heat, respiration, movement, and waste.

 The loss of energy limits the number of trophic levels in a food

chain.

Ecological Graphs and Energy Flow

Diagrams

1. Food Chain and Food Web Diagrams

 Food Chain – A simple linear representation of energy transfer.

Example:
Grass → Grasshopper → Frog → Snake → Eagle

 Food Web – A complex network showing multiple feeding

relationships in an ecosystem.

Example:

3. Pyramid of Numbers
A pyramid of numbers is a graphical representation showing the relative
number of organisms at each trophic levels on a food chain or web.

 Shows the number of organisms at each trophic level.

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 Shape: Typically, upright (many producers, fewer predators) or
inverted (one tree supporting many insects).

4. Pyramid of Biomass
Pyramid of Biomass is a graphical representation that shows the total
amount of living or organic matter present in an ecosystem at each
trophic level.

 Shows the total dry mass of organisms at each trophic level.

 More accurate than the pyramid of numbers.

Shape: Generally upright, reflecting the decrease in biomass as

energy is lost at each transfer.

5. Pyramid of Energy (Trophic Pyramid)

An energy pyramid is a diagram that illustrates the flow of energy through
different trophic levels in an ecosystem.

 A typical energy pyramid shows how energy decreases at each

trophic level:
Tertiary Consumers (1 kcal)
↓
Secondary Consumers (10 kcal)
↓
Primary Consumers (100 kcal)
↓
Producers (1,000 kcal)
↓
Sun (Ultimate Energy Source)

 The base of the pyramid represents producers, with the most

energy.

 As we move up, the energy available decreases at each level.

Shape: Always upright, as energy decreases with each transfer due

to the laws of thermodynamics

Example: A Simple Grassland Ecosystem

 Energy Flow Diagram:

o Sun -> Grass -> Grasshopper -> Frog -> Snake -> Hawk

o Arrows indicate the direction of energy flow.

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  Ecological Pyramid (Numbers):

o Base: Large number of grass plants

o Levels: Decreasing number of grasshoppers, frogs, snakes,

and finally, a single hawk at the apex.

 Ecological Pyramid (Biomass):

o Base: Large biomass of grass

o Levels: Decreasing biomass at each higher trophic level.

Interpreting Ecological Graphs and Energy

Flow Diagrams
 Food chains/webs – Identify how energy moves in an ecosystem.

 Pyramids of numbers – Show population sizes and impacts of

ecosystem changes.

 Pyramids of biomass/energy – Illustrate energy efficiency and

ecosystem productivity.

Human Impacts on the Environment

Effects of Climate Change on Ecosystems

Climate change disrupts ecosystems by:

 Rising Temperatures – Alters species distribution, leading to ex-

tinction or migration.

 Changes in Rainfall Patterns – Droughts and floods affect plant

growth and food availability.

 Melting Ice Caps – Leads to habitat loss for polar species.

 Ocean Acidification – Harms marine life, especially corals and

shellfish.

 Increased Frequency of Natural Disasters – Wildfires, hur-

ricanes, and heatwaves threaten biodiversity.

Effects of Veld Fires on Ecosystems

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Advantages:

 Clears old vegetation, allowing new plant growth.

 Increases soil fertility by releasing nutrients.

 Controls pests and diseases in the ecosystem.

Disadvantages:

 Destroys habitats and kills organisms.

 Reduces soil fertility by burning organic matter.

 Increases air pollution and carbon emissions.

 Leads to soil erosion and desertification.

Effects of Human Activities on Ecosystems

Improper Waste Disposal

 Household Waste – Causes land and water pollution.

 Industrial Waste – Releases toxic chemicals into the environment.

 Clinical Waste – Spreads diseases and biohazards.

Poor Agricultural Practices

 Overgrazing, monocropping, and excessive pesticide use degrade

soil and water quality.

Deforestation

 Reduces oxygen levels, increases carbon dioxide, and destroys an-

imal habitats.

Introduction of Invasive Species

 Outcompete native species, reducing biodiversity.

 Disrupt food chains and alter ecosystem balance.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Biological Pest Control

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Advantages:

 Environmentally friendly (no chemical pollution).

 Targets specific pests, avoiding harm to non-target species.

 Reduces pesticide resistance in pests.

Disadvantages:

 Slow process; may take time to see results.

 Introduced predators may become invasive.

 Does not completely eliminate pests, only controls them.

Consequences of Loss of Biodiversity

 Ecosystem Imbalance – Loss of key species disrupts food chains.

 Reduced Genetic Diversity – Limits adaptation to environmental

changes.

 Decline in Ecosystem Services – Fewer pollinators affect food

production.

 Economic Impact – Loss of medicinal plants and tourism revenue.

Hazards of Improper Clinical Waste Disposal

 Spreads infections and diseases like HIV/AIDS and hepatitis.

 Releases toxic substances into the environment.

 Poses health risks to waste handlers and the public.

 Contaminates water sources, affecting both humans and wildlife.

What are Persistent organic pollutants (POPs)

Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are a group of toxic chemicals that

pose a significant threat to human health and the environment.

Effects of Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) on Ecosystems

 Bioaccumulation and Biomagnification – Toxins build up in or-

ganisms, affecting the food chain.

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  Hormonal Disruptions – Affects reproduction and development in
animals.

 Long-term Environmental Damage – Remains in the environ-

ment for decades.

 Contaminates Soil and Water – Harms aquatic life and reduces

soil fertility.

Creating Useful Products from Waste

 Plastic Recycling – Making eco-bricks and reusable items.

 Organic Waste – Composting to improve soil fertility.

 Glass and Metal Recycling – Creating new materials and reducing

landfill waste.

 Upcycling – Turning old clothes, furniture, and materials into useful

products.

Pollution and Sustainable Management

Air Pollution

 Causes respiratory diseases and global warming.

 Controlled by reducing fossil fuel use and promoting clean energy.

Water Pollution

 Affects drinking water quality and aquatic life.

 Prevented through proper waste disposal and treatment plants.

Land Pollution

 Reduces soil fertility and spreads diseases.

 Managed through recycling, afforestation, and controlled waste dis-

posal.

Sustainable Management Strategies

 Conservation of Natural Resources – Using renewable energy

and sustainable farming.

 Waste Reduction and Recycling – Encouraging a circular eco-

nomy.

 Environmental Education – Promoting awareness about conserva-

tion efforts.

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