FERTILIZATION

Concept, Types and Significance

Fertilization

◻ Definition
� It is the fusion of gametes to initiate the development of a new
individual organism
� The sperm cell nucleus fuses with the egg cell nucleus to produce a zygote
(fertilized egg)
Types of Fertilization

◻ Fertilization in animals
� Occurs either internally or externally
� This difference is largely determined by the method of birth
■ Viviparous and ovoviviparous animals
■ Embryos develop within the animal’s body
■ Oviparous animals
■ Embryos develop outside the animal’s body
■ Those that lay hard-shelled eggs, use internal fertilization
■ Those that produce eggs that either lack or have thin egg membranes, reproduce
by external fertilization

Types of Fertilization

◻ Fertilization in animals
� Internal Fertilization
■ Union of sperm and egg occurs inside the body of the female
■ For internal fertilization to occur, the male must implant his sperm into the
female reproductive tracts
■ Fewer number of eggs are produced
■ Increased parental care ensures species survival
■ E.g. mammals, reptiles, birds
Types of Fertilization

◻ Fertilization in animals
� External Fertilization
■ Union of sperm and egg occurs outside of the body of the female
■ External fertilization occurs…
■ Either by a spawning event, where gametes from both sexes are rapidly released into
an aquatic environment
■ Or when eggs are laid by a female on a substrate, and are subsequently fertilized by a
male
■ Increased number of eggs are produced to ensure the survival of the species
■ E.g. fish and amphibians

Types of Fertilization

◻ Fertilization in animals
� Internal Vs External Fertilization
Types of Fertilization

◻ Fertilization in plants
� Fertilization in plants occurs after pollination and germination
� Pollination occurs through transfer of pollen (male microgametes) from one
plant to stigma (female reproductive organ) of another
� Pollen grain takes up water and germinates
� Germinated pollen sprouts a pollen tube
� Pollen tube grows and penetrates the ovule through a pore called
a mycropyle
� Sperm are then transferred from pollen to ovule through pollen tube

Types of Fertilization

◻ Fertilization in plants
� In flowering plants, a double fertilization takes place
� Two sperm are transferred from each pollen
� One sperm fertilizes the egg cell to form a diploid zygote
� The nucleus of second sperm fuses with two haploid nuclei contained in a
second female gamete called the central cell
� The second fertilization forms a triploid cell, which subsequently swells and
develops a fruiting body
Types of Fertilization

◻ Fertilization in plants

Types of Fertilization

◻ Fertilization in plants
Types of Fertilization

◻ Fertilization in plants

Types of Fertilization

◻ Fertilization in plants
Types of Fertilization

◻ Fertilization in plants

Types of Fertilization

◻ Fertilization in plants
Types of Fertilization

◻ Fertilization in plants

Types of Fertilization

◻ Fertilization in plants
Types of Fertilization

◻ Fertilization in plants

Types of Fertilization

◻ Fertilization in plants
Types of Fertilization

◻ Fertilization in fungi
� In many fungi fertilization is a two step process
■ First, the cytoplasms of the two gamete cells fuse (called plasmogamy)
■ Results in formation of a dikaryotic/heterokaryotic cell
■ This cell may divide to produce dikaryotic or heterokaryotic hyphae
■ Second step is karyogamy, the fusion of the nuclei to form a diploid zygote
� Exception: In chytrid fungi, fertilisation occurs in single step with fusion of
gametes (similar to animals and plants)

Types of Fertilization

◻ Fertilization in protozoa
� Three types of fertilization
■ Gametogamy
■ Biflagellated and motile gametes released into seawater and mating occurs outside
the gamonts (gamonts: cells forming gametes)
■ Gamontogamy (plastogamy)
■ Gamonts join together with their umbilical faces
■ Gametes fuse within limited space formed after partial dissolution of umbilical sides of
gamonts
■ Autogamy
■ Gametes produced by same gamont fuse inside the gamont
Types of Fertilization

◻ Allogamy and autogamy

� Allogamy
■ Involves cross-fertilization between gametes from two different individuals, male
and female
� Autogamy
■ Also known as self-fertilization
■ Occurs when two gametes from same individual fuse
■ Occurs in hermaphrodites, such as flatworms and certain plants

Process of Fertilization

◻ Process of fertilization ensures that

� Appropriate egg and sperm are able to find each other
� Only one sperm enters the egg
◻ Overall process occurs in three stages
� Chemotaxis
� Sperm activation/acrosomal reaction
� Sperm/egg adhesion
Process of Fertilization

◻ Chemotaxis
� In mammals, after ejaculation, the sperm locates the oocyte through changes
in temperature and chemical gradients
� It occurs usually within the ampulla of the fallopian tube through…
■ Chemotaxis: sperms are guided to oocyte by progesterone secreted by the oocyte
■ Thermotaxis: Involves response to changes in temperature (oviduct is slightly
warmer than lower regions)
� While in the female reproductive tract, sperm undergoes capacitation

Process of Fertilization

◻ Stage 1 of fertilization
� Once sperm locates oocyte, it binds to corona radiata
� The first event is scattering of corrona radiata cells
■ Release of contents of acrosomal vesicle
■ Sperm tail movements
� Acrosome reaction occurs when sperms come into contact with corona
radiata
Process of Fertilization

◻ Capacitation
� Sperms cannot fertilize oocytes when they are newly ejaculated
� The process of capacitation takes 5-7 hours
� Occurs in uterus and oviducts and is facilitated by substances of female
genital tract
� Capacitation increases its movement ability and destabilizes its membrane,
preparing it for the acrosomal reaction
� The acrosomal reaction cannot occur until capacitation has occurred

Process of Fertilization

◻ Stage 1 of fertilization
� Acrosome reaction
■ Perforations develop in the acrosome
■ Fusion of sperm plasma membrane and external acrosomal membrane occur
■ Associated with release of acrosomal enzymes
■ Hyaluronidase: digests hyaluronic acid around oocyte
■ Must be completed before the sperm can fuse with the secondary oocyte
Process of Fertilization

◻ Stage 1 of fertilization
� Acrosome reaction

Process of Fertilization

◻ Stage 2 of fertilization
� Penetration of zona pellucida around oocyte through lysis of the layer
� Enabled by action of other enzymes released from acrosome
■ Esterases: Degrade lipid and protein components of the zona pellucida
■ Acrosin: Digest ZP3 glycoproteins in the zona pellucida
■ Neuraminidase: Removes sialic acid from glycoproteins in the zona pellucida
■ Zona lysins: Break down the zona pellucida matrix
Process of Fertilization

◻ Stage 2 of fertilization
� Once sperm penetrates zona pellucida, the zona reaction occurs
� Zona reaction
■ Makes zona pellucida impermeable to other sperms
■ When more than one sperm manages to enter the ovum (dispermy/triploidy), the
fetus nearly always aborts

Process of Fertilization

◻ Stage 2 of fertilization
� Zona reaction
Process of Fertilization

◻ Stage 3 of fertilization
� Fusion of plasma membranes of oocyte and sperm
■ Head and tail of a sperm enter the cytoplasm of the oocyte
■ The sperm plasma membrane remains behind
■ Phospholipase A2: Assists in membrane fusion between sperm and egg

Process of Fertilization

◻ Stage 4 of fertilization
� 2nd meiotic division of oocyte is completed
■ The secondary oocyte that was previously arrested in metaphase of the 2nd
meiotic division, now forms the mature ovum and the second polar body
Process of Fertilization

◻ Stage 5 of fertilization
� Formation of male and female pronuclei
■ Chromosomal material of the sperm decondensates and enlarges
■ Chromosomal material of the ovum decondensates following the completion of
meiosis
� At this stage, the male and female pronuclei are indistinguishable

Process of Fertilization

(A) primary oocyte; (B) Secondary oocyte after first meiotic, first polar body pinched off; (C) Second meiotic division stimulated
by sperm penetrating into vitellus; (D) Second polar body forming; (E) Male and female pronuclei formed
Process of Fertilization

◻ Stage 5 of fertilization

A = penetration of sperm and formation of female pronucleus, B = formation of male pronucleus

Process of Fertilization

◻ Stage 6 of fertilization
� Fusion of the pronuclei (Amphimixis)
■ The male and female pronuclei are indistinguishable from one another
■ Membranes of the pronuclei completely break down
■ Forms the zygote
Process of Fertilization

◻ Stage 6 of fertilization
� On membrane dissolution, there is 1 cell with 46 chromosomes (2N)
� Chromosomes (in chromatid pairs) condense and arrange themselves for
mitotic cell division
� The first cleavage follows shortly, leaving 2 cells, each with 46 chromosomes
� Mitosis in the new zygote uses centrioles derived from the sperm
■ The oocyte has no centrioles

Process of Fertilization

◻ Stage 6 of fertilization

C = fusion of pronuclei, D = formation of zygote

Fertilization Facts

◻ Completed within 24 hours of ovulation

◻ Approximately 400–600 million sperms deposited at cervical opening
during ejaculation
� Some sperm are held up by the folds of the cervix and are gradually released
into the cervical canal
� Gradual release increases chances of fertilization

Fertilization Facts

◻ Most sperms do not survive longer than 48 hours in the female genital
tract
◻ Only about 200 sperms reach the fertilization site
◻ Rest of the sperms degenerate and are absorbed by female genital tract
Significance of Fertilization

◻ Stimulates secondary oocyte to complete meiosis

◻ Restores diploid number of chromosomes (46)
◻ Results in variation of human species as maternal and paternal
chromosomes intermingle
◻ Embryo contains only maternal mitochondria
◻ Sperm mitochondria destroyed after fertilization
◻ Determines the sex of the embryo
� Sex chromosome (Y or X) carried by the successful sperm determines
embryonic sex

Twins: Still 1 sperm Per Egg

◻ Mono-zygotic (mono-ovular)
� A fertilized, single egg splits into two developing zygotes at a very early stage
� Identical twins; same sex
◻ Di-zygotic (poly-ovular):
� Result from the fertilization by two sperm of two separate ova that have
reached maturation at the same time
� Not identical twins; can be different sexes
� Incidence increases with age of the mother
How can Fertilization Go Awry?

◻ Too many sperm = dispermy or triploidy

� Leads to spontaneous abortion in most cases
◻ Infertility
◻ Bad timing
� The sperm can only survive 48 hours within the female genital tract
� In vitro studies show the ovulated egg cannot be fertilized after 24 hours