Module 5: Joint design

Segmental lining design process

TBM/lining Effects of TBM Stacking and
TBM Ram loads
interface operation handling loads

Handling Check fixtures

constraints and fittings

Define Define ground Analyse effects Check structural

geometry loads on lining capacity

Manufacturing Check joint

constraints capacity

Build
Alignment Grouting loads Joint behaviour
imperfections

©Anthony Harding/Jacobs 2022

Joint design process
 Longitudinal joint
− Calculate joint rotation
− Calculate resulting stress distribution
− Check capacity
 Circumferential joint
− Calculate most adverse location of TBM rams
− Calculate resulting stress distribution
− Check capacity

3 ©Anthony Harding/Jacobs 2020

Module 5 Session 1: Calculation
of joint rotation
Joint geometry and rotation
 To calculate the joint capacity we need to establish the stress distribution:
1. Calculate rotation
2. Calculate the stress distribution

Rotation with full Rotation with partial

No rotation
contact contact (joint opening)

©Anthony Harding/Jacobs 2022

Sources of rotation

1. Ground and other loads

2. Manufacturing tolerances
3. Construction tolerances

Effective rotation from Rotation from ground

joint planarity load and construction
tolerances circularity tolerances

©Jacobs 2020

6 ©Anthony Harding/Jacobs 2022

Joint rotation Displaced shape:
on an ellipse
 Total displacement:
Build tolerances
+
Imposed design loads
+
Imposed deformations

 Typical calculation:
− Assume circle deforms to an ellipse Displacement
− Assume segment doesn’t deform
− Calculate revised angles
Original shape:
− Determine joint rotation on a circle

©Anthony Harding/Jacobs 2022

Calculating joint behaviour

Designed
As constructed internal
tunnel profile face of
lining
𝑩

𝑩′ Displacement

b
𝑨 𝑨′
©Anthony Harding/Jacobs 2022
Total joint rotation
 Change in angle is:

 which occurs on one side of the joint

2 𝜃−𝛼
 Total joint rotation is:

9 ©Anthony Harding/Jacobs 2022

Other ways of calculating joint rotation
 Explicitly from software (difference in angular rotation over segment length)
 Explicit modelling pinned joints
− Most conservative deformations
 Rotational springs
− Represent joint load carrying capacity
− Can underestimate deformations
− Complex: strength varies with axial load

 The models do not usually include construction tolerances: these need to be added

©Anthony Harding/Jacobs 2022

Construction tolerance
 Usually measured at the back of the TBM
 Measured diameter compared to theoretical
 Tolerance is usually 0.5% or 1.0%
 Radial deformation, , is:

 Can be expressed as follows

11 ©Anthony Harding/Jacobs 2020

Determining design joint rotation
 Simple:
− Total deformation from design loads +
construction tolerance

Construction
Erection tolerance

tolerance
 Short term loads
− Construction tolerance only
 Long term case
Deformations from

Deformation from
− Construction tolerance plus long term
grouting and initial ground

design loads
deformations
loads

Deformations from long

term sources

12 ©Anthony Harding/Jacobs 2022

Evaluating stress concentrations
at the joint
Local effects – short column
 Calculate the stress distribution at worst rotation
 Simplest calculation: ‘Short column’ method
− Simple formula
− Can overestimate contact area
− Easy to implement a sensitivity analysis
− May be sufficient

d d

Calculate
deformation over
‘equivalent’ short
column ©Anthony Harding/Jacobs 2022
Short column: notes on usage
 Shortcomings
− The short column method does not match experimental data
− It has a track record of satisfactory performance in design
− It appears to be good at implicitly considering segment deformation
− It could prove unconservative in some situations
− Not suitable as the sole calculation when designing close to the limit
 Appropriate uses:
− First pass – simple analyses

15 ©Anthony Harding/Jacobs 2022

Janssen springs
Moment vs rotation
 The same equation for 600
calculating the joint
rotation in lining models 500
 Calculate the resulting

Moment (kNm)
eccentricity 400

 Calculate the resulting

300
stress distribution by
geometry
200

100 N=5000kN

0
Eccentricity 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Rotation (mrad)
16 ©Anthony Harding/Jacobs 2022
Segment distortion
 The joint rotation describes how 𝑴
much rotation arises from joint
distortion of the joint
 The segment either sides also
distort, adding additional rotation

Total
Joint rotation rotation

 Where is the length of segment

over which the moment acts
𝑴

17 ©Anthony Harding/Jacobs 2020

Contributing length of segment
 Can be determined using numerical models
− Include ground bedding and initial load conditions
 Simple assumption (on right): 𝑴
Assume
− Moment varies linearly across the segment point of 0
− Moment over half of segment closest to the joint rotation
 Effective length:
 Average moment along length:
− Which is the same as applying over a length of:
 on one side of the joint, or
 on both sides

𝑴
18 ©Anthony Harding/Jacobs 2020
Janssen spring – adding segment rotation
Moment vs rotation
 Add the joint rotation to 600
the segment rotation
 Provides a reduced 500

Moment (kNm/m)
stiffness curve
400 Joint rotation
 Reduces
– Moment 300 Segment rotation
– Eccentricty
200 Total rotation
– Peak stress
 Increases contact area
100 Joint rotation Rotation of
 Janssen joint only is remainder of
conservative, but 0 segment
sometimes by only a small 0 5 10 15 20 25
percentage Rotation (mrad)
19 ©Anthony Harding/Jacobs 2022
Finite element methods
 Results can be revealing but shortcomings exist
 Papers typically indicate stiffer behaviour than
experiments

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Local effects eccentricity
 Eccentric loads result in Bending moments
 Can be a critical case
 Can mitigate by decreasing the edge
distance
 But increasing the edge distance increases
concentrated stresses!
Edge
distance

Eccentricity

©Anthony Harding/Jacobs 2022

Moments from eccentric loading at joint
Moment-Thrust
 Plot the critical case on the
moment-thrust chart Maximum load
at joint
 Often overlooked!
 Reducing edge distance

Axial Force
can impact bursting
stresses
Edge
distance

Moment

Eccentricity Envelope Load case 1 Load case 2

22 ©Anthony Harding/Jacobs 2022

Special case: convex-convex joints
 Eccentricity is:
𝑹
𝜽−𝜶

Eccentricity
𝒆
Convex
surfaces

23 ©Anthony Harding/Jacobs 2020

Special case: convex-convex joints
 Elastic contact stress is:

 Peak stress is: Contact width

𝒙

24 ©Anthony Harding/Jacobs 2020

Special case: convex-concave joints
 The convex side has
a radius 𝟐 Sometimes caulking
Check contact stress
groove and gasket
not outside joint
 The concave side has groove are omitted
contact area
a radius 𝟏
 Typically 𝟏 𝟐
 Need to check that
contact does not
extend outside joint
contact area
𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐

25 ©Anthony Harding/Jacobs 2020

Module 5 Session 2: Longitudinal
joint design
Determining and designing for bursting stresses
Bursting Stresses
 Often overlooked
 Unique to segmental linings?

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Local effects
 Bearing stresses are usually high
− Check with codes
− Use the whole bearing area
 Bursting forces are also high
Bearing

Bursting

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Bursting stresses

29 ©Anthony Harding/Jacobs 2022

Bursting stresses

Contact

Gap

30 ©Anthony Harding/Jacobs 2022

Bursting stresses

0.1d - 0.2d

Compression Tension
(bursting
stresses)
~0.8d

d
31 ©Anthony Harding/Jacobs 2022
Local effects
 Bearing stresses are usually high
− Consider the beneficial effects of
confinement
− Testing can be required (in extreme cases)
 Bursting forces are also high Bearing
− Fiber reinforced concrete: check stresses
against splitting strength
− RC: use code provided strut and tie models Bursting
− Use FE with caution

©Anthony Harding/Jacobs 2022

Equivalent rectangular prism
 Standard methods of
determining bursting stress are Equivalent prism
based on a rectangular
distribution
 Need to equate the triangular
distribution to an equivalent
rectangular load
 Equivalent rectangular load is
2/3x
𝟎
 It is the same as a rectangular
load with eccentricity per x
bending moment Eccentricity

33 ©Anthony Harding/Jacobs 2022

Equivalent rectangular prism
 Standard methods of
determining bursting stress are
based on a rectangular
distribution
 Need to equate the triangular
distribution to an equivalent
rectangular load
 Equivalent rectangular load is
2/3x 𝒅𝟎 𝒅𝟎
𝟐 𝟐
 It is the same as a rectangular
load with eccentricity per
bending moment Eccentricity

34 ©Anthony Harding/Jacobs 2022

Terminology – upcoming ITA guidance

e Area that resists σ0

σc,max bursting stresses
N

α dts

h1 (= d1)
te d0 te
dts
toe tie d1
tcz

σ1

35 ©Anthony Harding/Jacobs 2022

Bursting forces
 Leonhardt:
−
− Where is the bursting force and the hoop
load

 ACI318, Eurocode 2:
−
− Or use strut and tie models

 Iyengar (bursting stresses, for SFRC):

− ,

©Anthony Harding/Jacobs 2022

Strut and tie modelling
 Strut and tie models are often used
in lieu of the equations
𝒁
𝑭

d0

d1
𝟐

h1 (= d1)
37 ©Anthony Harding/Jacobs 2020
Strut and tie modelling
 Strut and tie models are often used
in lieu of the 𝒅𝟎
𝟒
𝒁 𝒅𝟏
𝟒
𝒅𝟎 𝑭 𝒅𝟏
𝟐

𝟎. 𝟏𝒅𝟏
𝒅𝒔

h1 (= d1)
38 ©Anthony Harding/Jacobs 2020
Bursting resistance – reinforced concrete
 ULS:
− Provide area of steel to resist the force with appropriate material factors of
safety/capacity reduction factors
− Typically γm = 1.15 or φ = 0.9
− Ideally use strut and tie model to calculate effect
 SLS:
− Provide area of steel to control cracking
− In some codes this will be achieved by limiting steel stresses
− SLS check can govern

39 ©Anthony Harding/Jacobs 2022

Bursting resistance: peak stress (plain and FRC)
 Iyengar equation:

Tension
(bursting
 Can check against concrete tensile stresses)
strength
− From codes
− From cylinder splitting tests

d
40 ©Anthony Harding/Jacobs 2022
Bursting resistance –fibre reinforced concrete
 ULS: t
− Check the peak stress against the
0.2t 0.8t
concrete tensile strength
− Typically γm = 1.5 or φ = 0.6/0.7
− Alternatively use closed form(strut
and tie) models
 SLS: N
− Check the peak stress against the a t
concrete tensile strength t
− Check crack widths if modelling using ffctd,u
FE models that model cracks
− Usually does not govern

41 ©Anthony Harding/Jacobs 2022

Finite element analysis
 Finite element analysis
can demonstrate capacity
enhancement up to 20%
higher than closed form
solutions
 Requires a good
understanding of concrete
behaviour and fracture
mechanics modelling
 Testing usually required

42 ©Anthony Harding/Jacobs 2022

Module 5 Session 3:
Circumferential joint design
Design for TBM ram loads
TBM rams
 Typically placed at regular
intervals around the circle
 Thrust off the TBM
 Need to distinguish between:
− Working loads
− Maximum loads
− Installed capacity
 Ram force is often divided by
the length to get a ram force
per metre

©Anthony Harding/Jacobs 2020

TBM ram offsets
 Offsets come from
− Designed offsets (diameter of rams
different from diameter of lining
centroid)
− Lining not in middle of shield
(positional tolerance)
− Lining not circular (shape tolerance)
 Typically provided by contractor

Offset ©Anthony Harding/Jacobs 2020

Design offsets and tolerance offsets
 Ram offset Dowel located on Ram offset
− The offset from the segment centre line of segment
centroid to the ram PCD
− This is the ram’s nominal
(theoretical) position
− Can be 0
Ram position
 Ram positional tolerance tolerance
− How far the ram is allowed to
deviate radially from its nominal
position

Ram centre line (Pitch

Circle Diameter – PCD)

46 ©Anthony Harding/Jacobs 2020

Design offsets and tolerance offsets
 Ring roll
− Ring is never perfectly positioned
in the tail shield
− Typically defined by a ‘roll
tolerance’
− Usually 50-100mm
Ring roll
 Ram check at joints tolerance
− Do rams step beyond end of
contact face?
Edge of circumferential
contact face

Ram comes too close to

joint – outside contact
face

47 ©Anthony Harding/Jacobs 2020

TBM ram offsets
 Look at position of ram Ram
tolerance
 Consider offset (nominal position)
 Consider tolerances
 Calculate the most adverse offset
(minimum )
 Note that the edge distance on the
intrados face can be reduced

Edge
distance

Offset ©Anthony Harding/Jacobs 2020

TBM ram stresses
 Determine the maximum ram
pressure (force per m)
 Calculate the most adverse offset
(minimum ), and accompanying
 Load factors:
− 1.4-1.5 for working
− 1.2 for maximum
− 1.05-1.1 for maximum installed
capacity
 Calculate the bursting force or stress

©Anthony Harding/Jacobs 2020

Circumferential bursting stresses
𝑑
 Bursting can also occur across
the radial joint 𝑑
 Principles of calculating the
bursting force are the same as
the longitudinal joint:
 Force in reinforcement (ACI318,
Eurocode 2):
−
 Iyengar (bursting stresses, for
SFRC):
− ,

©Anthony Harding/Jacobs 2020

Stresses between rams
 Usually need to use finite
element models TBM Rams

 Flat plate models usually

suffice

Region of tensile stress between TBM Rams

©Anthony Harding/Jacobs 2020

End of key
 Small keys can also concentrate
ram loads

©Anthony Harding/Jacobs 2020

 Reinforcement detailing

53 ©Jacobs 2020
Reinforcement
 If reinforcement is too close to
the face it will be in the
compression zone
 If it is too far away it won’t
control the crack

Anchorage outside
the bursting stress Bursting zone
zone From ~0.2d to ~0.8d from
joint face
Best practice is to
have two rows of
reinforcement

©Anthony Harding/Jacobs 2020

Joint Reinforcement

Welded
ladders

Conventional
links

©Anthony Harding/Jacobs 2020

 Module 5 exercise

56 ©Jacobs 2020
Exercise
 Question 1: concentrated loads
− Establish the joint rotation and eccentricity for
critical case
− Obtain the rotation vs. moment plot for the
critical case and add segment rotation
− Plot results on the Moment-thrust plot
− Re-check for a long term load
 Question 2: bursting stresses
− Establish the bursting stresses
− Establish the bursting forces (for reinforcement)
 Question 3: TBM ram loads
− Establish worst case TBM ram contact
− Establish the bursting stresses
− Establish the bursting forces (for reinforcement)
57 ©Anthony Harding/Jacobs 2020