Respiratory System

lecture 2
 Breathing

•Breathing (Pulmonary ventilation).

Consists of two cycle phases:
Inhalation also called inspiration –
draw gases into the lung.
•Exhalation, also called expiration
forces gases out of the lung.
•Breathing supplies oxygen to the
alveoli and eliminates carbon
dioxide
 Muscles of breathing.

• Expansion of the chest during inspiration occurs as a result of

muscular activity partly involuntarily and partly voluntarily.
• The main muscle used in normal quiet breathing are intercostal
muscle and the diaphragm.
Intercostal muscles
• There are 11 pairs of intercostal muscles that occupy the space
between the 12 pairs of rib.
• They are arranged in two layers the external and internal
intercostal muscle. The first rib is fixed.
• Therefore when intercostal muscles contract they pull all the
other ribs towards the first rib, because of the shape and size of
the ribs they move outwards when pulled upwards and
enlarging the thoracic cavity.
 The Diaphragm
• The diaphragm is a Dome shaped muscular structure separating
the thoracic and abdominal cavities.
• It forms the floor of the thoracic cavity and the roof of the
abdominal cavity .
• when the muscle of the diaphragm contracts the central tendon is
pulled downwards enlarging the thoracic cavity in length. It
decreases pressure in the thoracic cavity and increases it in the
abdominal and pelvic cavities.
• The intercostal muscles and the diaphragm contracts
simultaneously enlarging the thoracic cavity in all directions.
cycle of breathing.

• The average respiratory rate is 12 to 15 breaths per minute

each breath consists of three phases

• Inspiration
• Expiration
• Pause
Inspiration
• When the capacity of the thoracic cavity is increased by simultaneous
contraction of the intercostal muscle and the diaphragm.
• The parietal pleura moves with the walls of the thorax and the
diaphragm.
• This reduces the pressure in the pleural cavity to a level considerably
lower than atmospheric pressure.
• This expands the lung and the pressure within the alveoli in the air
passages drawing air into the lung in attempt to equalize the
atmospheric pressure and alveolar air pressure.
• This process of inspiration is active as it needs energy for muscle
contraction.
• Inspiration lasts about 2 second.
• Expiration

• Relaxation of the intercostal muscle and the diaphragm results in

downward and inward movement of the rib cage and elastic recoil of the
lung.
• As this occurs pressure inside the lung is more that in the atmosphere
and so air is expelled from the respiratory tract.
• This process is passive as it does not require the expenditure of energy.
Exchange of gases
• Inhale oxygen enters the lungs and reaches the alveoli. The
layers of cell lining the alveoli and the surrounding capillary's
are each one cell thick and are very close contact with each
other.
• oxygen passes quickly through air blood barrier into the blood in
the capillary’s.
• Similarly carbon dioxide passes from the blood into the alveoli
and is then exhaled.
• Diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide depends on pressure
difference.
 Transport of gases in the bloodstream
• Transport of blood oxygen and carbon dioxide is essential for internal
respirations to occur.
• Oxygen: Oxygen is carried in the blood in as combination with hemoglobin as
oxyhemoglobin Hb + O2 ↔ Hb − O2.
• One haemoglobin molecule can carry up to 4 molecules of oxygen.
• Carbon dioxide:
• Carbon dioxide is transported by three major mechanisms. The first mechanism
of carbon dioxide transport is by blood plasma, as some carbon dioxide
molecules dissolve in –the blood. The second mechanism is transport in the form
of bicarbonate (HCO3 ), which also dissolves in plasma. The third mechanism
of carbon dioxide transport is similar to the transport of oxygen by erythrocytes.
• Control of respiration: The respiratory center is medulla oblongata.
Figure 4. Carbon dioxide is transported by three different methods: (a) in erythrocytes; (b) after
forming carbonic acid (H2CO3), which is dissolved in plasma; (c) and in plasma.
 Volume and capacity

• A respiratory cycle is 15 per minute.

• Tidal volume [TV] this is the amount of air passing into and out
of the lung during each cycle of breathing.
• About 500 milliliter is tidal volume.
Cells in alveolus
• Type I alveolar cell- simple squamous cells where gas
exchange occurs.
• Type II alveolar cells (Septal cells) – free surface has microVilli-
secrete alveolar fluid containing surfactant (reduces surface
tension).
• Alveolar dust cells- wandering macrophages remove debris.
Pulmonary Function tests
• Total Ventilation – total amount of gas flow into or out of the
respiratory tract in one minute
• Forced Vital Capacity (FVC)- Gas forcibly expelled after taking a
deep breath
• Forced expiratory volume (FEV)- The amount of gas expelled
during Specific time intervals of the FVC
Pulmonary Volumes, capacities and function
tests
• Respiratory Volumes
1. Tidal Volume (TV) – Normal Volume moving in/out (0.5L)
2. Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV)- Volume inhaled after normal
tidal volume when asked to take deepest possible breath
(2.1-3.2L)
3. Expiratory reserve volume (ERV)- Volume exhaled after
normal tidal volume when asked to force out all air possible
(1-2.0l)
4. Residual volume (RV) – air that remains in lungs even after
forced exhalation (1.2L)
Disorder of respiratory tract
• Asthma : It is a common long term inflammatory disease of the
airways of the lung. The mucous membrane and muscle layers
of the bronchi become thickened.
• Emphysema: Is a lung condition that causes shortness of breath
in people with emphysema, the air sacs in the lung (Alveoli) are
damage.
• Pneumonia: is an inflammatory condition of the lung affecting
primarily the small air sacs known as alveoli.
Hypoxia
• Hypoxia is a medical condition wherein the body or any tissue is
deprived of oxygen. It is different from hypoxemia, another
medical condition where the blood specifically, is deprived of
oxygen. Anoxia is an extremely severe form of hypoxia where
oxygen is almost absent in the tissues. Lack of oxygen supply to
the brain tissues can be fatal and symptoms occur just minutes
after inadequate oxygen supply. Hypoxia is usually irreversible
and affects vital organs such as the brain, heart etc.
What Causes Hypoxia?

• Narrowing of airways due to asthma attacks

• Extremely distressing situations can lead to damage to the lungs, causing
hypoxia
• Medications that affect the breathing process
• Lung-related disorders such as Bronchitis, Pulmonary oedema, Pneumonia
• Anaemia
• High altitudes and low oxygen levels in the surrounding environment
• Brain haemorrhage due to accidents
How is hypoxia diagnosed?

• In general, it is usually diagnosed by oxygen monitors placed on

fingers or ears (pulse oximeter) or by determining the oxygen level in
a blood gas sample. The sample of blood is taken from the artery. If
the oxygen saturation levels are between 94% to 99%, then it can be
considered as normal reading. Oxygen must be supplied if the level is
about 92% or below.
 Spirometry

• Spirometry is a simple test used to help

diagnose and monitor certain lung
conditions by measuring how much air
you can breathe out in one forced
breath.
• It's carried out using a device called a
spirometer, which is a small machine
attached by a cable to a mouthpiece.
•THE END