LECTURE NOTES ON Research Methods, PVUC, YABELLO COMPUS

CHAPTER ONE

CONCEPTS AND ELEMENTS OF RESEARCH

Research Methods: An Introductions to Research

The meaning of Research
Research:

 It acquire knowledge /search for knowledge

 It is a scientific and systematic search for information on specific topic

 It is an art of scientific investigation /inquiry in search for the truths

 It is systematic methods consisting of defining and redefining problems , formulating

hypothesis , collecting the fact/data organizing , Analyzing and evaluating fact /data and
reaching to make deductions and conclusions

 It starts with a problem, collection of data or facts , analyzing them critically , and reaching to
decisions based on the actual evidence

 It is the persuit of truth with help of study , observation , comparison

 It is the search for knowledge through objective and systematic methods of finding solution to
problem

 “It is any organized inquiry carried out to provide information for the solution of a problem”.

 It is an investigation undertaken in order to discover new facts, get additional information

 It is investigation in search for truths, for facts, for certainties.

1.1.1 Some Characteristics of Research

Research:
 It is directed towards the solution of a problem.
 It may attempt to answer a question or to determine the relation between two or
more variables ;
 It is based up on observable experience or empirical evidence ;
 It demands accurate observations and descriptions ;
 It involves gathering new data from primary or first hand sources or using existing
data for a new purpose ;
 It requires expertise. The researcher knows what is already known about the
problem and how others have investigated it ;

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 It strives to be objective and logical, applying every possible test to validate the
procedure employed, the data collected, and the conclusions reached ;
 Research is characterized by patient and un unhurried activity ;
 Research is carefully recorded and reported
 It should be reliable, variable and exhaustive.

1.1.2 Classification of Research

There are two broad classification of research
A. Research in physical or natural sciences.
B. Research in Social or human sciences.

A. Physical Science:

 It deal with things, which can be put to laboratory tests under guided conditions.

 These researches deal with physical phenomena upon which man has complete control.

B. Social Research
It studies human behavior on a part of sociality, which is influenced by so many factors such as
physical, social, temperamental, psychological, economic and administrative .We can never
hope to put such human beings to laboratory testes. Even, if it is done, their responses would
not be natural but subject to the awareness of the artificial conditions

 It is to find explanation to unexplained social phenomena, to clarify doubts and correct the
misconceived facts of social Life.
 The complexity of human or social data can largely be attributed to this.
 It is the part of research which studies human behavior as a part of society.

1.1.4 Characteristics of Social Research

i) It aims at discovering of new facts. The scientific research techniques are applied to find out
truth reasoning or relation ship of various kinds of human behavior.
ii) It is a scientific undertaking in which logical and systematized techniques are used.
iii) It assists in the understanding of evolution of new theoriesIt requires deep knowledge and
minute investigation of the topic concerned.
iv) It must be objective. Researcher should not take his own interest because any personal bias
vitiates (lowers the quality of) the universality criterion of a scientific preposition.
v) It inter – relationship between variables understudy is must. Besides it, the variables of social
research study can not be measured correctly; only rough estimation of variables is possible.
vi) It is of dynamic nature; therefore, what was true of past might not be true of present.
vii) It fells that the social events are also governed by the rules and regulations as Physical events.

1.1.5 Motivating factors of Social Research

P.V Young has mentioned four motivating factors of social research.
A. Curiosity about Unknown
B. Desire to understand the cause and effect Relation ship of social problems.

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C. Appearance of new and unexpected situations

D. Desire to discover new and test old scientific procedures
1. 2 Types of Research
Methods of research may be classified from many points of views
 Application: pure research or applied research
 Character of data :- objectives, Subjective, quantitative or qualitative
 Field of application: social science, education, philosophy,, etc
 Purpose:- reporting description, explanation, or predication
 Forms of reasoning: - inductive, deductive, or combination of the two.
 Place where it is conducted:- the laboratory or in the social setting
 Extent of control of factors:- controlled or uncontrolled experiments
 Techniques of data gathering :-tests, observations, or questioning
The two type of research that deserve description at this point are Basic Research and Applied research
A. Basic research
 It named as “pure research “or “fundamental research”
 It us usually bent towards the testing and development of theory and are not immediately
concerned with direct application.
 It control and precision are emphasized while less attention is paid to direct application of the
outcomes in field situation.
 It is usually conducted to develop theories, principles, and laws that are found in different
subjects (areas) and helps to extend the frontiers of knowledge.
 Pure or basic research is also problem solving based, but in a different sense. It aims to solve
perplexing (puzzeling) problems or questions of a theoretical nature that have little direct
impact on action, performance, or policy decisions. It is used to understand natural
phenomenon, but not to solve problems directly and immediately.
B. Applied Research
 It named as filed research
 It determining relationships and testing theories in the field situation.
 It transfer of the research out - come directly to a field practical
 It control and precision must be sacrificed to a certain degree in order to conduct the study in
a situation identical to that in which the outcomes will be applied.
 Applied research has a practical problem solving emphasis. The problem – Solving nature of
applied research means it is conducted to reveal answers to specific questions related to
action, performance, or policy needs
 To have knowledge for the sake of knowledge is termed as pure research, but
gathering knowledge that could aid in the better meat of human destiny is known as
applied research.

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1.2.2 What is A Good Research?

A good research involves the following characteristics:

Characteristics What a manager should show look for in research

A)Purpose Clearly defined Researches distinguish between organizations problems systems and the
research problem
B)Research process detailed Research provides complete research problem
C)Research design thoroughly Research procedures (exploratory, descriptive, or casual) are outlined with
planned constructs defined, sample units is clearly described; data collection
procedures are selected and designed.
D)Limitations frankly revealed Desired procedure is compared with actual procedure; desired sample is
compared actual samples impacts on findings and conclusions are detailed.
E)High ethical standards applied Safe guards are in place to protect study participants, organizations, clients,
and researchers.
F)Adequate analysis for decisions Sufficiently detailed findings are tied to collection instruments and the
makers needs analysis is fact data based
G)Unambiguous finding Finding is clearly presented in words, tables and graphs are logically
organized to facilitate reaching a decision about the mangers problem.
H)Conclusion Justified Decision based conclusion are matched with detailed findings.

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CHAPTER TWO

RESEARCH METHODS AND TECHNIQUES

 Classification of Research Methods

2.1. Historical Method

 It is the systematic and synthesis objective location, evaluation synthesis of evidence in order
to establish facts and draw conclusions concerning past events

 It is digging in to the past in order to re - enact the past in its entirety to reconstruct the past
events as fully as they have happened to explain the meaning and significance of these events
to correct the wrong notions so long prevalent, if any, and to elaborate analyse, synthesise and
philosophies the ideas in the light of the knowledge we possess

 It is concerned with establishing the occurrence of unique events”. Although one phase of
historical research consists only of determining of past events the ultimate phase deals and
present the establishment of pattern of relation ships and the starting point of projecting
trends”.

 Any research which makes use of observations based on past events is known as research in
historical approach.

A. Significance of Historical Method

 It is useful both for theoretical and practical purposes.

 It has made important contribution to various branches of natural as well as social sciences.

 It fills a gap of making the research possible and meaningful and some problems other wise
would have remained unexplored with out it.

B. Sources of Historical Data

Generally, there are the following major sources of historical information before a social researcher:

 Books and Magazines

 Assessable documents, papers and literature
 Cultural and Analytical history material
 Memories, personal letters and accounts
 Personal sources of authentic observers and witnesses
 Diaries and confessions
 Autobiographies
 Scared Archives
 Diplomatic Agreements
 Statistical materials
 Artistic materials, historical paintings, portraits, charts, maps, etc.
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C. Advantages
The advantages of historical methods are
i. It fills in the big gap of making the research possible and also meaningful on the problems
that would otherwise have remained un explored.
ii. It serves a needy hand method to the researchers whose problems depend on historical
observations.
iii. It has an advantage to offer the past data under the then prevailing conditions and afford
an opportunity to the researcher to view these observations in the past setting.
iv. It provide very useful information that goes a long way towards the solution of research
problem.
D. Limitations

Historical method is not free from limitations. The main draw backs are:-

i. Non-Matching situations
ii. Over-generalization
iii. Subjective Interpretations
Limitations may also arise in the writing of history itself because (1) Historians can not write history
life-sizes (2) not all happenings in time and space can be known at the time of writing (3) personal
biases and private interpretations often enter unconsciously, even when honest attempts are made to
select pertinent facts, to arrange them consistently, and to place them in a coherent and true frame of
reference.

Necessary conditions for Historical Research

i. selection of topic for research

ii. social in sight
iii. Historical orientation
iv. Knowledge of related social sciences
v. Wide educational back ground
vi. Familiarity with the topic and its objectives
vii. Dispassionate study
viii. Imaginative capacity
ix. Selection and rejection of the material
x. Analyzing and coordinating capacity
xi. Knowledge of study field
xii. Knowledge of his own limitations
xiii. Availability of necessary facilities
E. Steps Involved in Historical research

The main steps involved in historical research are

a. Selection of the problem

b. Objectives of the study
c. Formulation of hypothesis
d. Preparations for collection of data
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e. Testing of hypothesis
f. Evaluation of data
g. Organization of data
h. Interpretation and writing report

2.2 The case study Method

 It is exploring and analyzing the life of a social unit, a personal, a family, institution, cultural
groups or even an entire community”

 It is a way of organizing social data so as to preserve the unitary character of the social object
being studied. Expressed some what differently it is an approach which views any social unit
as a whole”

 It is a complete analysis and report of the status of an individual subject with respect as a rule
to specific phase of his total personality”

 It is deep and intensive study of a particular social unit, confined to a very small number of
cases.

A. Characteristics of case study Method

- It places more emphasis on a full contextual analysis of fewer events or conditions and their
interrelations.
- Although hypothesis is often used, the reliance on qualitative data makes support or rejection
more difficult.
- An insight on detail provides valuable insight for problem solving, evaluation, and strategy.
This detail is secured from multiple sources of information.
- It allows evidence to be verified and avoids missing data.
- Although case studies have maligned (criticized) as “Scientifically worthless” because they do
not meet minimal design requirements for comparison, they none the less have a significant
scientific role.
- a single, well-designed case study can provide a major challenge to a theory and can provide
source of new hypothesis and constructs simultaneously.
[Link]

The main advantages of case study method are:

- It produces new ideas and fresh suggestions,

- It helps in formulating a sound hypothesis, and
- It may also help in exploring new areas of research
[Link]

 It develops false sense of confidence which is detrimental to any scientific out look. Every
thing about the subject can‟t be known although each unit is studied.

 Generalizations about similar cases are impossible

 It does not provide universal, impersonal and common aspects of phenomena.
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 It is quite unsystematic in the absence of any control up on the informant or the researcher.
 Case study situations are seldom comparable
 It is difficult to apply the usual scientific methods without destroying the unique value of the
personal document will be lost if it is formalized and abstracted.
[Link] assumptions of the case study Method

I. The case study method is not in it self a scientific basic at all, it is merely a first step in
scientific procedure.
II. It is assumed that in the fact of apparent diversity among different units, there is an
underlying unit. A particular unit has its uniqueness. But it is not different from other units
in all respects.
III. Under this method it is assumed that a unit selected is the representative of a group. In many
respects it is similar to measures of central tendency or averages. It tries to locate the
variations in the reactions and activities of the subject.
IV. It is also assumed that the study of a particular unit is help ful in the prediction and
discussion of other units of the same universe.
V. A unit is indivisible whole and can not be studied piece-meal and in fragments. We must
study its life history and its back ground and to explain the behavior at a particular time are
few, but more.
E. Steps Involved in case study

a. selection of cases and identification of situations,

b. collection and recording of data,
c. interpretations of data,
d. report writing,

2.3 Survey Method

Social survey:

 It is fact-finding study dealing chiefly with working class, poverty and with the nature and
problems of community”.
 It is way and a supremely useful one of exploring the field of collection data around as well as
directly on the subject of the study so that problem is brought in to focus and points worth
studing are suggested”
 It is process by which quantitative facts are collected about the social aspect of community‟s
composition and activities”.
 It is an organized attempt to analyze, interpret and report the present status of social institution
group or area.”
 It is the technique of investigation by direct observation of phenomena or systematic gathering
of data from population. Survey research is defined as an organized attempt to analyze,
interpret and the present status of social group.

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2.3.2 Types of surveys

The surveys may be classified with the following types :

i. General or specific surveys

general survey is conducted for collecting general information of any population, institution or
phenomena without any hypothesis while specific surveys are conducted for specific problems or for
testing the validity of some theory or hypothesis.

ii. Regular and Ad hoc surveys

If the survey is repeated for regular intervals to obtain continuous information, it is known as regular
survey. It helps in the study trend of the effect of time on the phenomena under the study for regular
surveys a permanent machinery for collecting information has to be set up.

Ad hoc surveys are conducted once for all and are non-repetitive. Such surveys may also be conducted
in testing the hypothesis or supplementing some missing information regarding any research problem.

iii. Preliminary and Final surveys

Preliminary survey is the plot study to get the first hand knowledge of the universe under study. It
helps the researcher in preparing schedule or questionnaire and organizing the survey on proper lines.
Final surveys are made after the pilot study has been completed.

iv. Census and sample survey

Census survey deals with the investigation of entire population. Under this method the information is
collected from each and every unit of the universe. Money, material, time and labour required for
carrying out a census survey are bound to be extremely large but its results are no more accurate and
reliable. In case of sample survey only a small part of the universe which is representative of the whole
population is taken and the information is collected. Thus the sample surveys are more economical and
less time and labour consuming.

2.3.3 Advantages

Survey method has the following merits in comparison on with other methods:

 Fosters direct close contact between researcher and respondents.

 Greater objectivity – it avoids the possibility of personal biases.
 Useful in testing the validity of many theories.
 Proved its usefulness in leading to the formulation and testing of hypothesis.
 Social surveys are based on actual observations.
 It has a universal application.
2.3.4 Limitations

 Survey method is costly, time consuming and wasteful in certain cases where the objectives
are limited.

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 Unsuitable if the number of persons to be surveyed is very large or where they are spread over
a large geographical area.
 Under this method personal bias may vitiate the result.
 It lacks flexibility.
 It is only useful for current problems and is not suitable for the problem that requires the study
in the historical retrospect.
 Does not permit more comprehensive and dynamic study of the society.
 Under this method most of the surveys are conducted on sample basis.
2.3.5 Steps of a social survey

a. Selection of a problem
b. Preliminary study or pilot study
c. General objective of the study and specific objectives
d. Resources and personnels
e. Sampling
f. Method of collecting data
g. Training the investigating staff
h. Organizing of the field work
i. Content analysis
j. Reporting

2.4 The Experimental Research Method

 “The essence of an experiment may be described as observing the effect on a dependent
variable of the manipulation of an independent variable.”

 “An experiment is the proof of a hypothesis which seeks to look up two factors in a casual
relation ship through the study of contracting situations which have been controlled on all
factors except the one of interest the later being either the hypothetical case or the hypothetical
effect.”

 “Experimental method implies a controlled observation of a succession of events the aim is to

search for casual connection”

 The experimental methods, the cause and effect method, the pretest- post test control group
design and the laboratory method. The basic idea behind this method is to attempt to account
for the influence of a factor or, as in the case of complex designs, of multiple factors
conditioning a given situation.

 It attempts to control the entire research situation, except for certain input variables which then
become suspect as the cause of what ever change has taken place with in the investigation
design. The experimental research method requires us the understanding of different variables.

 The term variable is used by scientists and researchers as a synonym for the property
being studied. In this context, a variable is “a symbol to which numerals or values are
assigned.”

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The numerical value assigned to a variable is based on the variable properties. For example, referred to
as being dichotomous, have only two values reflecting the presence or absence of a property:
employed- unemployed or male- female have two values. Variables can be seen in to two categories:

2.4.1 In dependent and dependent variables

 Independent variable:- is a variable that affects the value or characteristic of another variable
(the dependent variable). It can be manipulated or controlled by the researcher so that its effect
can be seen. Independent variables can also be classifying variables.
For example (1) in a study about the effect of assignment provision on the academic achievement of
students, the independent variable is assignment provision. The researcher can control the situation of
assignment provision. He/she may or may not provide assignment to the subjects. So assignment
provision is under the will of the researcher.

Consider the following example (2) a researcher wants to study about “Gender differences in
professional attitudes.”

Dependent variable:- This is a variable being affected or assumed to be affected by the independent
variable. It is a measure of the effect of the independent variable. In the first example given above
academic achievement is the dependent variable.

Have you identified it? Yes, it is the professional attitude of the subjects.

Generally, if the investigator has control over the variable and is able to manipulate it or change it at
will, then we say that variable is an Independent variable. If, on the other hand, the investigator has no
control over the variable and it occurs as the result of the influence of the independent variable, then
the variable is known as the dependent variable.

The matter of control is central to the experimental method. We frequently refer to this means for
searching for truth as the control group experimental group design. At the out set, we assume that the
forces and dynamics with in both groups are equisetic. We begin, as far as possible with matched
groups. These groups are randomly selected and paired so that, each group will resemble the other in
as many characteristics as possible and, certainly, with respect to those qualities that are critical to the
experiment.

Mathematically, Experimental group = control group

2.4.2 Characteristics of the Experimental Method

I. The experimental method deals with the phenomenon of cause and effect. Thus, we have two
situations and we assess each to establish comparability. We attempt to alter one of these by
introducing in to it an extraneous dynamic. We reevaluate each situation after the intervening
attempt at alteration. What ever change is noticed is presumed to have been cause by the
extraneous variable
II. Experimental research needs to be planned. This planning is called the designing of the
experiment. Experimental design refers to the architectonics and planning of the entire
experimental approach to a problem for research.

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2.4.3 Advantages of Experimental method

Main advantages of experimental method may be summarized as follows.

 This approach is more rigorous. It has the advantage of scientific and vigor and mathematical
logic in so far as the entire piece of research work is based on a well founded model.
 In comparison to other methods, this approach permits the determination of cause and effect
relation ship more precisely and clearly.
 Under identified conditions, a lot of it depends on the behavior of the respondents. A
respondent is always under the in thecae diverse social organism and it all depends on the type
of mental frame that he has at the time the researcher approaches him for information.
2.4.4 Problems of Social Experiments

 Difficulty of co-operation
 Difficulty of setting
 Difficulty of control
 Errors of Measurement

2.5 Other Methods

2.5.1 Field Investigation Research

A field experiment is a research study in realistic situation in which one or more independent variables
are manipulated by the experimenter under as carefully controlled conditioned as the situations will
permit. Where the laboratory experiment has a maximum of control, most field studies must operate
with less control a factor that is often a severe handicap to the experiment. The weakness of field
experiment, therefore, is of practical nature. The control can not be held as very tight, the investigator
himself works under several influences and may at times be faced with unpleasant situations and the
independent variables may got affected by uncontrolled environmental influences.

A field experiment is generally credited with a few virtues which are supposed to be unique to this
category of a research. This virtues may be listed as: (1) the variables in a field experiment. This is
because of the fact that field situation takes stock of realistic natural operations. (2) field
experiments have the advantage of investigating more fruitfully the dynamics of inter-
relationships of small groups of variables. (3) Field experimental studies are as so ideal to testing
of the theory and the solution of the real world problems

2.5.2 ex-post facto Research

Ex-post facto researches systematic empirical inquiry in which the scientist does not have direct
control of independent variables because their manifestations have already occurred or because they
are in hearth not manipulability.

Inferences about relations among variables are made, with out direct intervention, from concomitant
variation of independent are dependent variables.

This kind of research is based on a scientific and analytical examination of dependent and independent
variables- Independent variables are studied in retrospect for seeking possible and plausible relations
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and the likely effects that the changes in independent variables, produce on a single or a set of
dependent variables.

In ex-post facto research, the researcher‟s control on the behavior of independent variables is very
weak and in many cases no control is possible.

Some of the weaknesses of ex-post facto research are summarized here under.

 The inability to control the charging patterns of independent variables.

 The ex-post facto research findings owe the risk of improper interpretations
 The ex-post facto research may not have any particular hypothesis as there is a likely hood that
such an hypothesis may predict a spurious relationship between independent and dependent
variables.

2.5.3 Laboratory Research.

A laboratory experiment is a research study in which the variance of all or nearly all of the possible
influential independent variables not pertinent to the immediate problem of the investigation is kept at
a minimum.

This is done by isolating the research in a physical situation apart from the or ordinary living and by
manipulating one or more independent variables under rigorously specified, operational zed and
controlled conditions.

This type of research has a limited application in social sciences as it extremely difficult to study social
variables in isolation of each other.

2.5.4 Action Research

Action research is directed to the solution of immediate, specific and practical problems. The findings
of action/ applied research will be evaluated in terms of local applicability and not in terms of
universal validity (usefulness). It is mainly intended to improve certain contextual problem and helps
to add greater effectiveness in a certain practical manner. It focuses on the solution of day-to- day
problems at the local level.

The actual study may consist of a number of phases, say, base-line survey, systematic action,
periodical assessment, etc. A good example of action research is a study of test marketing. A base line
survey is initially conducted and the informants are identified; and this is followed by the distribution
of the product under study, and then an assessment of survey.

It is very useful method in consumer product. Even in the case of industrial products, machinery and
consumer durables, the action research method is used when, instead of distributing the product,
demonstration is made as part of action research.

At subsequent stage, changes, modifications and other improvements are made in the functional aspect
of the project and finally the whole process culminates in the evaluation of the project as a whole.

The method used for this type of research is usually personal interviews method and the survey
method. Some times attitude measurement techniques are also made use of some problems associated
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with action research are the personal values of the personal values of the individuals, lack of social
scientists interest and exclusion locations with the respondent.

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CHAPTER THREE

FORMULATION OF RESEARCH PROBLEM AND HYPOTHESIS

3.1 Research problem

One of the most difficult phases of any research project is the choice of a suitable problem. The
beginner is likely to take a very long time in making his choice. In this first step of any research the
research worker should not take a hasty decision. Every problem which comes to his mind or even that
suggested by a more experienced person may not be a fit research problem. The identification of a
good research problem should be considered a discovery in it self.

Identification of a research problem is the first step in scientific inquiry. A problem in simple words is
some difficulty experienced by the researcher in a theoretical or practical situation solving this
difficulty is the task of research.

The problem defines the goal of the researcher in clear terms. Thus, with out a problem, research can
not proceed because there is nothing to processed from and proceed toward. In social sciences, quite a
number of researchers may be faced with this problem, i.e., the problem of not being able to see a
problem.

Personal values play an important role in the selection of a topic for research. Social scientists with
different values tend to choose different topic for investigation. Of course, personal values are not the
only determinants in selecting a topic for inquiry. Social conditions do often shape the preference of
investigators in a subtle and imperceptible way.

There are also a number of powerful and overt inducements to selection of one topic rather than
another. Societies differ in respect of premium they place on the work in different fields. These
differential premia affect the choice of research topics. In a given society, it may bring greater prestige
to do research on a deadly disease rather than on say, the patterns of socialization.

The selection of a topic for research is only half a step forward.

 How to proceed?

The formulation of the problem consists in making various components of the problem explicit.

Says John Dewey: It is a familiar and significant saying that a problem well put is half- solved. To find
out what the problem or problems are which a problematic situation presents…. Is to be well along in
inquiry. To mistake the problem involved is to cause subsequent enquiry to be irrelevant. With out a
problem there is blind grouping in the dark.

 Three principle components in the formulation of a problem

 The originating questions (what one wants to know?)

 The rational- theoretical or practical (why one wants to have the questions answered?)

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 The specifying questions (possible answers to the originating) questions in term of that satisfy
the rationale.)
1. The originating Questions
 Represent the beginning of certain difficulties or challenges
 Are formulated in such specific indicate where exactly the answers to them can be
searched for.
 Constitute the initial phase in the process of problem formulation.
 May be formulated in terms of broadly delimited categories of social variable but do
not indicate specifically which particular variables in each class might be germane to
the issues.
 Usually derive from a general theoretical orientation rather than a definite theory.
2. Rationale of Questions
 Is the statement of reasons why a particular question is worth putting a cross .
 States what will happen to other parts of knowledge or practice if the question posed is
answered, i.e., how the answer to the question will contribute to theory and/ or
practice.
 Helps to effect a discrimination between scientifically good and scientifically trivial
questions.
3. Specifying Questions
 Culminate the process of formulating a research problem
 Involve the breaking down of originating question in to several specifying questions
related to particular a spects and their consequences.

3.1.1. Necessary Conditions for Formulating a Research Problem

We may now list some of the conditions that experience has proved to be conducive to formulation of
significant research problems.

A. Systematic Immersion in the Subject matter through first hand observation

The researcher must immerse him/her self in the subject – matter area with I which he/ she wishes to
pose specific problem. This exercise helps a great deal in suggesting to the researcher the specific
questions that may be posed for the study to answer. This process is know as pilot survey, preliminary
survey or exploratory study.

B. Study of Relevant Literature on the Subject.

This would help the researcher to know if there are certain gaps in the theories (his/her research will
then be to bridge this gap) or whether the prevailing theories applicable to the problem are in
consistent with theoretical expectations and so on. This is also an aspect of exploration.

C. Discussions with persons having rich practical experience in the filed of study.
This is often known as an experience survey, which again is an exercise at exploration. These people
help in sharpening the focus of attention on specific a spects with in the field.

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3.1.2 Sources of Research Problem

The research problem may be selected from the following sources:

 Theory of ones own interest ;

 Daily problems;
 Technological changes;
 Un explored areas; and
 Discussions with other people
A research may select a problem for investigation from a given theory in which he has considerable
interest. In such situations the researcher must have thorough knowledge of that theory and should be
sufficiently inquisitive to explore some unexplained aspects or assumptions of that theory.

Research problem can also be selected on the basis of daily experience of a researcher. Everyday
problems constantly present something new and worthy of investigation and it depends on the worthy
of investigation and it depends on the sharpness of the researcher intellect to knit his daily experiences
in to a research problem.

Technological changes in a fast changing society are constantly brought forth new problems and new
opportunities for research. What is the impact of a changed technology on the existing socio –
economic set up, always interests the researcher and tempts him to under take such studies as are
revealing regarding the impact of new technology on the existing system.

Research problems can be both abstract and of applied interest. These may also be selected from those
areas which have not been explored so far. Such area may be theoretical or empirical in nature.

Some times the researcher while discussing the interest with some other people may come across a
problem that can be researched by the investigator. The problem may relate to any source as discussed
above. In the same way reading assignments in text books, special assignments, research reports and
term papers may also suggest some additional areas of needed research. Many research articles suggest
some additional areas of needed research. Many research articles suggest problem for further
investigation that may prove fruitful .

3.1.3 Criteria of a Good Research Problem

Factors to be taken in to account in the choice of research problem are both external and personal.
External criteria involve such issues as newness and significance for the area, availability of data and
method and administrative and institutional cooperation personal criteria include such consideration as
interest, training, cost and time. The following are move detailed list of criteria for the choice of
research problem.

Novelity : It should be sufficiently original so that it does not involve objectionable duplication.
Ignorance of prior studies may lead a student to spend time a problem already investigated. The study
should also employ the most recent data. Although originality is an important consideration, there is
also a constant need for verification of the findings of the previous investigations, using newer and
better devices and procedures. There is also a need for the testing of former findings under changed
conditions.

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Interesting: The problem should be interesting for the investigator him self. If he is not interested in
to, he will be able to face and overcome the obstacles which come at every step in research. His
interest should be purely intellectual and should not be there only for a reward, material benefit,
advancement in position, increased authority, etc.

Importance : If it is not worth while, if adds to neither knowledge nor lead to any improvements in
the current practices, it would be in vain set up as a discipline and to previous research findings in any
way.

Immediate Application : The investigator should ask him self question, “will my research help in
solving an urgent problem”

Feasibility or Amenability: The suitability of the problem for a particular research worker is the
matter of its feasibility. The investigator should be able to carry it to a successful conclusion. He
should possess the required competence, knowledge and understanding. He should be skillful enough
to develop, administer, and interpret the necessary data – gathering devices and procedures etc.

 Feasibility issue of research includes the following:

-Availability of data
-Availability of cooperation
-Availability of guidance
-Availability of other facilitates
-Experience and creativity,
-Coverage and confidence

3.1.4. Formulating and stating the problem

After the problem has been selected it must be definitely formulated and stated in precise terms. The
type of statement to be employed depends on the preference of the worker and the nature of the
problem. There are two alternative ways of stating a problem

-Posing question (s)

-Making declaration statement (s)
One may choose any of these ways remembering that the question form has an advantage in
sharpening and focusing the issue, but the declarative form is perhaps more common and both of the
ways may be combined easily in an initial statement .

3.1.5 Definition of the problem

It implies the separation of the problem from the complex of difficulties and needs. It means to put a
fence around it, to separate it by careful distinction from like questions found in related situations of
need.

To decline a problem means to specify it in detail and with precesion. Each question and subordinate
question to be answered is to be specified. Sometimes it is necessary to formulate the point of view or
educational theory on which the investigation is to be based. If certain assumption is made they are
explicitly noted.

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It is important to define and elucidate the problem as a whole and further define all the technical and
unusual terms employed in the statement.

3.1.6 Common Errors in Formulating Research Problem.

 Naming a broad filed :To choose the broad area of study instead of specific problem makes
no justification .
 Narrowing or localizing a topic :- The problem should not be narrowed to such an extent that
it becomes too small and insignificant from research point or view.
 Lock of Precisions in the instrument :- It the tools, tests, or devices, which are
Proposed to be used in data collection and analysis are no precise enough, they may result in another
constant error.

3.2 Hypothesis
The derivation of a suitable hypothesis goes hand in hand with the selection of a research problem.

 Hypothesis is a statement temporarily accepted as true in the light of what is, at the time, known
about the phenomenon, and it is employed as a basis for action in the search of new truth.
A hypothesis is a tentative assumption drawn from knowledge and theory which is used as a guide in
the investigation of other facts and theories that are yet unknown.

It is a guide, supposition or tentative inference as to the existence of some fact condition or

relationship relative to some phenomenon which serves to explain such facts as ready are know to
exist in a given area of research and to guide the search for new truth.

A hypothesis is a tentative supposition or provisional guss which seems to explain the situation under
observation.

A hypothesis states what we are looking for. A hypothesis looks forward. It is a proposition which can
be put to a test to determine its validity.

3.2.1. Importance of Hypothesis

 It provides direction to research. It defines what is relevant and what is irrelevant. Thus it
prevents the review or irrelevant literature and the collection useless or excess data.
 It sensitizes the investigator to certain aspects of situations which are relevant from the stand
point of the problem in hand. It spells the difference between precision and haphazardness,
between fruitful and fruitless research.
 It. Is a guide to thinking process and the process of discovery. It is the investigators eye – a
sort of guiding light in the world of darkness.
 It focuses research with out it research would be like a random and aimless wandering.
 It places clear and specific goals before us. These clear and specific goals provide the
investigator with a basis for selecting samples and research procedures to meet these goals.

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3.2.2 Characteristics of a Usable Hypothesis

The criteria for judging the usability of the hypothesis are non else than those that help the hypothesis
perform their designated functions vis- a – vis research and the growth of knowledge. Hence, a “good”
useable hypothesis is the one which satisfies many of the following criteria.

 A hypothesis should be empirically testable

 A good hypothesis in agreement with the observed facts.
 A good hypothesis does not conflict with any law of nature which is know to be true.
 A good hypothesis is expert.
 It should be so designed that its test will provide an answer to original problems which forms
primary purpose of the investigation.
 It must be stated in final form early in the experiment before any attempt at verification is
made.
 The hypothesis must be conceptually clear.
 The hypothesis must be specific
 Advisedly, the hypothesis should be related to a body of theory or some theoretical
orientation.

3.2.3 Difficulties in the formulation of Hypothesis

 Lack of knowledge and clarity of the theoretical frame work of the area in which the
investigator chooses to work.
 Lack of ability to make use of the theoretical frame work logically.
 Lack of acquaintance with available research techniques. This result in failure of phrasing the
hypothesis properly.
 Vagueness of the statement

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CHAPTER FOUR

THE RESEARCH PROPSAL

Research proposal is a written document of the research topic chosen and why, a plan of future
research and an explanation of how it will be achieved. The document is prepared for both requesting
authorization and funds to under take a specific research project. It is an activity that incorporates
decision made during early research – project planning phases of the study including management –
research question hierarchy and exploration. The proposal thus incorporates the choices the
investigator makes in the preliminary steps.

It systematically outlines the particular research methodology and details the process that will be
utilized at each stage of the research process.

A written proposal is often required when a study is being suggested. It ensures that the parties concur
on the projects purpose and on the proposal method of investigations. Depending on the needs and
desires of the investigator, substantial background detail and elaboration of proposal techniques may
be included.

It is also the road map of the research which reveals about the what, who, who, why, how of the
research project.

4.1 Basic Functions of a Research Proposal

A research proposal serves:

4.1.1 As a means of communication

It serves to communicate the investigators plan to those who gives consultations and /or disburse fund.

4.1.2 As a plan

It helps the research to organize his idea in a systematic manner and look for strength and flows. A
good proposal set out the plan in step by step detail and provides an inventory of what must be done
and which materials have to be collected as preliminary step.

4.1.3 As a contract

A complete proposal approved for execution and signed by all parties constitute a bound of agreement
between the parties.

The length and complexity of research proposals range widely. Business research proposal normally
range from one to ten pages. Applicants for foundation or government research grants typically file a
proposal request of a few pages, often in standardized format specified by the granting agency. A
research proposal may also be oral, where all aspects of the research are discussed but not codified
writing. This is more when a manager directs his own research.

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4.2 Characteristics of a Good Research Proposal

More than any other factor, research demands that those who undertake it be able to think without
confusion clearly. The proposal will demonstrate whether you possess that quality. Your reputation as
a researcher more often than not rest squarely up on the quality of the proposal you submit. It is well,
therefore, to appreciate exactly what characteristics a proposal should have.

1. A proposal is a straight forward document. What ever does not contribute directly to the
delimitation of the problem and its solution must be eliminated. Remember the a architects
drawing: Clean, Clear and economical. It contains all that is necessary; not one details more.
2. A proposal is not a literally production. An architects drawing is not a work of art: A proposal
is not a “literally” production. The mission of neither is to be artistic; the purpose of both as to
communicate clearly. It provides no opportunity for fine writing, for literary composition, for
verbal extravagance. The language must be clear, precise, and sharp, A proposal provides a
chance to show with what ultimate clarity and precision the researcher can state a problem,
delineate the treatment of the data, and establish the logical validity of a conclusion.
Further more, Objectivity, reliability, Validity are considered as characteristics elements of a good
research design.

4.2.1 Objectivity

The objectivity of the findings pertains to the methods of collection of data and scoring of the
responses. The objectivity of the procedure (either collection of data or scoring of the response or
both) may be judged by the degree agreement between the final scores assigned to different individuals
by more that one independent observer. The more “subjective” the observation, recording and
evaluation of the responses, the less different observes agree.

Thus any research design should permit the use of measuring instruments which are fairly objective in
which every observer or judge seeing a performance arrives at precisely the same report. This ensures
the objectivity of the collected data which will be used for the analysis, inferences and generalizations.

4.2.2 Reliability

Reliability refers to “consistency thorough out series of measurements. That is to say, if a respondent
gives out a response to a particular item, he is expected to gives the same response tot hat item when
ever he is asked subsequently. On the contrary, if the respondent keeps on changing his response to the
same item when he is asked repeatedly, then the investigator will be facing a difficulty in considering
which one of these responses is the genuine response of the respondent. So the investigator should
frame his item in such a way that the respondent can not but give only one genuine response. There are
different methods in determining the reliability of the response give out by a respondent. Some of
these methods are using „chick item‟ administering the same test repeatedly; using a series of „parallel‟
forms etc.

4.2.3 Validity

Any measuring instrument is said to be valid when it measures what it purports to measure. For
example, an intelligence test, constructed for measuring intelligence should measure only intelligence

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and noting else. As in the case of reliability there are a good number of procedures for establishing the
validity of test. Some such procedures are validating the present data against a concurrent, criterion of
a future criterion or theory etc.

4.3 General Formulation and Elements of the Research Proposal

There is no hard and fast format in specific research proposal writing. It varies from organization to
organization and the complexity and nature of the research.

Proposal follows a simple, logical form of presentation. Although there are many ways to arrange the
items with in the proposal, the following serves as a check list of items in your writing a proposal.
Though format varies, the essence expressed in the different formats remains the same.

4.3.1 The Preliminaries

1. Title

The title, which reflects the research under consideration, must be chosen based on the criteria the
relevance it has, the feasibility of undertaking the study, the applicability of the research result, and the
cost effectiveness.

The title should

 Be clear, short, and transparent

 Capture and reflect the content of the proposal. It should enable the readers to understand the
concepts of the study.
Title may sometimes be too short to be clear for instance, the title‟ Credit and Poverty‟ may suffice as
a text book title but it needs to be explicit and say more if it is to serve usefully as a research title. On
the other hand, title may be too long to be readily and easily compressible. Excessive length in titles is
often attributable to „waste‟ or fat words such as „an investigation on …‟ or „studies to example….‟and
the use of the words that should appear in the main text.

 Kinds of title

A. Inductive Title

This type of title states the subject of the research (proposal) rather than the expected out come.

Eg. „The role of agricultural credit in Alleviating poverty in low-Potential Areas of Ethiopia‟

B. Hanging title

The hanging title has two parts a general first part followed by a more specific second part. It is useful
in rewording another wise long, clumsy and complicated indicative title.

E.g „Alleviation of Poverty in low-Potential Areas of Ethiopia: the impact of Agricultural Credit’

C. Question Title

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Question title is used less than indicative and hanging titles. It is, however acceptable where it is
possible to use few words – say less than is words.

E.g „Does Agricultural Credit Alleviate Poverty in low- Potential Areas of Ethiopia?

2. Abstract

An abstract is known by different names like executive summary, synopsis, and epitome. It gives
executives the chance to grasp the essentials of the proposal with out having to read the details. It
should also include a brief statement of the problem, the research objectives/ research question (s) and
the benefits of your approach.
It is the section which reflects the whole content of the proposal. It should be concise, informative and
should provide brief information on about the whole problem to be investigated.

An effective abstract should present highlight, of the main aspects of the proposal concisely and
clearly. A good informative abstract starts by stating the problem to be solved through the purpose,
expected outcomes, beneficiaries, expected impact of the work being proposed and the method to be
used.

4.3.2 The Body Parts

3. Statement of the Problem

The problem statement contains the need for the research project. The problem is usually represented
by a management question or originating question. This problem is usually represented by a
management question. It is followed by a more detailed set of objectives.

Once the investigator is able to collect different studies conducted in his field of investigation from
various source and examine each one of them critically for the points mentioned above, he will be in a
position to state his problem in unambiguous and more precise terms. Usually, the problem of
investigation is stated in two ways – (a) in the form of a statement or (b) in question form. In some
cases the problem is stated with the help of more than one statement or question.

Thus, in this part of your work, you have to explain what the problem is all about. Problem statement
must do better than produce merely a splutter of wordy and meaningless fragments. Accordingly, it
you know the problem, state it clearly. Each word of the problem should be expressive, sharp,
indispensable and definitive. Always state the problem in a compute grammatical sentence. Your
problem should be stated so well, infect that any one (who understand English) could read it and react
to if with out benefit of your presence If, for any reason, your problem is not stated with such clarity,
then you are merely deciving your self that you, yourself know what the problem is such deception
will merely cause you trouble later on.

Clarity in statement of the problem is import ant for the following three basic reasons

i, It is the foundation for the development of research problems which aare necessary for
securing funds.

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ii, It enables the researcher to describe the problem practically, to think about its importance, its
priority and to point out all the necessary points

iii. It provides the research with the basis for discussion with people in the community, the
relevant government \agency, and /or the potential funding agency.

As a general rule in research proposal writing, the other possible approach is to have an
introduction section which discusses the background of the problem followed by a problem
statement or rationale (can be separate section) discussing the need for undertaking the study. A
statement of the problem or description of the background of the study topic is the first major
section of the research proposal.

k. Research Objectives (Objectives of the Study)

The investigator will spell out the objectives of the present study in the form of statement and while
doing so, he takes care that the objectives mentioned are well with in the scope of the investigation
envisaged by him

Recall that the research question can be further broken down in the investigative questions. If the
proposal is for a descriptive or casual study, then the objectives can be restated as a hypothesis.

The objective flows naturally from the problem statement, giving the sponsor specific, concrete, and
research proposal must be SMART (Specific Measurable, Achievable, Realistic and Time- bound). It
is best to list the objective either in order of importance or in general terms first, moving to specific
term. (i.e, research question followed by underlying investigative questions). The general objectives of
a research provide a short statement of the specific goal being pursued by the researcher. The research
questions (or hypothesis, if appropriate) should be set off from the flow of the text so they can be
found easily. The specific objectives operational in nature.

1. They should be stated in a form which shows the relations between variables

2. Must clearly state the target of the research activity, i.e, what kind of results are expected or sought
from conducting the research.

The research objectives section is the basis for judging the remainder of the proposal and, ultimately
the final report. Verity the consistency of the proposal by checking to see that each objective is
discussed in the research design, data analysis, and results sections.

l. Significance of the study

In this section, the researcher indicates the importance of the research and there by convinces the
reader. The researcher is, thus, required to indicate what his research will contribute whether the
research is to provide solution or to shed light on the nature of the problem or both. Some researches
extend the frontier of knowledge. This section, therefore, enable the researcher questions like.

 What is the usefulness of this study?

 What does this study contribute?
Also, if the particular study is exploratory in nature, its importance to serve as an input for a further
detailed study will be stated.

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The significance of the study is usually stated as follows. The purpose of the research is

 To shed the light on the nature of the problem

 To give solutions to the problem
 To extend the frontiers of knowledge
 To enrich the literature
m. Delimitations of the Study
This part indicates the scope – coverage-of the study. Your study should be delimited to a manageable
size. This should be done in relation to the area coverage as well as to the extent of treatment of the
variables in your study.

In this section you (as a researcher) indicate the boundary of the study. The problem should be reduced
to a handy (manageable) way. The rule is “Don’t bite more than what you can chew”. The motto of the
researcher is “this one thing I do; this one area I investigate; this one question I attempt to answer, this
one problem I am to solve.”

Delimitation is done to solve the problem using the available financial, labor and time resources. This
does not, however, mean that we should delimit the research topic to particular issue and/ or
organization or place because it is less costly and take less time. Delimitation is done not to necessarily
reduce the scope of the study for the sake of minimizing the effort to be exerted. This means that we
should not sniff the life of the topic in the name of making it manageable. Thus, there should be a
balance between manageability and representativeness of the universe being studied.

n. Limitations of the Study

This is a part that you will include some constraints or difficulties you think that they have
influence on the weaknesses in the methodology , lack of access to data, faulty instruments,
sampling restriction, lack of recent literature in the area, financial constraints, lack of cooperation,
time, constraints and others.

Generally, limitations are difficulties the researcher faced during doing the research. Even though
the researcher designs and plans his study carefully, there could still be certain constraints that
might hinder the researcher from doing the research as it should be.

This is usually written after the work is completed because it is known only then. Thus, it is not
usually indicated in the proposal However, it is possible to indicate limitations expected and
solutions envisaged.

o. Definition of used Terminologies.

It is importance to give meanings of different terms used in the investigation. The researcher should be
clear about the meanings of every term he uses. It not only helps him but also the other investigators,
respondents and readers of the research report in understanding the different terms with out any
ambiguity. Normally these concepts are explained either in the form of nominal definition or in the
form of operational definitions.

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Nominal definitions are used in cases where a given word is synonymous with certain other
expressions, the meanings of which are already established.

Operational definition:- a variable or a concepts is said to be operationally defined when the steps in
its observation or measurement are clearly stated. Thus an operational definition of concepts helps the
investigator in obtaining reliable results, with out which he can not establish any fact scientifically
which in its turn makes the problem of investigator much more complex in his attempt to accept or
refuse the hypothesis under consideration with more authenticity.

Sometimes, the investigators even define a variable operationally with the help of items in the
questionnaire or interview schedule.

The investigator usually engager himself in the following exercises before arriving at the operational
definitions of the different terms.

The investigator will:(a) discover the various dimensions involved with in the concept, (b) correlate
these different dimensions so that all possible types can be discerned, (c) reduce the number of types to
be studied, (d) translate those types selected for study in to operational categories and empirical
indices.

It is always advisable to define each concept both: (i) in abstract terms giving the general meaning it
intends to convey, and (ii) in terms of operational categories by which it is represented in particular
study.

9. Review of the Related Literature

Literature review means

 Locating literature from a variety of resources

 Reading if Carefully and thoroughly, and
 Organizing it in to themes (ideas) along the line of investigation.
This section examines recent (historically significant) research studies, company data or reports, book,
magazines, and other written documents that act as a basis for the related literature and relevant
secondary data from a comprehensive perspective, moving to more specific studies that are associated
with your problem. If the problem has a historical background, begin with the earliest references.

It is recommended that you should avoid the extraneous detail of the literature by doing a brief review
of the information, not a comprehensive report. Emphasize the important results and conclusions of
other studies, the relevant data and trends from previous research, and particular methods or designs
that could be duplicated or should be avoided. Discuss how the literature applies to the study you are
proposing; show the weakness or faults in the design, discussing how you would avoid similar
problems. Close the literature section by summarizing the important aspects of the literature and
interpreting them in terms of your problem.

The review of related literature should give readers the context for the present study. The review
should not merely summarize a series of books and articles; rather, it should call attention to the most
important previous work, identify the place of your study in relation to other research, and delineate

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areas of agreement and disagreement in the field. The review should evaluate and interpret existing
research rather than simply repeat it. Organizing the review by topic rather than by author and
avoiding un necessary direct questions can help you focus the review of research.

 The major Purpose and importance of Literature Review

In a research undertaking, your own research problem is always central. Everything that you do, you
do because it aids and assists you in attacking your problem. And when you know what others have
done, you are better prepared to attack with deeper insight and more complete knowledge the problem
you have chosen to investigate. But this is only the principle reason for investigating the literature.
Briefly such a review can provide you with many benefits

i. It can reveal investigations germane to your own, and it can show you how the collateral researcher
handled those issues.

ii. It can suggest a method or a technique of dealing with problematic situations, which may also
suggest avenues of approach to the solution of similar difficulties you may be facing.

iii. It can reveal to you sources of data, which you may not have know existed.

iv. It can introduce you to significant research personalities of whose research effort and collateral
writings you may have had no knowledge..

v. It can help you to see your own study in historical and associational perspective and in relation to
earlier and more primitive attacks on the same problem.

vi. It can provide you with new ideas and approaches, which may not have occurred to you

vii. It can assist you in evaluating your own research effort, by comparing them with related effort,
done by other.

 Guidelines to begin a search for Related Literature

 Go to the indexes and abstracts, Bibliographies should not be over looked. Perhaps one of
the best current sources in the bibliographic index.
 Go to the library armed with data gathering tools. You will need bibliography cards and
container to carry them in. Bibliography cards are valuable to gather and record information.
It also helps in locating it again with out continual return trips to the library.
 Make as many copies of the bibliographic items as necessary.
 Be systematic and thorough “make haste slowly” is a sound rule for the researcher. It would
be much better to take the required care and to give proper attention to doing the job right in
the first place.
 Relate your bibliography to your problem.
 The competent researcher never forgets that everything be does serves only one purpose to
contribute to the solution of the problem.

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 How to Write to Section on the Related Literature

After they lave amassed an impressive bibliography, many students do not know what to do with it. A
few simple guidelines may help.

1. Review the literature; do not reproduce it

 Present your own discussion,
 Paraphrase, Precisely; give synopsis
 Use short direst questions if necessary
 Long direct questions are the last resort use them only for a very good reason.
2. Summarize what you have said
At the end of the presentation and processing of data in the research report, in the final summary of the
research, one question is always appropriate” What does it all mean?” one heading is always in order
the heading entitled, “summary.”
3. Get the proper Psychological orientation
Too many students consider the related literature as an unnecessary appendage standing in the way of
their goal. They are eager to get on with the research. To the contrary, a conscientious and through
review of the literature review related to the problem can open to any researcher possibilities of which
he was un aware, can open his eyes to new ways of looking at the problem which he to tally missed.

4. Have a plan:- begin your discussion of the related literature from a comprehensive like as
inverted pyramid broad and first. Then you can deal with more and more specific or more
localized studies which focus closer and closer on your specific problem.
5. Emphasize relatedness keep your reade constantly aware of the manner in which the
literature you are discussing is related to your problem. Point out precisely what the
relationship is. When ever you cite a study, make your self account for that particular study in
terms of the problem you are researching.
6. Use proper Citation Style Citation refers to indicating the source of borrowed or quoted idea
“ Plagiarize” is defined as to steal and pass off (the ideas or word of another) as ones owns to
use(a created production ) with out crediting the source. The three ways one can be quality of
plagiarism are
 Paraphrasing some one else‟s words at length with out giving him/her credit
 Copying some one else‟s word or sentence- verbatim with out quoting appropriately
and showing a reference.
 Using ideas that have been strongly influenced by some one else‟s work with out
giving appropriate credit.
Paraphrasing is taking some one else‟s word and putting it in to own word.

Quoting is copying taking some one else‟s word or sentences variation. If the question appears as part
of a paragraph, it should be preceded and followed by quotes. If the quotation is longer that four typed
lines, it should be set off as a paragraph of its own, single spaced, and typed with out quotation make.
Both paraphrased and quoted materials should be reference carefully.

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 Reference Styles

Three of the most commonly used referencing styles are the APA (American Psychological
Association), MLA (Modern Language Association of America), and Turbian (named for its creator,
kate L. Turbian) Styles. The APA style relies on in text mention of the author‟s name and year of
publication.

Examples:

1. Grapevine communications are much more accurate than most people think. Typically, 75-85%
of the information the grapevine carries is true. (Davis,1981)
2. Davis (1981) reports that grapevine communications are more accurate than most people realize.
Typically, 75-85% of the information the grapevine carries is true.
3. The underlining show the alternative referring styles. If the writer quotes Davis directly as in the
following except, then the page number might be added to the reference
“ The degree of grapevine activity is a misuse of company’s spirit and vitality. If employees are
so disinterested in their work that they do not engage in shop talk, they are maladjusted.” (Davis,
1973:45 )
The MLA style is similar to APA form of textural citation the main difference is that the PAP
will cite the authors‟ name and date of publication, where as the MLA will provide the authors
last name, Title of work, and page numbers.
Example.
Universality of management suggest that the manger uses the same managerial skills and
principles in each managerial positions help in various organizations .(Dalton, “Business
management,”64)
What ever the writer chooses, he should be careful to maintain consistency. When the author of
the referenced material are two or three, the last name of each of the authors should be indicated.
However, if the authors are more than three, only the name of the first author is written followed
by [Link]., which means “ and other”, the abbreviation et. al. should be underlined as it is Latin
word written in English
Example
According to Thompson [Link]., there is a general agreement that once a training program is over
we should try to check its effectiveness.
Under the Turbian style, each citation is given a number starting with 1 and proceeding
consecutively through the paper. The number are typed slightly above the line to distinguish them
from the text. Corresponding foot notes may be typed as endnotes or at the bottom of the page. If
typed at the end of the page, a line about 1 and ½ inches long should be typed to separate the text
from the footnotes. Here is an example of a reference and the accompaning footnote using
Turbian style.
Grapevine communications are much more accurate than most people think. Typically 15-85% of the
information the grapevine carries is true.3
Another style concern is how to repeat references, that is reference to sources that have been cited and
are now being cited again.4 consider the example that follows. The turbian using the following
Citations. 5

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The notion Ibid is the abbreviation fort he lation ibidem, meaning “ in the same place”, It is used
when a repeated reference immediately follows the original reference.
In the case where other references come between the original and the repeated citation of a given
reference, the author‟s last name and the latin [Link]. (Operacitato, in the work cited)
4 Gibson and Hdgetts, [Link]
The notation [Link] is the abbreviation for the Lafin loc citamus, meaning, the work cited earlier the
same place (page). When the page is the same, we use [Link] and when the page is different, we use
[Link]

6 Gibson and Hodgetts, loc. Cit

It is advisable, under the APA and MLP styles, to use the any reference list once under “References”
or Bibliography” and its location to determined alphabetically according to the first author‟s surname
for foreign names. However, under the Turbian methods, as can clearly be seen from the examples, the
names are not transposed as in the case of bibliographic presentation.

Moreover, in the case of bibliography, the first line of bibliographic entry starts from the left margin
and the subsequent lines of that entry are indented 10 spaces In the case of footnote or end notes,
however, is the first line of the reference that should be indented and the subsequent lines start at the
left margin.

In addition to indicating conations to acknowledge indebtedness and to determine the validity of the
evidence footnotes are used for the following purposes.

a, To elaborate the ideas or information presented in the text. If discussing some thing with in the body
is difficult (or not necessary), one can type the number slightly above the term (s) to be explained at
the foot of the page.

b, To give cross reference to different parts of the same paper.

4.3.3 The supplemental

10. Budgets and schedules

10.1 Cost Budget

The budgets should be presented in the form of the sponsor request. It should on more than one to two
pages. But if should contain all the costs needed.

Most proposals put together with the expectation that funding will be necessary and an itemized list of
the items needed to carry out the research is listed in some detail. A carefully developed budget
reflects the seriousness of the proposal and the degree to which it is a realistic assessment of what is
needed. A detailed, carefully through out budget will, be useful in planning, implementing and
monitoring the project. The following points should come in mind when preparing the budget.

 It may be convenient to use the work plan as a starting point

 Specify for each activity in the work plan what resources are required.
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 Determine for each resource the unit cost and the total cost.
 Keep some amount of contingency-5%
10.2. Budget of Time (Schedule)

A time table explaining how the research expects to carry out his project and when each of the
important phases will be completed is help full to both the researcher and the reviewer. It is even
important that the disbursement of the research fund is based on the time schedule for most of the
research under takings.

A work plan is a Schedule, chart or graph that summarizes in a clear fashion, various components of a
research undertaking and how they fit together. The plan includes the following components like:

 Task to be performed
 When the tasks will be performed
 Who will perform the tasks.
Your schedule also include the major phases of the project (study), their time tables, and milestones
that signify completion of a phase. For example, major phases may be

(1) exploratory interviews, (2) final research proposal (3) questionnaire revision, (field interviews,
(5) editing and coding, (6) data analysis, and (7) report generation. Each of these should have
on estimated time schedule.
11. Reference Section

All works cited in the proposal are listed here. The sources are many, i.e., text books, Journal, articles,
etc…., Published and/or unpublished, could be possible to cite, quote, or paraphrase as to their
relevance to your study

Unpublished works are

 personal communication with experts, professionals,

 Unpublished data
 Unpublished research works
 Organization‟s reports
 Public speeches
 Conferences
The researcher should not put such unpublished work in reference list. Such reference should be
placed in the body of the text.

Example

“ ………………………………………..” (MTI‟s annual report)

12. Appendices: - materials which may help the reader to get some more knowledge about the study
you conducted.

It is not mandatory to have this section. IF the researcher thinks that having this section will increase
the quality of the proposal, he is free to do so. Information types provided in this section are those

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additional details, which are difficult to accommodate with in the standard headings. Staffs to be
included in the appendix are: details questionnaires are interview schedule survey and other
geographic maps, photographs and statistical procedures and formulas.

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CHAPTER FIVE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Research methodology constitutes two major elements. These are (1) the sampling procedures, (2) the
source and collection of data. The methodologies are the core and the largest part of a scientific
research proposal which are largely descriptive in nature. This section is an essential prerequisite for
validating the results and hence acceptability of the proposal. Methodologies should give full details to
show how the research activity is going to be carried out. Since this section is the largest and the most
important of the research proposal, researchers are advised to split it in to sub-sections. Such effort
makes the proposal transparent and clear to the readers as well as to the sponsor and therefore,
minimizes the risks of being rejected.

5.1 Sampling Design

The basic idea of sampling is that by selecting part of the elements in a population, conclusion may be
drawn about the entire population. An element is the subject in which measurement is being taken. It is
the unit of the study. A population is total collection of elements about which we wish to make some
information. A census is a study including all the elements in the population.

It is needless to say that no investigator can study the entire population and hence selects a few
individuals belonging to a population for the purpose of his investigation. These selected individuals
form a sample and while selecting these individuals the investigation should consider the following
facts.

 Definition of population
The investigator should define population in operational terms, describing it with all the necessary
identifiable characteristics. This helps the investigator in selecting the sample depicting the same
characteristics with more case and further helps the investigator in generalizing his findings of the
present investigation with more authenticity. Thus the only difference between the population and the
sample is their size and except for that, the sample is exactly similar to the population in all
characteristics.

 Sample size
Depending on the mode of research the sample size varies. For example, in experimental research the
sample size is very small compared to that of descriptive research. It is always advisable to collect data
from more number of individuals than required by sample size, to take care of any causality,
particularly in the case of problems where the data is to be collected from the same sample repeatedly
at different times. Sample size is usually determined by estimating the reliability of static tics
calculated form the data collected from different sizes of the samples.

 Representative ness of the sample

When a sample is selected, it is assumed that it represents the population for which it stands. Failure of
this is failure of entire research study. This is fundamental and critical in any research design to give
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sense to any research study undertaken. Thus the investigator should use his ingenuity in carefully
selecting the appropriate technique of sample selection.

The different techniques usually complied by the investigators in selecting the sample varies
accordingly- the one selected depends on the requirements of the project, its objectives, and funds
available.

Further more, the members of a sample are selected either on a probability or non-probability basis.
Probability sampling is based on the concept of random- selection- a controlled procedure that assures
that each population element is given a known non zero chance of selection. Non- probability
sampling, on the other hand, is subjective and each member does not have a known non zero chance of
being included.

The major concern in sampling is a choice of sample that is representative of population. A sampling
is representative if it generates a result that would be reached it the research were conducted on the
whole population. In order to be representative, a sample should possess all the important
characteristics of the population from which it is drawn.

5.1.1 Factors that determine the size of the sample

Nature of the study
Nature of the study affects the size of a sample for intensive and continuous study small sample will be
suitable, because such study in a large sized sample will require more resources. For general survey,
the size of the sample should be large, but for technical studies the size of the sample should be kept
small

Type of sampling
In random sampling, greater accuracy in results will be achieved only in a large sample. In a properly
drown stratified sampling, a small sample can give more accurate results.

Nature of units
Where it is expected that a large number of unit will not respond, then a large sample should be taken

Size of questionnaire
If the size of the questionnaire is large and it contains difficult questions, the size of the sample should
be kept smile.

Practical considerations
The availability of finance, time and trained personnel are other practical considerations, which affect
the sample.

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5.1.2 Methods of sampling

I. Probability Sampling
In this type of sampling each member of a population has a predetermined chance (probability) of
being induced in a sample. There are different methods of selecting a probability sample let‟s see them
one- by – one

1. Simple Random Sampling

A simple random sampling is one in which each item in the universe has an equal or known
opportunity of being selected. It is more suitable in more homogeneous and comparatively large
groups. Three methods are generally used for drawing out a sample on simple random basis.

Lottery Method:- a simple method to do this is to list numbers and to drew lotteries or to use
dies or charts or systems prepared for this purpose.
Use of Tables of Random Numbers:- These numbers are very widely used in all the sampling
techniques and have proved to be quite reliable as regards accuracy and representative ness.
Precautions in Drawing a simple random Technique:-
Population to be sampled and the unit must be clearly defined.
Different units should be approximately of equal size.
The unit must be independent of each other
Method of selection should be completely independent
Every member should be accessible units once selected should not be ignored or replaced by
any other unit of the universe
 Merits of the simple Random Technique

It eliminates bias and is more scientific method of taking samples

Assessment of the accuracy of the result is possible by sample error estimation
The sample drawn under this method is true representative of the universe
It is very simple and easily practicable of selecting samples.
 Demerits of the simple Random Technique

It requires complete list of the universe that restrict the use of this method
It is not suitable for respondents (dispersed) over a large geographic area.
For a given degree of accuracy, this method usually requires large samples as compared to
stratified sampling.
2. Complex Random Sampling
Simple random sampling is often impractical. It requires a population list that is often not available.
The design may also be wasteful because it fails to use all the information about a population. In
addition, the carrying out of a simple random design may be expensive in time and money. These
problems have led to the development of alternative designs that are superior to the simple random
design in statistical and /or economical efficiency. In the discussion that follows, four alternate
probability sampling approaches are discussed; systematic, stratified, cluster and double sampling
methods.

1. Systematic Random sampling

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Under this method a sampling is taken from a list prepared on a systematic arrangement either on the
basis of alphabetic order or on house number on the basis of alphabetic order or on house number or
any other method. In this method only the first sample unit is selected at random and the remaining
units are automatically selected in a definite sequence at equal spacing from one another.

 Steps Involved in systematic random sampling

1- Arrange population in serial numbers from 1 to N and determine the size of the sample,
2- Determine the sample interval by dividing the population by sample size as follows.
N/n=K
Where, K= Sample interval

N= Sample size

N= Population size

3. Select any number at random from the first sampling interval. The subsequent samples
are selected sat equal or regular intervals
 Merits of systematic random sampling

- It is easy to operate and checking can also be done quickly

- It results in representative sample because of its randomness and probability features.
 Demerits of systematic Random sampling

- It works well only if the complete and up- to – date frame is available and if the units are
randomly arranged.
- Any hidden periodicity in the list will adversely affect the representative ness of the
sample.
2. Stratified sampling method

When the population is heterogeneous with respect to the variable or characteristics under study, then
the techniques of stratified sampling is used to obtain more efficient and accurate results. Stratification
means division of the universe in to groups according to geographical, sociological or economic
characteristics.

 Processes Involved in stratified sampling

Divide the universe in to sub-groups. Then the required units are selected at random from each
sab-group.
Conduct the stratification in such a way that item in one stratum should be similar to each
other but different significantly from unit of other strata
Each and every unit in the population must belong to one and only one stratum, i.e., various
strata must be non-over lapping
The size of each stratum in the universe must be large enough to provide selection of item in
random basis.
Size of the sample from each stratum can be proportional or disproportional to the size of each
stratum.
 Merits of stratified sampling
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If a correct stratification has been made even a small number of units will form a
representative sample.
Under this method, no group is left unrepresented
It is more precise and avoids bias to a great extent.
It is the only sampling plan, which enables us to achieve different degrees of accuracy for
different segment of the population.
Replacement of case is early in this method if the original case is not accessible to study
It enables different research methods and procedures to be used in different strata
Stratification is usually more efficient statistically than simple random sampling and at worst
is equal to it. With the ideal stratification, each stratum is homogeneous internally and
heterogeneous with other strata.
 Demerits of stratified sampling

It is a very difficult task to divide the universe in to homogeneous strata the universe in to
homogeneous strata
If the strata are over-lapping, unsuitable or disproportionate, the selection of samples may not
be representative
Disproportionate stratification requires weighting which again introduces selective factor in
the sample and under weighting makes the sample unrepresentative.
3. Cluster sampling

In a simple random sampling, each population element is selected individually. The population can
also be divided in to groups of elements with some group randomly selected for study.

This is cluster sampling. An immediate question might how does this differ from stratified sampling?
They may be compared as follows.

1. In stratified sampling, we divide the population in to a few sub- groups, each with many
elements according to some criterion that is related to the variable under study; while in cluster
sampling, we divide the population in to many sub- groups, each with a few elements in it.
The sub groups in the later are selected according to some criterion of ease or availability in
data collection.
2. In the former one, we try to secure homogeneity with in sub-groups and heterogeneity between
subgroups; while in the later one, we try to secure heterogeneity with in sub group and
homogeneity between sub- groups, but we usually get the reverse.
3. In the former one, we randomly choose elements from with in each group; while in the later
one, we randomly choose a number of the sub-groups, which we then typically study in to.
When properly done, cluster sampling also provides an unbiased estimate of population parameters.
Two conditions foster the use of cluster sampling are (1) the need for more economic efficiency than
can provided by simple random sampling and (2) the frequent un availability of practical sampling
from for individual elements.

 Principles of cluster sampling

Cluster should be as small as possible with the cost and limitation of the survey
The number of sampling units in the cluster should be approximately the same
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 Merits of cluster sampling

It gives significant cost gain

It is easier and more practical method, which facilitates the field work
 Demerits of cluster method

Probability and the representative ness of the sample are sometimes affected if the number of
the clusters is very large
The results obtained under this method are likely to be less accurate if the number of sampling
units in each clusters not approximately the same.

II. Non-probability sampling

Probability sampling procedures that include some form of random selection are not always
appropriate or desirable. There are a number of reasons why simple random sampling may not be
appropriate. For example, a researcher may not have access to the whole group. Also it may be
economically difficult and time consuming to take samples from the possible study population. In non-
probability sampling method there is no assurance that every member has some chance of being
included in a sample. This can be employed in different ways.

Non-probability sampling, also called judgmental sampling method is based on the personal judgment.
Under this method a desired number of sample units are selected deliberately or purposely depending
up on the object of the inquiry so that only the important items representing the true characteristics of
the population are included in the sample. Under such conditions, there is greater opportunity for bias
to enter the sample selection procedure and to distort the findings of the study. If this is so, why would
anyone choose it?

There are some practical reasons for using these less precise methods. These are:

It is appropriate for exploratory types of researches where one may wish to contact only
certain persons or cases that are clearly non-typical. This is the case when there is no desire to
generalize about population.
It saves time and money probability sampling clearly calls for more planning and repeated call
backs to assure that each selected member is contacted.
While probability sampling may be superior in theory, there are break downs in its application.
Sometimes non-probability sampling may be the only feasible alternative.
 Types of Non-Probability sampling

(1) Convenience sampling

Non probability samples that are unrestricted are called convenience samples. They are the least
reliable design but normally the cheapest and easiest to conduct. Researchers or field workers have the
freedom to choose whomever they find, thus the name convenience. Examples include responding to
question of the researcher.

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While a convenience sample has no controls to ensure precision, it may still be a useful procedure. In
the early stages of exploratory research when you are seeking guidance, you might use this approach.

2. Purposive sampling
A non-probability sample that conforms to certain criteria is called purposive sampling. There are two
major types- judgment sampling and quota sampling.

i. Judgment sampling:- Occurs when a researcher selects sample members to conform to

some criterion. In a study lab our problem, for example, you may want to talk only with
those who experienced on-the-job discrimination.
When used in early stages of an exploratory study, a judgment sample is appropriate.

When one wishes to select a biased group for screening purposes, this sampling method is also a good
choice.

ii. Quota sampling:_ the second type of purposive sampling. We use it to improve
representative ness. The logic behind quota sampling is that certain relevant characteristics
describe the dimension of populations.
In most quota samples, researchers specify more than one control dimension each should meet two
tests(1) it should have a distribution in the population that we can estimate, and (2) it should be
pertinent to the topic studied. We may relieve that responses to a question should vary, depending up
on the gender of respondents. If so, we should seek proportional responses from both men and women.
We may also feel that diploma and TVET students differ from degree students, so this would be a
dimension.

Quota sampling is a special type of stratified sampling. Here, th population id firest stratified on some
basis, preferably on the basis of the characteristics of the po0pulation under study. After this the
number of sample units be selected from stratum is decided by the researcher in advance. This number
is known as quota which may be fixed according to some specific characteristics such as in come
groups, sex, occupation, political/ religious affiliations, etc. The choice of the particular units for
investigating is left to the investigators themselves. The investigators try to get required in formation
quickly by applying their judgment in the choice of the sample

In case of non-response due to uncooperative nature of respondents, the investigator select some fresh
units himself to complete his quota.

 Merits of Quota sampling Method

Because it is both stratified (probability) and purposive (non-probability), it enjoys the benefits
of both methods and hence is both practical and convenient.
If proper controls or checks are imposed on the investigator, quota sampling is likely to give
accurate results.
 Demerits of Quota sampling Method

It suffers from the limitations both stratified and purposive sampling

Control over field work is difficult task. Hence the results may be biased because of the
personal beliefs and prejudice of the investigator in selection of the unit under study.
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Since quota sampling is not based on random sampling, the sampling error can‟t be estimated.
The bias may also occur due to substitution of unlike sample units.
In general purposive sampling (embraces judgment and quota sampling) is the situation where the
researcher deliberately selects certain units for study from the universe and nothing is left to chance.

5.2 Data Collection

Construction/Adaptation of Instruments

The investigator should now find instruments for collecting the data required by the hypothesis. The
investigator himself may have to construct these instruments or he may have to adopt the readily
available instruments to suit the local conditions. In the later case, the investigator may make certain
necessary changes in the format, etc., with the help of the feed back received by conducting a pilot
study on a very small sample.

Besides using the instruments, like questionnaires, interview schedules, projector techniques, attitude
scales, etc…, the investigator may adopt other methods like observation, examination of records and
so forth for data collection each of these various methods has its own advantages and limitations,
which will be discuss in details forward.

5.2.1 The source of Data

We classify in formation sauces in to primary and secondary types

Primary data come form the original sources and are collected especially to answer our research
questions. Primary data are Original observations collected by the researcher or his agents for the first
time for any investigation and used by them in the statistical analysis.

Secondary data Studies made by other for their own purposes represent secondary data. The different
between primary and secondary data is only the degree of detachment with the original source. Once
the primary data have been used, it loses its original character and becomes secondary. Such secondary
data are mostly published in news papers, periodicals and Journals.

5.2.2 Choices between Primary and Secondary Data

The Choice between primary and secondary data mainly depends up on the nature, objectives and
scope of inquiry, availability of time and money, degree of accuracy desired and the status of the
investigator.

The primary data are more reliable on the face, but the secondary data can be relied only be examining
the source from which they have been obtained. Their true significance, incompleteness and methods
of collection. Some times in a certain investigation both primary and secondary data are used as
supplement to one another.

The following points are note worthy for the preference of primary source in comparison to secondary
sources:

 The primary source gives data in greater details compared to secondary source. The
Secondary source often omits part of the information
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 In the secondary source, there is a possibility of mistakes due errors in transcription made
then the figures were copied from the primary source.
 The primary sources include definitions of terms and units used. It is essential that the
investigations understand the meaning of units in which data are recorded.
 The primary source also includes a copy of the schedule used in data collection together
with the prescription of the procedure used in selecting the sample and the size of a sample.
 The availability of time at the disposal of investigations also affects the choice of the method
to be adopted in the collection of data. If the data are needed immediately, we have to
depend on the secondary source. On the other hand, if the time is sufficient it is
recommended to use primary method of data are more accurate and reliable compared to
secondary data
 The availability of finance also influences the method to be adopted in the collection of data.
If the data collecting authority has vast financial resources at its disposal it is better to adopt
primary method. On the contrary, it the data collecting agency has less financial resources,
secondary source should be adapted even though the secondary data are not as reliable as
primary data.
 The availability of trained investigators also affects the choice of the method to be
employed in data collection. If trained investigators are availability, primary method should
be adapted for the collection of data. In case of non-availability of trained investigators, it is
recommended to adopt secondary method of data collection.
 The objective and the scope of the inquiry also determine the method to be adapted in the
collection of data. The selected method must suit the objective and the scope of the inquire.

5.2.3 Qualitative vs. Quantitative Data

It is common for researcher to make a clear distinction between quantitative researches (also known as
positivistic) that focuses on scientific sampling and the analysis of numerical data, and qualitative
research (also known as interpretative) that focuses on less rigorous (or convenience based) sampling
and gathering textual information for non-statistics analysis. Often, however, more mixed approaches
(pluralistic) are used in which both quantitative and qualitative approaches are blended and used to
inform the findings of each other.
There are vast differences between the first two methods, and it is necessary to understand their special
characteristics in order to make the right selection.
 Quantitative Research is:-
- The traditional mainstay of the research industry and it is sometimes referred to as ”survey
Research”
- Quantitative research is defined as research involving the use of structured questions
where the response options have been predetermined and a large number of respondents
are involved.
- Quantitative research often involves a sizable representative sample of the population and
a formalized procedure for gathering data.
- The purpose of quantitative research is very specific, and this research is used when the
manager and researcher have agreed that precise information is needed.
- Data format and source are clear and well defined, and the compilation and formatting of
the data gathered follows an orderly procedure that is largely numerical in nature.

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 Qualitative Research, in contrast:

- Involves collecting, analyzing, and interpreting data by observing what people do and say.
- Observation and statements are in a qualitative or non- standardized form
- Because of this, qualitative data can be quantified but only after a translation process has
taken place. For example if you asked five people to express their open ions on promoting
alcoholic beverages to college students, you would problem get five different statements,
but after studying each response, you could characterize each one as “positive”,”
negative”, or” neutral”, This translation step would not be necessary if you instructed them
to predetermined response options such as “yes” or “no”
- Any study that is can ducted using an observational technique or unstructured questioning
can be classified as qualitative research.
 Pluralistic Research
Although there are proponents of both types of research, many social researchers have been
adopting pluralistic research.
- It is defined as the combination of qualitative and quantitative research methods in order
to gain the advantage of both
- With pluralistic research, it is common to begin with exploratory qualitative techniques as
for example, in –depth interviews of selected dealers or a series of group discussion with
customers in order to understand how they perceive a certain product and /or service as
compared to those of competitors.
- The qualitative phase serves as a foundation for the quantitative phase of the research
project because it provided the research problem. Armed with this knowledge, the
researcher‟s design and execution of the quantitative phase is invariably superior to what it
might have been without the qualitative phase.
- With pluralistic research, the qualitative phase serves to frame the subsequent quantitative
phase.
- Qualitative input is especially useful in helping to select areas for surveying. The input
gained through semi-structured interviews or focus groups conducted with key participants
in the social relationship often helps to surface important new areas that warrant inclusion
and investigation.
- And in some case, a qualitative phase is applied after a quantitative study to help the
researcher understand the finings in the quantitative phase.

N.B. Source of secondary data includes official publications of central government, publications of
semi-government statistical organizations, publications of research institutions, publications of
commercial and financial institutions, Reports of various committees and commissions
appointed by government, news papers and periodicals, internationals publications, etc.

5.3 Types of Data Collecting Tools

5.3.1 Questionnaires
The collection of data through questionnaire is one of the most popular methods used these days. A
questionnaire contains many questions pertaining to the field of inquiry and provides space for
answers.
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It may be defined as an instrument for collecting information from a number of persons, supposed to
posses it by making them record their replies to a number of questions. It may be sent to the informants
by mails or delivered at hand. The informant‟s sends back the questionnaire duly filled in with in the
stipulated time mentioned in the questionnaire‟s preface or introductory lines.

A questionnaire is an instrument consisting of a series of questions about the topic of the research. It is a
highly structured method of data collecting tool. It is a format containing a list of questions sequentially
ordered to obtain information relevant to the objective of the study.

Questionnaires can be classifies in terms of the nature of questions that are used: You might have
employed true/ false, multiple choice, matching, short answer questions. In this case, “X” or “V” on
some alternatives provides provided or by writing responses in words. Here while the question that
require you to put a mark are called close-ended questions; those which require you to write your
responses, in words, are known as open-ended questions.

1.1. Close Ended Questionnaire

These are also called restricted or structured type. Here respondents are given a set of alternatives
from which they are asked to choose the one that most closely represents their view. They are
categorical questions, which offer a list of options or answers from which the respondent selects the
one fits his/her situation. They are objective type in their nature.
Can you mention some advantages of presenting close- ended questions?
- They are easy to responds,
- Face little time to fill out,
- Easy to tabulate and analyze etc.
- An extensive field may be surveyed and information elicited from persons living over a
wide geographical area.
- Very economical both in time and money because it is usually a one – person job.
Can you mention the major limitations related to close-ended questions?
Some times the choices given may not be exhau strive .

The researcher should strive to include all possible choices. However, sometimes, the list of possible
choices could be very long. Under such Circumstance, only the major options should be included by
making intelligence questions. For minor ones, put the option “others” with blank space to be filled on

Some questions are not mutually excusive. To be effective, but the items in the choice
should be matually exclusive and should not over lapping.
Some questions that are asked might be defective that demand other questions be
answered before them .
Preparing close –ended questions is time consuming . More over, all thought questions
are good and convenient for busy respondents and enhances or simplifies tabulating, they
deprive opportunity to comment on issues by some of the curious respondents, preparing
such questions presupposes deep knowledge of the problem understudy and possible
responses to the questions.
1.1 Open-ended Questionnaires

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A questionnaire consisting of questions that are not followed by and kind of specified choice but
requires respondents to write their answer is referred to as open-ended question.
Direct questions dealing with motives rarely elicit useful answers. Instead of approaching the
respondents with a fixed list of questions, the researcher attempts to get respondents to talk freely
about the subject of interest. By doing so, the researcher hopes to put respondents at ease and to in
coverage them to express any ideas which they have on the subject.
Open- ended questions invite free responses. Here the respondent is not provided with a list of answers
and is given n opportunity is not provided with a list of answers and is given an opportunity to give
responses that go beyond statistical data and/or factual information.
It enables to get opinions, attitudes, presupposes, decisions and so on.
They provide the opportunity for an in depth and detail treatment of questions for the respondents none
the less, because it takes much of the respondents time and requires deep knowledge, many of such
questions practically may not given answers. The task of tabulating and summarizing such questions
would also be firesome.
How do you make preference between close – ended and open- ended
questions?
 The preference between close-ended and open-ended questions depends on the following points.
- The aim of the researcher: - If the objective is to categorize subjects, close ended questions are
appropriate. If detailed information is needed on the issues, open-ended questions are
preferred
- The subject level of knowledge on particular issue. If the subject has through knowledge on the
issue, open-ended questions are preferred and vice versa
- The extent of structure that features subject open ion on the Tssue – If the respondents, views
on the particular issue, are properly formulated, we should opt for closed-end questions. Other
wise, open – ended questions are preferred.
- The convenience with which the material can be communicated. If there are no outstanding
obstacles to communicate, close ended questions would be appropriate.
- The researcher‟s information and insight in to the subjects` condition. If the researcher is
knowledgeable about the subject, the best option would be to make close ended questions and
vice versa.

Mean while, the types of questions can not mutually exclusive, i.e, we can use both of them at the
same time. However, it is preferable to use many close-ended questions and to include few open ended
questions.

Developing a Good Questionnaire

A good questionnaire is one that helps the researcher to obtain data related to the objectives of the
study. The topic areas to be covered or the content of the questionnaire value out of what the
researcher wants to accomplish from the proposed project. The types of questions or items to be
included in the questionnaire and the questionnaire and the format depend to a large extent on the
types of data sought and the questionnaire design concepts and alterative.

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The researcher can not develop a good questionnaire simply by increasing down what he thinks will
provide him the type of data for which he is looking. Various steps are involved in developing a
questionnaire that will provide the researcher with needed data. These steps are.

a) Determining Questionnaire contents

In determining the contents of the questionnaire, the researcher should consider the problem he wants
to investigate the objectives or the hypothesis to be tasted. Once these are specific and clear, the
researcher should determine the contents of the questionnaire.
ii) Developing items to be used

Once the researcher decides up on the content areas for the questionnaire, the next step in to develop
items with which to obtain data related to the content areas. The items can be questions or statements.
They can be in the form of (a) structured or non-structured question, (b) rank-ordered questions, (C)
rating Scales, and (d) attitude scales, seldom are all these types put in any one questionnaire It is
common, how ever, to have a combination of one or more types in a single questionnaire.

iii) Preparing the First Draft

Based on decisions made on item to be included in the questionnaire, the researchers do not develop
the initial draft. This phase used a trial and error approach with regard to the sequencing or arranging
of items or questions and reviewing and revising until the researcher feels that the items are
appropriate.

Sequencing items in a proper order is necessary because the questions included in the questionnaire,
should be organized into logical groups. Grouping can be made on the basis of questionnaire content
or on type of format of the items. Each section in every items or question must be reviewed to
determine the type of instruction that should be given to the informants to facilitate each and accurate
completion of the questionnaire.

iv) Pre – Testing

The revised draft should be tested before data are collected. The revised questionnaire should be pre-
tested to determine how well it serves the purpose of obtaining needed data. Pretesting to be done by
administrating the questionnaire to small but representative sample of potential respondents under
conditions that are identical in all respects to those under which final questionnaire will be
administered.

V) Revising and writing the final Questionnaire

How much and to what extent a questionnaire subjected to pre test should be revised is primarily at the
researcher‟s discretion or judgment. If a substantial number of respondents in the sample find it
difficult to understand an item, it should be revised.

Organization of the testing procedure and control are essential to reap the full benefits of per-testing
and arrive at a questionnaire which will accomplish the objectives of the study. After the test
questionnaire is revised, the researcher should prepare the final questionnaire. In preparing the final

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questionnaire, the researcher must take in to account every aspect of the criticism of the initial draft
and the results of pre-testing.

5.3.2 Interviews
Interviews are the process of interaction or communication in which a sample subject gives the needed
information verbally in a face to face situation. Interviewer involves intraction so that there will be at
least two individuals- the interviewer and interviewee.

Interview is to be conducts verbally, the interviewer and the interviewee being in a face to face
situation, it is intended to get information.

There are various types of interviews, and person administered interviews such as, (1) the in-home
interview, the mall intercept interview, the in-office interview, and the telephone interview, and their
variations are largely based on the location of the interview.

Using interview will enable a researcher to get I –depth information by clarifying questions he asks
more and more to interviewee.

Hence, a personal interview is a two-way conversation initiated by an interviewer to obtain

information from respondents; the consequences of the event are usually insignificant for the
respondent the respondent is asked to provide information with little hope of receiving any immediate
or direct benefit from this cooperation. Yet if the interview is carried off successfully, it is an
excellent data collection technique.

Using direct personal interviews data are collected by the investigator personally by asking questions
pertaining to the enquiry from persons from whom the information is to be obtained. Thus, if a person
wants to study the spending habit of the students of a university he may contact and interview students
personally and collect the desired information. If an enquiry is to be conducted in to the family budgets
and living conditions of workers of factory, the investigator may interview the workers and collect the
information necessary for his investigation.

A. Merits

- Following are the advantages of direct personal interview method:

- As the investigator approaches the informants personally, it enable to secure depth and
detail, information.
- The results obtained by this method are generally accurate and reliable as the enquiry id
intensive and is conducted personally. The investigator can remove the doubts of the
informant about certain questions. Also if the investigator has any doubt about the answer
to a question he can get it removed from the informants by asking the question again.
- The interviewer establishes personal contact and can twist the questions keeping in mind
the informants reaction.
- The language of communication can be adopted according to educational level of the
informant.

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- Any other additional information about the personal characteristics of the informants may
be collected, which will provide a background at the time of interpretation of data
- Interviews can use special scoring devices and visual materials.

B. Limitations

Some limitations of this method are:

- Its nature limits its scope. It can not be extensive in its scope. If the number of persons to
be interviewed is large and they are spread over a wide area, these methods can not be
useful as it requires the personal attention of the investigator.
- If the inquiry is a bigger one, then it can not be completed with in a reasonable time. Thus
it is costly in terms of many and time.
- The subjective factor is generally involved either consciously or unconsciously.
- The interviewers have to be thoroughly trained and supervised, other wise results obtained
may not be accurate and reliable.

 Structured and Unstructured Interview

Like the questionnaire method, interview method also classified in to structured and
unstructured interview methods.

In structured interview method, the researcher makes some procedures before conducting the
interview. The same type of questions is presented in the same order to each subject. The
interviewer has no freedom to rephrase or modify the questions, to add extra ones or to change
their order.

? What benefit do you think a structured interview will have to a researcher?

Presenting similar questions to all subjects in the same sequence will enable the researcher to
compare their responses. So that variations in responses will be attributed not due to variations
in the interview but due to actual differences between the respondents (Subject).

Structured interview may also present to the interview questions that do have alternative
responses. For example in a study to discover the types of conflict between parents and
teenagers, a researcher may raise the following question to the interviewee.

 Have you ever had any disagreement with either of your parents (father or Mother) because
8

a, drinking?

b, too many friends ?/

c, dating with opposite sex?

d, smoking ?

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Then following this question other subsequent questions may follow to get more elaboration of the
response.

On the other hand, unstructured interview, like open-ended questionnaire, provides greater flexibility-
Although the series of questions to be asked and the procedure to be followed are decided before hand;
the interviewer is largely free to arrange the form and filming of the questions. He can thus rephrase
the questions, modify them, and add some new questions to his list while conducting the interview.

Advantage of using unstructured interview is similar to that of open- ended questionnaire it allows the
respondent to express his\her view in the way he\she likes. It permits much freedom to the
interviewees to talk about the problem under investigation. And as a result we will be able to get in
depth information. But unstructured interview is not with out limitations. The researcher may face
problems of organizing, categorizing and analyzing information obtained through unstructured
interview.

5.3.3. Observation Method

Observation is the technique which involves systematic collection, watching, and recording of
behavior and characteristics of living beings, objects or other phenomena. In our every day life we are
all observers. We constantly observe the physical environment and the people around it. Observation
involves watching but information from sight is supported by that received through other senses:
through hearing, smelling, touching, and tasting. The information from these various senses are usually
combined, processed and interpreted in complex ways to form our observations our mental images of
the world and what is going on in it.
Observation in research, similarly, fulfils more or less &similar purposes. But there are some
important differences. Also the aim of observation in research is to collect information about the
world, how ever, observation in enable the researcher to improve his participation in the world. Its aim
is the production of knowledge about specific issues, which can be used by others in a variety of ways.
Hence, in observation type of data collection, the researcher‟s eye is the most important research tool,
and the method is the most straight forward approach of studying the subject‟s outward behavior.

The observer- Subject Relation Ship

The relationship between observer and subject may be viewed from three perceptive: (1) whether the
observation is direct or indirect, (2) whether the observers presence is known or unknown to the
subject, and (3) what role the observer plays.

1. Directness of observation

Direct observation describes the situation in which the observer is physically present and personally
monitors what takes place. This approach is very flexible because it allows the observer to react to and
report subtle aspect or events and behaviors as they occur

A weakness of this approach is that observers perception circuts may become overloaded as event
move quietly. Also, observe fatigue, boredom, and distracting events can reduce the accuracy and
completeness of such observation.

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Indirect observation is the study in which the recording is done by mechanical, photographic, or
electronic means. Such methods are less flexible than direct observation, but they are much les biasing
and may be less erratic in accuracy. The permanent record can also be reanalyzed to include many
different aspects of the event. It is also less costly in time and money.

2. Concealment

A second factor affecting the observer –subject relationship concerns whether the presence of the
observer should be known to the subject, when the observer is known, there is a risk of a typical
activity by the subjects. The potential bias from subject awareness of observers should, therefore, be a
matter of concern. Observers use concealment to should themselves from the object of their
observation. Often technical means are used such as one-way mirror, hidden cameras, or microphones.
These methods reduce the risk of observer bias but bring up a question of ethics. Hidden observation is
a form of spying, and the property of this action must be reviewed carefully. A modified approach is
partial concealment. The presence of the observer is not concealed, but the objective and subject of
interest are.

3. Participation

Participation is the third observer – subject issue refers whether the observer should participate in the
situation while observing. A more involved arrangement, Participant observation, exists when the
observer enter the setting and acts both as an observer and a participant. Sometimes he is known as an
observer to some or all of the participants, while at other times the true role is concealed. While
reducing the potential for bias, this again rises an ethical I Often subjects will not have given their
consent and will not have knowledge of or access to the findings. After being deceived and having
their privacy invaded, what further damage could come to the subjects if the results become public?
This needs to be addressed when concealment and covert participation are used.

Participant observation makes a dual demand on the observer. Recording can interfere with
participation, and participation can in interfere with observation. The observer‟s role may influence the
way others act. Because of these problems, participant observation is less used in social/business
research than, say, in anthropology or sociology.

Advantages of Observational methods

There are many positive aspects of the observational research approach.

 Observations are usually flexible and do not necessarily need to be structured around a
hypothesis (remember a hypothesis is a statement about what you expect to observe). For
instance, before undertaking more structured research a researcher may conduct
observations in order to form a research question. This is what we call exploratory
research.
 Observational research findings are considered strong in validity because the researcher is
able to collect a depth of information about a particular behavior
 It permits collection of data on facts that can‟t be collected using questionnaire and/ or
interview.

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 The behavior of the observer can influence the situation of the observation leading the
subject to pretend and might not enable to see the reality.

Disadvantages of Observational method

However, there are negative aspects.

 There are problems with reliability and generalizability. Reliability refers to the extent that
observations can be replicated seeing behaviors occur over and over again may be a time
consuming task.

Generalizability (external validity) is described as the extent that the study findings would also be
true for other people, in other places, and at other times. In observational research, finding may only
reflect a unique population and therefore, can not be generalized to others.

 With direct observation, typically, only small numbers of subjects are studied and usually
under special circumstance, so their representativeness is a concern.
 The major of all observational methods is the researcher‟s inability to see beneath the behavior
observed and to interrogate the person on motives, attitudes, and all of the other unseen
aspects of why, what was observed took place.
 There are also problems with researcher bias/subjective interpretation/ .Often it is assumed
that the researcher may “see what they want to see”. Bias, however, can often be overcome
with training or electronically recording observations. Hence, overall, observations are a
valuable tool for researcher.

In sum, all the instruments have got their strength and limitations. Thus whether we use questionnaire,
interview or observation, we have to establish the validity and reliability of the instrument as well as
practicality. Hence, practicality has been defined as economy, convenience, and interpretability
exactly.

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CHAPTER SIX

ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA

Processing of data requires editing, coding, classification and tabulation. And these are crucial stages
in a scientific research. Data collected during the research is processed with a view to reducing them to
manageable proportions. A careful and systematic processing will highlight the important
characteristics of the data, facilitates comparisons and render it suitable for further statistical analysis
and interpretations. A brief discussion of some broad areas of work for statistical processing is given
below.

6.1 Editing the primary data

After the data have been collected by the primary method, the next step is to edit the filled schedules.
The editing of schedules is compared to the editing of a manuscript before publication; therefore, it has
become an established practice to avail the services of trained editors who check the schedules for
accuracy as well as for consistency.

Editing is always done in the office, far away from the place of data collection. In many cases it is not
possible to check all schedules. In such cases, a sample of required size is sufficient to ascertain the
degree of accuracy of filled schedules. The duty of editing the schedules must be entrusted to honest,
efficient and sincere editors who are committed to the job. Negligence on the part of an editor may do
a lot of harm to the findings of the study. Therefore, an editor should be a person of unquestionable
integrity. The editors are required to check the filled schedules in the following respects:

6.1.1 Editing for consistency

The schedules are to be edited for consistency. They should see whether answers to questions supplied
by informants are consistent or not. If the answers are of contradictory nature then the editors are
required to send such schedules to respective supervisors for recording the correct answers from
concerned informants. For illustration, an informant might enter as „unmarried‟ in one column, while
the second column he may enter „two children‟. Such contradictory replies are to be corrected. Some is
the case with age and date of birth information, which may not agree.

Editing for completeness

It is the duty of the editor to examine whether all questions in the schedule or questionnaire are
answered or not. In many cases, important questions are not answered and the analysis of the problem
is not possible due to such unanswered questions. The editor should send such schedules to concerned
investigators for recording the answers from informants.

Editing for accuracy

The Job of the editor is highly specialized; therefore, he must know the nature of information which is
to be supplied by the informants. The accuracy and the reliability of the findings depend up on
accurate information, there fore, the editor has to examine whether all questions are answered correctly

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or not. In case, any doubt develops about any question in the mind of the editor, he must seek
clarification from the supervisor or from the informants.
Editing for uniformity
The problem under study can be rationally analyzed when there is a uniformity in the answers of the
questions supplied by different informants. Uniformity of answers mean whether all questions are
interpreted in the same sense by all informants or not. If the questions are interpreted in different ways
by different informants then the data supplied becomes heterogeneous such data should not be
employed for analysis.

Editors for competitions

It is advised not to ask the investigators or the respondents supplying information to make any
computation. This additional work may give risk to errors computations, if necessary, should always
be made by editors.

6.2 Coding
After editing of the collected data, the next step to follow is coding. Coding refers to assigning of
number digits or letters or both to various responses so as to enable tabulation of information easy. The
purpose of coding is to classify the answers to a question in to meaningful categories which is essential
for tabulation.

According to M. Parton, “coding consists in assigning a number of symbols to each answer which falls
in a predetermined class.”

Goode and Halt defines coding as “An operation by which data are organized in to classes and number
of symbol is given to each item according to the class in which it falls.”

The need of coding arises more in the case of quantitative data which is a pre- requisite for any
meaningful interpretation of social data. Coding in the modern age of computers is done after
translating the information collected in the usual manner in to language of machine.

In most surveys, certainly whenever results are to be put in quantitative form, the intermediate stage is
the coding of the answers. Some times this and the initial editing are joined in a single operation.

The purpose of coding is to classify the answers to a question in to meaning full categories, so as to try
out their essential pattern.

The process involves two distinct steps. The first is to decide on the categories to be used, the second,
to allocate individual answers to them. The set of categories to be used will be referred to as the coding
frame. The set of coding frames covering all the information to be abstracted from the questionnaires
is commonly known as the code book.

The coding frame:- A coding frame relates to a single question. In cases where there are only a few
possible answers to the questions, the preparation of the frame raises on problems.

The question:- “Have you smoked any cigarettes today”? Admits only of the answers “yes” or “No”
together with „Don‟t remember,‟ „Refuse to answer‟, „Not applicable‟, so that the frame decides itself.
Where the frame does not determine it self automatically, it is a matter of deciding how detailed a
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grouping to allow for in the coding, which in turn depends on how the answers are expected to be
distributed and what analysis is being planned.

6.3 Classification
Once the data is collected and edited, the first task of the statistician is the organization of the figure in
such a form that their significance, for the purpose in hand, may be appreciated that comparison with
masses of similar data may be felicitated, and that further analysis may be possible. This is done
through classification and tabulation. But be for tabulating the data in to different homogeneous
classes, it is necessary to sort out the relevant and significant features from the irrelevant and
insignificant ones. The process of arranging the data in to groups or classes according to resemblance
and similarities is technically called classification

It is of interest of give below the following definitions of classification.

Classification is the process of arranging data in to sequences and groups according to their common
characteristics, or separating them in to different but related parts. (- secrist)

A classification is a scheme for breaking a category in to a set of parts, called classes, according to
some precisely defined differing characteristics possessed by all the elements of the category.(- Tuttle
A.M)

Thus classification impress up on the „arrangement of the data in to different classes which are to be
determined depending up on the nature, objective and scope of the enquiry.

6.3.1 Objects of Classification

The chief objects of classification are:-

-To present the facts in a simple form

-To bring out clearly points of similarity and dissimilarity.
-To facilitate comparison
-To bring out relationship
-To present a mental picture
-To prepare the basis for tabulation
6.3.2 Characteristics of Classification

The classification system must be exhaustive

The classes must not over lap
Stability is crucial- classification must proceed at every stage in accordance with one principle,
and that principle should be maintained throughout.
A good classification should be flexible and should have the capacity of adjustment to new
situations and circumstances.
The items included in one class should be homogeneous.
The classification should conform to the object of enquiry- i.e., suitability of the classification
scheme.

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Arithmetical accuracy is mandatory- the total of the items included in different classes, should
tally with the total of the universe.

6.4 Statistical series

A series refers to some logical arrangement of data by size, magnitudes or characteristics as the case
may be.

 Types of series

Following are the main types of statistical series relating to a quantitative phenomena

i. Individual series:- when the measurement of individual items are arranged either in
ascending order, desceding order or according to some other scientific order, it is known
as individual series.
ii. Discrete series:- When we count the number of items (frequency) each value of the
variable occurs, it is known as a discrete series. The discrete series consists of two
(columns) i.e., (1) the size of measurement of variables, and (2) frequency. The
frequencies are counted through the technique of tally marks or tally bars.
iii. Continuous series: - the presentation of data in to continuous series along with the
corresponding frequencies is known as continuous series. It becomes necessary in the case
of some variables which can take any fractional value and in whose case an exact
measurement is not possible and when discrete series is liked to be too long to handle.
The basic components of a continuous series are:-

1. Class Interval:- A large number of observations are usually classified in several groups
according to the size of value these groups are called class intervals.
2. Class limits:- Each is specified by two extreme values, called the class limits, the smaller one
being called as the lower limit and the larger one the upper limit. The class limits may be of
two types, e.g. (i) inclusive type, and (ii) exclusive type.
i. Inclusive type of series:- In such types of series the overlapping of class intervals is
avoided, both the lower and upper class limits are included in the class intervals.

Class int. (Marks) Number of students

0-9 50
10-19 70
20-29 120
30-39 90
40-49 70

Total 400
ii. Exclusive type of series:- Exclusive type is that a value equal to the lower limit should be
included in the class interval and a value equal to the upper limit shoud be excluded e.g.,
Mark of 400 students

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Class interval (marks) No of students

0-10 50
11-20 70
21-30 120
31-40 90
41-50 70

Total 400

 Rules for Determining class interval

No hard and fast rules can be given but the following few facts must be taken in to account in
determining the class intervals

The range is the difference between the largest and smallest observation in the given data.
The range is divided in to a suitable number of classes by means of class intervals.
The choice of the number of class intervals basically depends upon the number of items to be
classified, the magnitude of items and the accuracy desired. It also depends up on the case of
calculation for further processing of data.
The actual number of class intervals would also depend on the size of class intervals because
the number of classes and size of class intervals are inversely related. If one is increased, the
other is automatically squeezed. Therefore, both must be kept in mind to form a suitable
distribution.
According to F.C Hills „In deciding up on the size of class intervals (which is deciding the
number of classes) one fundamental consideration should be born in mind viz the classes
should be so arranged that there will be no material departure from an even distribution of
cases with in each class. This is necessary because interpreting the frequency table and in
subsequent calculations based up on it the mid-value of each class is taken to represent the
value of all cases falling with in that class.
Number of classes should be so determined that an orderly and regular sequence of
frequencies it secured.
It is better of the class interval of all the classes are equal
Classes with zero frequency should neither be added with other classes nor should they be
omitted.
A general rule for determining the classes is to have 5- to-15 classes. The choice of actual
number of classes will depend on the number of observations and the size of class interval
required.

6.5 Tabulation
After the data has been classified, the next step is to arrange them in form of table. It is an intermediate
process between the collection of data on one hand and statistical analyses on the other. Tabulation is
regarded as the last stage in processing of data and forms the gate way for further statistical treatment.

6.5.1 Definition of Tabulation

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L.R Connor has said, “Tabulation involves the orderly and systematic presentation of numerical data
in a form designed to elucidate the problem under consideration”

According to A.M Tuttle, “A statistical table is the logical listing of related quantitative data in vertical
columns and horizontal rows of numbers with sufficient explanatory and qualifying words, phrases
and statements in the form of titles, headings and notes to make clear the full meaning of data and their
origin.”

6.5.2 Objects of Tabulation

Tabulation is a process which helps in understanding complex numerical facts.

According to D.W Paden and E.F Linduist, “The purpose of table is to summarize a mass of numerical
information and to present it in a simplest possible form consistent with the purpose for which it is to
be used. In a very real sense, the statistical table serves the statistician in much the same fashion that
poetry serves the writer -it is a medium of communication of great economy and effectiveness for
which ordinary prose is inadequate. In addition to its function in simple presentation, the statistical
table is also a useful tool of analysis.” Tabulation has the following objectives to fulfill:

1. To clarify the object of investigation,

2. To clarify the characteristic of data,
3. to present facts in the minimum of space,
4. to facilitate statistical processes,
6.5.3 Advantages of Tabulation

Tabulation is an important process between collection and classification of data and their
interpretation. The tabular presentation of data has several distinct advantages. They are:-

 It simplifies facts:- tabulation is helpful in presenting mass of complex data clearly, so that
their features can easily be understood.
 Economy:- it occupies less space than textual reports, hence saving of paper and time
Required figures can be located more quickly.
 Helpful in comparison:- tabulation makes comparison easy comparable figures are placed in
Juxtaposed columns, hence a comparative study can be made.
 Facilitates of computation:- it helps in computation of different statistical measures. For
calculating average, dispersion, correlation, etc. data must be presented in tables
 Helps classification:- while classification is a theoretical process of data analysis, tabulation is
an applied process. Tabulation is helpful in classification also. After classifying data the
characteristics of different classes are not clear till they are placed in a suitable table.
 Helps in reference:- tabulated data are good for reference purposes.
 Helps in Interpretation and presentation:- it is convenient to interpret and tabulated data
make it easy to present the facts in graphical and diagrammatic form.
6.5.4 Limitations of Tabulation

Tabulation has got certain limitations as well.

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A table contains only figures and not their description. It is not easy to understand it by
persons who are not adopt in assimilating facts from tables.
It requires a specialized knowledge to understand a table. A layman can not drive any
conclusion from a table.
A table does not lay emphasis on any section of a particular importance
Therefore, the tables should be used as complementary to textual reports. Inspire of these limitations, it
is to be admitted that tabulation is essential for statistical analysis, and hence an important part of
statistical investigation.

Hence, a well- planned table is unifies, coherent and in a sense complete story about some aspect of a
set of data. A special knowledge and skill is necessary to present this story. A good statistical table is
not a more careless grouping of columns and rows of figures; it is a triumph of ingenuity and
technique, a master piece of economy of space combined with a maximum of clearly presented
information.

6.6 Analysis and Statistical Techniques

6.6.1 Meaning of Analysis

To quote prof. Wilkinson and Bhandarkar, “Analysis of data involves a number of closely related
operations that are performed with the purpose of summarizing the collected data and organizing these
in such a manner that they will yield answer to the research questions or suggest hypothesis or
questions if no such questions or hypothesis had initiated the study.”

Some scholars are of the opinion that processing of data is one under analysis of data.

Prof. John Gating had made distinction between analysis of data and the processing of data. He is of
the opinion that processing of data refers to concentrating, recasting and dealing with the data so that
they are amenable to analysis as possible, while analysis of data refers to seeing the data in the light of
hypothesis or research questions and the prevailing theories and drawing conclusions that are as
amenable to theory formation as possible.

Goods, Barr and Scates write-“ Analysis is a process which enters in to research in one form or another
from the beginning…. It may be fair to say that research consists in general of two larger steps- the
gathering of data, and the analysis of these data, but no amount of analysis can validly extract from the
data factors which are not present.”

Martz has pointed out- “….bare facts, objective data, never determine anything. They become
significant only as interpreted in the light of accepted standards and assumptions, and these standards
in the final analysis are not succeptible to scientific determination. In ordinary life we seldom deal
with bare facts but facts interpreted. This interpretation or evaluation is determined by the purpose to
which we relate the facts.”

The data may be adequate, valid and reliable to any extent, it does not serve and worth while purpose
unless it is carefully edited, systematically classified and tabulated, scientifically analyzed,
intelligently interpreted and rationally coincided.

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6.6.2 Data analysis

Analysis of the data is the most skilled task of all the stages of the research. It is a task calling for the
researcher‟s own judgment and skill. It should be done by researcher himself and should not be
entrusted to any other person. Proper analysis enquires a familiarity with the background of the survey
and with all its stages. The analysis does not necessarily statistical one. Both quantitative and non-
quantitative methods can be used.

The aim of analysis, eg., if it is in regard to election study is: (1) to characterize what is typical in a
votes group, (2) to indicate how widely individuals in a group vary, (3) to show other aspects of how
the individuals are distributed with respect to the variable being measured, (4) to show the relation of
the variables in data to one another, and (5) to describe the difference between two or more groups (of
voters).

The steps envisaged in the analysis of data vary depending on the types of study. If there exists a set of
clearly formulated hypothesis to start the study with, then each hypothesis can be seen as a work
prescribing a certain action to be taken vis-a- vis the data. The more specific the hypothesis, the more
specific the action. In such a study, the analysis is almost completely a mechanical procedure. The task
of analysis is reduced just to getting the appropriate combinations of data and reading them off against
the instructions for verification and falsification of hypothesis.

Part of analysis is a matter of working out statistical distribution, constructing diagrams, and
calculating simple measures like averages, measures of dispersion, percentages correlation, etc. Thus,
statistical analysis form part of survey analysis. The case of complicated statistical techniques in
survey often stems up from the desire to establish and interpret multivariate relationships. The analysis
means verification of hypothesis. Under ideal conditions of precision and simplicity, analysis presents
very few problems since the statement of hypothesis and the elaboration of the experimental design
will automatically provide for the analysis of the data.

6.6.3 Characteristics of Analysis of Data

Following are the main characteristics of data:

Analysis of data is one of the most important aspects of research, carried out by the
researcher himself or under his close supervision.
Data, facts and figures are silent and they never speak for themselves. It is through
systematic analysis that the important characteristics which are hidden in the data are
validly generalized.
The function of systematic analysis is to build an intellectual edifice in which properly
sorted, facts and figures are placed in their appropriate settings, and broader
generalizations beyond the immediate contents of the fact under study draw in up. So that
general inferences can be derived from them for showing consistent relation ships.
The data to be analyzed and interpreted should (i) be reproducible, (ii) be readily disposed
to quantitative treatment, and can serve as a basis for broader generalization

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If the data are collected according to vague clues rather than according to the specific
hypothesis, in such cases the data are analyzed inductively or invested during the process
and not by means of any prescribed set of rules.
The task of analysis is incomplete with out interpretation. In fact analysis of data and
interpretation of data are complementary to each other. The end product of analysis the
setting up of certain general conclusions while the interpretation deals with what these
conclusions really mean.
Since analysis and interpretation of data are interwoven, the interpretation should more
properly be conceived of as a special aspect of analysis rater that a distinct operation.
Interpretation is the process of establishing relationship between variables which are
expressed in the findings and why such relation ship exists.
For any successful study the task of analysis and interpretation should be designed before
the data are actually collected with the exception of formulative studies where the
researcher had no idea as to what kind of answer he wants. Other wise there is always a
danger of being too late and the chances of missing important relevant data.

6.6.4 Statistical Methods in analysis

Statistics is not merely for collecting numerical data but as a means of sound techniques for their
handling, analysis and drawing valid inferences from them. When the data are collected, edited,
classified, and tabulated, they are analyzed and interpreted with the help of various statistical
techniques and tools depending up on the nature of the investigation. Thus, the basic knowledge about
statistics becomes inevitable for research workers for systematic analysis and accurate and precise
interpretation of data.

A. Types of statistical methods

Statistical methods are the principles employed for the description, analysis and interpretation of the
data. They may be classified in to two categories, namely

I. Descriptive statistical methods

Those methods, which are employed primarily to describe what has been observed are called
descriptive statistical methods. Their role purpose is to describe the behavior of a variable and no
attempt is made to analyze and interpret the data. The data are collected, organized, and presented
either by tables or by diagrams to describe the behavior of the data.

II. Analytical statistical Method

Those methods, which are employed to analyze and to interpret what has been observed, are called
analytical statistical method.

These two categories of statistical method are not mutually exclusive but analytical statistical methods
are based up on and make use of descriptive methods for analyzing and interpreting data.

In some of the investigations, the sole purpose is to analyze and interpret what has been observed
rather than describing it, while in special studies conducted by government such as population census
per acre-yield etc., the data are collected and reported in order to describe the situation and they are
analyzed and interpreted to determine trends and possible future developments.
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III. Basic statistical Techniques

While analyzing the data, researchers usually make use of many simple statistical devices statistical
methods widely employed with research data are the following.

2) Average:- holds a very important place in all types of statistical work because they describe
the inherent characteristics of a frequency distribution in a concise manner and help in
comparative study of different distributions
Averages are of different kinds but we will consider five, namely, arithmetic mean, median, mode,
geometric mean and harmonic mean.

I, Arithmetic mean:- Most widely used in statistical research because it is easy to understand and
calculate. If the measure of each item in a series is known, the mean can be derived by adding the
measures together and dividing by the number of items. In Economics it is used where all the items are
of equal importance. It takes in to consideration of all items from first to last and is considered to be
more representative.

The mean is simply the arithmetic average symbolized by M or X:

Where M= Mean

E= Summation
∑
Xi= the ith score
N N= Total no of scores

II. The Median:- is another simple average more frequently used where the extreme item is to be
eliminated. Medium is that value of variable which divides the group in to two equal parts, one part
comprising all the values greater and the other , all values tess than medium.

Thus the medium is the value of the variable which exceeds and is exceeded by the same number of
observations. It is very useful in the case of skewed (twisted) distribution such as the distribution of in
comes and wealth.

In short, the median refers to the middle value that divides a distribution in to two equal parts
when the scores are arranged in ascending or descending order.
For eg. 53, 57, , ,61, 63
61

Median

48, 53, 57,61 61,63 hence, 57+61 = 59

2

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III. The mode:- In simple series the mode is the size of the measurement that occurs most
frequently. In case of frequency distribution it is the value of the variable corresponding to
the maximum frequency. It is very easy to calculate and understand. It can also be
estimated graphically from a histogram It is not at all affected by extreme observations
and as such is preferred to arithmetic mean while daring with extreme observations
whenever complete data is not available, mode is common form of average to be used. It is
directly applicable to large number of items. In this respect it is much superior to all other
averages.
The mode is the most frequent or most common value in the distribution
A distribution of scores can be

Unimodal- having only one mode. For the following distribution “21” is
mode: 18,19,21,21,23,24
Bimodal- having two modes. For the following distribution “12” and “18”
are the modes.11,12,12,12,14,16,18,18,21
Hultimodal- Having three or more modes.
IV. Geometric Mean:- is more mathematical and complicated than mean, median or mode.
Geometric mean of different items of a series is that root of the product of the item values
as there are items. In short, it is the root of the product of the item values. It is mostly used
in such cases where the data has to be put for further mathematical analysis. It is specially
suitable in those cases where less importance is to be given to large measurements. This
will be obtained by:-

Where fi= frequency of the ith score.

∑

Consider the following distribution of scores on a test of 15 items for 34 students

Scpre (Xi) Frequency (fi) Xi X fi Cumulative frequency

4 3 12 3
5 2 10 5
6 5 30 10
8 10 80 20
10 8 80 28
12 4 36 32
14 2 28 34
N=34 EXifi=276

The mean will be

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M= 276/34 = 8.12

V. Harmonic Mean:- it is reciprocal of the arithmetic mean of the reciprocals of the given
observations. It is rapidly defined, based on all observations and is amenable to further
algebraic treatment. It can be used in phenomena involving time, rate and price. It is most
suitable average when it is desired to give greater weight to smaller observations and less
weight to the larger ones.
(N.B.: For Detailed and brief accounts of Basic statistical techniques, please refer S.
GUPTA’S “Research Methodology and statistical Techniques”

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CHAPTER SEVEN

STYLE AND FORMAT OF REPORT WRITING

Report writing is a basic task of the researcher, since no research can be completed with out its report,
infact, a research without a report can be considered as a house with out roof. Any amount of
observation or data analysis would be in vain from the manager‟s point of view, if its report is not
made available in aid of his decision-making process. Hence report writing has a pivotal position in
research.

7.1 Research Report

A research study culminates in the writing of a report, which is a tool for communicating the various
aspects of the study; the problem or topic investigated, the method employed to investigate, the
objective, scope and limitations. How ever, prior to writing the report, its proper planning is essential.
Report planning should take in to account such details as defining the material collected, identifying
the purpose of the report, etc. The ability to write effective reports is one of the most useful skills a
researcher can acquire. In this connection, Briwn observes: We say it as simply as we possibly can,
and this that is, that a report is a communication from someone to another who wants to use that
information. The report may be elaborately formal it may be a letter,… it is simply memorandum; but
it is always planned for use,‟‟ The usefulness of a report is the chief aspect of any report writing. The
report identifies areas for further research, if any, and for fresh hypothesis. Analysis and inferences,
suggestions and observations, footnotes and appendices, etc; should also find a place in the report. It
should include specific recommendations for a course of action. While all the necessary information
materials should be presented in the most appropriate manner. It should be purposeful and should take
in to account the reader and his tastes and preferences when it is written. In the normal course, the
report writer should consider such questions as:

? - Who will read the report?

? – In what way is the report going to be useful?

? – What re the questions the report should answer?

?- How much information is needed?

? – What is the best way of presenting the information? and so on?

An effective report stimulates the interpersonal relationships in the given target area. In this
connection, Arthur D. Little observes; “… remember that the reader is a human being not
corporation. He is not omniscient; if he were, he wouldn‟t have asked for your help. Remember
also that he doesn‟t want to devote his whole career to deciphering what you have to say. The
project you are reporting on is undoubtedly only one of many that require his attention. Your
report should provide answers, not create more problems.

On the basis of presentation, reports may be classified as

- Inductive reports;
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- Deductive reports;
- Step-by-step reports;
- Time sequence reports.
 The Inductive Patterns of report writing is one of the olderst patterns of presenting ones
thoughts. Aristotle had pointed out long ago:” A whole is that which has a beginning, middle,
and an end.” This type of report goes from the specific – facts, figures, materials of research –
to general conclusions, summary, recommendations.

7.1.1. Conclusion
In this section, the conclusions are given based on the findings put in the summary section discussed
above. Findings (summary) state fact, while conclusions represent inferences drawn from the findings.
A writer is sometimes reluctant to make conclusions and leave the task to the reader. Avoid this
temptation when possible. As a researcher you are the one best informed on the factor that critically
influences the findings and conclusions.

The conclusions are the generalizations one makes from the findings, and contribute to the body of
knowledge. They must have one to one equivalence in answering basic questions posed in the first
chapter (proposal stage) and it is the past in which you give answer to your basic questions.

In drawing conclusion, the researcher should make sure that the conclusion drawn is with in the frame
work of the study or data presented over under generalization should be avoided no new data must be
introduced at this stage and wordiness should be minimized.

7.1.2. Summary
In this section major highlights of the research findings, are given in a summarized form. The
summary is a brief statement of essential findings. Sectional summaries may be used if there are many
specific findings. These may be combined in an overall summary. In simple descriptive research, a
summary may complete the report, as conclusions and recommendations may not be required.
The purpose of a summary is to provide the major findings on a nut shell. It should, thus enable the
reader understand the major findings of the study with out going to the details.
According to Galfo, Summarization is like a preparation of a perfume. It is the ways that distill the
essence from a large quantity of material without destroying or changing the essence.

7. 1. 3. Recommendations
This part culminates the research Activity. Recommendations are meant to be suggestion by way of
providing solutions to the problem to the study. Recommendations should, however, be feasible. They
should take in to account objective reality of the situation. This should not be unrealistic or high
sounded . In academic research , the recommendations are often further study suggestions that
broaden or test understanding of the subject. Area. In applied research the recommendation will
usually be for managerial action rather than research action. The writer may after several alternatives
with justifications.
 The Deductive pattern of report writing is the most accepted type of report writing in the business
world. It is known as the executive report, the management report or the action – getting
report. This is the pattern of presentation that goes from general to specific, i.e. from the more

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important to the less important. It ends to become more detailed or more specialized in its last
pages because it is designed for a reader whose fundamental questions “What do I need to know,
to act or decide?” He wants to answer at the very outset. The writer has a special obligation to
think his way through to the central issue or to the main point.
 A step – by –step presentation doesn‟t follow any hard and fast rule, it simple presents material
blow-by – blow. It is a way of presenting the events or step in an operation frequently following
one another in a point of time. But the steps need not necessarily come to a conclusion or an end.
 The time – sequence pattern of report writing is almost like that of the step-by-step presentation;
but it lays greater emphasis on the time element. It is an easy way of writing a report by merely
following the pattern the research material it self offers in a sequence of time.

7.2 Steps in Report Writing

Many researchers find it difficult to make their research reports meaningful, though they toil and moil
to complete the project successfully. Many a time they lose heart when they start their reports, because
they realize that their effort is not up to the mark.

They may be task-maters, but they fail to complete their task. Some may be „good‟ researchers, who
may be painstaking but easy-going. They may keep on waiting until the eleventh hour. In the process,
their over confidence may be fatal to whole mission. At last they are forced to complete a hotchpotch
report.

Taking in to account all these realities, A few steps may be suggested, which would enable the
researcher to complete his task of writing a report clearly and cogently.

These steps are:

(i) Plan the project well in advance; fix the target and the final data of completing the project.
(ii) The time for completing data collection and data processing should be well planned and
implemented.
(iii) The time for report writing should be planned, and the task of report writing should not be
put off till the last minute. At least one –of the total project time should be earmarked for
this purpose.
(iv) Select the structure for the report, arrange in groups of data, documents, bibliography, etc.,
in conformity with structure of the research report.
(v) Prepare an outline based on the structure, which should cover the main points in detail.
(vi) Prepare a rough point-by-point skeleton for each chapter theme, and crystallize the report
in a mental exercise
(vii) In the event of any doubt, get it cleared by reading, thinking, recollecting and discussing,
before going farther.
(viii) Put the completed rough draft away for several days until you can bring a fresh mind to
bear up on it, and so on.

7.3 Format of the Research Report

A research report usually follows a fairly standardized pattern. The following out line presents the
usual sequence of various sections:

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A. Preliminary Section or front matter

- Title page
- Approval sheet
- Acknowledgement (if any)
- Abstract (preface)
- Table of contents
- List of tables(if any)
- List of figures (if any)

B. Main Body of the Report

(i) Introduction
- Back ground of the study
- Statement of the problem
- Objective (purpose) of the study
- Hypothesis or research questions
- Significance of the study
- Delimitations of the study
- Limitations of the study
- Definition of important terms.
(ii) Review of related literature or Analysis of previous Research
(iii) Design of the study (Research methodology)
- Sampling techniques and procedures used
- Data gathering methods and instruments used.

(IV) Presentation, analysis and Interpretation of data

- Text
- Tables
- Figures

(V) Summary/ Conclusion and Recommendation

- Brief Restatement of problem and procedures.

- Description of Procedures used.

- Principal findings and conclusions.

- Recommendations for alleviating the existing problem and/or attempts being made to use the
recommendations as a spring board for further research activities may be involved in depth and
breadth.

C. Reference Section

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- Bibliography

- Appendix

- Index (if any)

7.4 How to make Bibliography

For all projects that require literature review, a bibliography is necessary. Use the bibliographic format
required by the sponsor. If none is specified, standard styles that may be used, including MLA style,
APA style and Turabian style . Either of the three is correct. But the question is keeping consistency
in employing one and the same format amongst of these through out your citation.

 Form of the bibliographic Entry

Three categories of information are needed for each bibliography entry: Author, title and facts of
publication. Such as time, place of publication and name of publisher. Each of these category may
contain more than one peace of information. A book may have more than one author and the facts for
some materials may be complicated. A period follows each category of information in a bibliography
entry, i.e., a period follows the outhor , the title, and the facts of publication. Because an entry in a
bibliography (unlike an entry in a note) refers to the complete work rather than to a specific passage.
A bibliographic entry doesn’t enclude page numbers A bibliography entry for an article lists the
inclusive pages of the entire article rather than specific pages from which material selected for action.

 Books

The author for a book may include one or more authors, editors, compilers, and translators, or a
corporate author or institution. The title category includes the title and subtitle. The facts of publication
category identify the series in which the work appears the place (city) of publication, the publisher and
the year of publication.

 The name of the author for non-Ethiopian authors must be used as a sir name first
followed by a comma.
E.g., Santosdh Gupta is cited as:
Gupta, Santosh. 1993. Research Methodology and statistical Techniques. New- Delhi:
General Publishing House. Indian Research Association.
 Notice that the name of the author is inverted name, the title of the source martial
underlined and period marks used after the name of the author, the title and the publisher
excerpt the place of publication is followed by a collon.
E.g., 2 March, James G. and Herbert A. Simon. 1958. Organizations. Newyork:
Wiley
 The second example shows a two author citation
 Eg.3. Ebbit, Wilam R. and David, E. 1990. Writers Guide and Index of English.
(6th ed.). Glenview: scott. Forest man
 The third example shows the inclusion of edition (if any) in the specific reference
source.

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 When no authors name appears on a work or when the title page lists anonymous, then
the work is listed by title as:
E.g. 4. The Wind . Newyourk : Harper, 1995
 When the author is a group or corporation, then the publication is listed under the name of the
organization as:
E.g. 5 . Hliday Magazine. Spain. Newyork : Random House,1994
 When the corporate author is also the publisher, the name does not need to be repeated with the
other facts of publication.
Eg., 6: Columbian University. The faculty Handbook Newyork, 1987.
 When a work has been edified, complied or translated by a person other than the author, you have
to decide under which name you should alphabetize the work, as:
E.g.,7 : Hayes, W.C. Most Ancient Egypt. Ed., Keith c.s Chicago: Univ. of chiacago press.
1995.
 When you want to emphasize an article or chapter in the collection, palce the name of the author of
the article or chapter first. Titles of articles or chapters with in a book or journal should be placed
with in double coutation marks as:
E.g Miller, Arthur. “The playwright and the Atomic World.” In Theatre in the twenty century.
Ed., Robert, [Link]: Grove. 1963.
 Title
The title of a book should appear in the bibliography exactly as it is on the title page. Capitalization,
however, may be changed. Any subtitle should be separated from the main title with a colon followed
by one space. In notes subtitles are optional, but is must appear in the bibliography entry. The full title
should be underlined.
E.g, 9: Walker, Ronald. Internal Pardise: Mexice and the Modern English novel.
Berkeley : Univ of California press, 1978.
Factors about publications: the facts of publication are the place of publication, the name of the
publishing house and the data of publication. The city name alone (wojt out the sate name) may serve
as the place of publication..
 When a paper bound book is original edition, it is listed just as nay other book would be. But when
it is reprint of the original hand cover edition, the entry indicates the date of publication of the
hand cover edition. This information generally appears on the copyright (c) page
 Multivolume Works and Series
A multivolume work consists of two or more volumes under one general title. Each separate volume
may either have its own title or be identified by volume number only. When you wish to refer to a
complete multivolume work rather than to any specific volume, the bibliography entry should include
the total number of volumes and the inclusive dates of publication, if applicable.
E.g.10 Bowsky, William. Ed. Studies in Medival and Renaissance History. 4 Voles.
Lincoln: Univ. of Nebreaska Press, 1963-67
 Periodicals:- any publication that comes out at regular intervals is a periodical. Periodicals for an
academic or professional audience are usually called Journals; periodicals intended for the
general public are called magazines. The bibliography entry for periodical includes the author‟s
complete name, the title of the article, and the facts of publication.
 Journals: Most journals paginate continuously through each volume; the basic format for an entry
referring to such a continuously paginated is

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LECTURE NOTES ON Research Methods, PVUC, YABELLO COMPUS

E.g., 11 Aron, Raymond. “The education of the citizen in Industrial society”

Daedalus 91(1962): 249-63
 Magazines: Issues of magazines are most often by data only, even when they have volume
numbers. Page numbers are separated from the data by a comma (rather than a colon, as in journal
entries).
E.g. 12. Tuchman, Barbara. “ The Deline of Quality” Newyork Times Magazines,
2Nov.1980,38-57
 News papers: The bibliography raphy entry for a news paper should include the name of the (if
available) the news paper underlined
E.g., Rasky, Susa, Susa “ Senate Calls for Revision in New tax Health care”
Newyork Times 8 june 1998, A20

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