Cognitive
Psychology
Problem Solving Stages
Lesson VIII: Problem Solving
module 37
Problem Solving.37. 1
University of Idaho © Steffen Werner - 2004
Cognitive
Psychology Taxonomy of problems
Goals and operators
– When trying to solve a problem, the problem solver is
trying to achieve a particular goal
– Operators refer to all possible actions / paths a problem
solver can take at each point in time
Well-structured problems
– Clear path to a solution
– Goals and operators are known
Ill-structured problems
– Unclear path to a solution
– Neither the goal, nor the operators,
sometimes even the problem itself is clear
Problem Solving.37. 2
University of Idaho © Steffen Werner - 2004
Cognitive
Psychology The range of problems
Well-structured problems
– 4+5=?
– The ratio of blue socks to red socks is 5:1. How many
socks do you have to pick blindfolded until you have at
least one pair of the same color.
– Cannibals and missionaries
Ill-structured problems
– Connect the following three x x x
points with four straight
lines without moving the x x x
pen from the paper.
$10 challenge: can you x x x
do it with 3 straight lines
(again, don’t move the pen
from the paper!)
Problem Solving.37. 3
University of Idaho © Steffen Werner - 2004
Cognitive
Psychology Problem solving - an overview
How do humans solve problems?
What are common problem-solving problems?
– Stages in the problems-solving process
– Problem solving strategies / heuristics
– What is insight? Incubation?
– Problems in problem solving:
Mental set, functional fixedness, transfer
– Analogies, problem structures
– What makes an expert problem solver?
Problem Solving.37. 4
University of Idaho © Steffen Werner - 2004
Cognitive
Psychology Stages of the problems solving process
Stage model according to Sternberg
– Problem identification
– Problem definition and representation
– Strategy formulation / implementation
– Organization / interpretation of
information
– Resource allocation
– Monitoring
– Evaluation
Problem Solving.37. 5
University of Idaho © Steffen Werner - 2004
Cognitive
Psychology Problem definition and representation
The basic problem
– The ease of a solution often depends on
– … how the problem is phrased (its surface structure)
– … and what underlying assumptions are “imported”
Applied problems
– Most real problems are ill-defined
– Sometime not even the outcome measure can be
agreed upon (e.g., policy making)
– Examples: how can we improve public education?
Problem Solving.37. 6
University of Idaho © Steffen Werner - 2004
Cognitive
Psychology A sample problem
Identify the rule behind each sequence. What is
the next number?
What is the rule behind each sequence?
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 _?
1 8 2 7 3 6 4 _?
8 5 4 9 1 7 6 _?
Problem Solving.37. 7
University of Idaho © Steffen Werner - 2004
Cognitive
Psychology Problem structure
Deep structure vs. surface structure of a problem
– The deep structure of a problem refers to the the
abstract form of the problem
– The surface structure of a problem refers to the context
and in which the problem is embedded
Isomorphic problems
– … are two problems which only differ in their surface
structure, but are based on an identical deep structures
– Example: An accountant can apply his business
knowledge to all kinds of enterprises
Problem Solving.37. 8
University of Idaho © Steffen Werner - 2004
Cognitive
Psychology Isomorphic problem structure
Banana vs. milk example
– GOAL: you want to cut off a quarter of a banana
– You first cut the banana in half
– Then you cut one of the two halves
– GOAL: you want to get a quarter of a gallon of milk and
you only have two large, equal containers of which you
don’t know the volume
– First step: you fill each of the containers so that they
hold the same amount
– Second step: you dump the content of one and
distribute the remaining content between equally
between the two containers
Accounting example
– An accountant can apply his business knowledge to all
kinds of enterprises
Problem Solving.37. 9
University of Idaho © Steffen Werner - 2004
Cognitive
Psychology Problem space (Newell & Simon, 1972)
[Newell & Simon developed the General Problem Solver]
Most well-defined problems can be represented in a
problem space
– Define the current state
– Define all possible transitions from one state to another
state using the possible operators
– Define the goal state
Problem solving then consists of …
– A path from the current state to the goal state
– The transitions indicate the operators to be used
– Computers can use algorithms to find possible paths by
trying a huge number of paths
Humans often rely on heuristics
– heuristic: strategy that often works effectively
Problem Solving.37. 10
University of Idaho © Steffen Werner - 2004
Cognitive
Psychology Problem solving strategies
(efficiency depends on problem representation)
Analysis and hierarchical problem solving
– Breaking the problem up into sub-problems
– Solve series of sub-problems until done
Heuristics
– Means-ends analysis: Reduce distance between current
state and goal state
– Working forward, backward
– Generate and evaluate
Problem solving by analogy
– Try to find an analogous problem (isomorphic problem
structure) that has been solved
– Transform the solution to new problem
Problem Solving.37. 11
University of Idaho © Steffen Werner - 2004
Cognitive
Psychology Organization of information
Which piece of information is relevant?
– Depending on the state of the problem solving process
different parts of the given information are relevant or
have to be sought out
Reinterpretation of information
– Value / interpretation of information can change:
– Example: the series problem earlier in this module
– The woman who married 20 men (textbook)
Problem Solving.37. 12
University of Idaho © Steffen Werner - 2004
Cognitive
Psychology Resource allocation and monitoring
Strategic decisions - metacognition
– How to allocate time? Energy? Money?
– Experts emphasize planning stage
– Novices embark on “local” planning and execution
Monitoring
– State of the problem solving progress
– Re-evaluation of problem solving approach
– Evaluation of distance from goal
– Estimate of problem completion
Problem Solving.37. 13
University of Idaho © Steffen Werner - 2004
Cognitive
Psychology Evaluation
Is this solution a valid / workable solution?
– Checking solution against constraints
– Reorganization of problem solving steps
– Cleaning up
Feeling accompanying insight -
“ah-ha” experience
– Insight: distinctive and sometimes seemingly sudden
understanding of a problem or strategy to solve the
problem. Often reconceptualizing a problem in a new
way.
– Pieces “fall into place” - Evaluation feels redundant.
Problem Solving.37. 14
University of Idaho © Steffen Werner - 2004
