IGCSE Physics 5.
2 – Radioactivity:
Detailed Revision Notes
5.2.1 Detection of Radioactivity
- Background radiation refers to the natural radiation that is always present in our
environment, even without any artificial sources.
- 한국어 설명: 배경 방사선은 실험을 하지 않아도 항상 존재하는 자연적인 방사선을 말합니다.
- Major sources of background radiation include:
(a) Radon gas in the air – radioactive gas released from rocks, especially granite.
(b) Rocks and buildings – some materials like granite contain radioactive isotopes.
(c) Food and drink – some naturally contain radioactive elements like potassium-40.
(d) Cosmic rays – high-energy radiation from space that interacts with the atmosphere.
- Ionising radiation is detected using a radiation detector connected to a counter, such as a
Geiger-Müller tube.
- The amount of radiation detected per second or minute is called the count rate, measured
in counts per second (cps) or counts per minute (cpm).
- Corrected count rate = measured count rate - background count rate (중요 계산 공식).
5.2.2 The Three Types of Nuclear Emission
- Radioactive emissions are spontaneous (occur without external trigger) and random in
direction (방출 방향은 예측 불가).
- There are three main types of nuclear radiation:
- Alpha (α) particles: consist of 2 protons and 2 neutrons (same as helium nucleus).
• Strongly ionising (high damage to tissues), but low penetration (stopped by paper).
- Beta (β-) particles: high-speed electrons emitted when a neutron turns into a proton.
• Moderate ionising ability, penetrates thin metal like aluminum.
- Gamma (γ) rays: electromagnetic radiation (photons) emitted from the nucleus.
• Weak ionisation, but very high penetration (only reduced by thick lead).
- In electric or magnetic fields:
- Alpha particles: deflected slightly toward the negative plate (positively charged).
- Beta particles: deflected strongly toward the positive plate (negatively charged).
- Gamma rays: no deflection (no charge).
- Ionising ability is related to the particle's charge and kinetic energy. Alpha particles have
high mass and charge, causing strong ionisation over short distances.
5.2.3 Radioactive Decay
- Radioactive decay is the process by which unstable nuclei emit radiation to become more
stable.
- This change is spontaneous and random.
- During decay, the nucleus can emit:
- Alpha particles: decrease atomic number by 2 and mass number by 4.
- Beta particles: neutron → proton + electron; atomic number increases by 1, mass
unchanged.
- Gamma radiation: energy loss from nucleus; no change in atomic or mass number.
- Example decay equations (nuclide notation):
- Alpha decay: ²³⁸U → ²³⁴Th + ⁴He (or α)
- Beta decay: ¹⁴C → ¹⁴N + β⁻
- Some isotopes are radioactive because they have:
- Too many neutrons (neutron-rich), or
- Nuclei that are too heavy to be stable.
5.2.4 Half-life
- Half-life is the time taken for half the radioactive nuclei in a sample to decay.
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- Each half-life reduces the remaining number of undecayed nuclei by 50%.
- Formula: Remaining = Initial × (1/2)^n, where n = time elapsed ÷ half-life.
- Half-life can be determined from decay graphs or data tables.
- Example: If a substance has a half-life of 2 days, then after 6 days (3 half-lives), only
(1/2)^3 = 1/8 remains.
- Applications of different isotopes based on their half-life and radiation type:
- Smoke alarms: Americium-241 (α), long half-life, safe in small amounts.
- Irradiating food: Gamma rays (γ), kills bacteria without heating.
- Sterilising equipment: Gamma rays (γ), deep penetration to sterilise medical tools.
- Thickness control: Beta (β), suitable for controlling foil or paper thickness.
- Cancer diagnosis and treatment: Gamma (γ) used in imaging (short half-life) and therapy
(targeted destruction).
5.2.5 Safety Precautions
- Ionising radiation can damage living cells, leading to:
- Cell death
- Genetic mutations
- Cancer
- Safe handling and storage is critical:
- Minimise exposure time
- Maximise distance from source
- Use shielding (lead or concrete)
- Store sources in lead-lined containers
- Use tools to handle sources remotely
- Label all radioactive materials with proper warning signs
- Wear protective clothing and use radiation badges to monitor exposure
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