Practice Coach PLUS

Coached Instruction
Supplement
English Language Arts 7

Practice Coach PLUS, Coached Instruction Supplement, English Language Arts, Grade 7
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Triumph Learning®
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 Contents
Abc
Lesson 1 Fiction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Lesson 2 Drama . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Lesson 3 Poetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Lesson 4 Plot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Lesson 5 Character . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Lesson 6 Theme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Lesson 7 Figurative Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Lesson 8 Make Inferences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Lesson 9 Cite Textual Evidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Lesson 10 Main Idea and Supporting Details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Lesson 11 Argument and Author’s Point of View . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Lesson 12 Primary and Secondary Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Lesson 13 Compare and Contrast . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Lesson 14 Text Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Lesson 15 Domain-Specific Vocabulary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Lesson 16 Graphics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Lesson 17 Fact and Opinion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Lesson 18 Compare and Contrast Texts Across Genres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Lesson 19 Write an Argument . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Lesson 20 Write an Informative Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

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 Lesson 21 Write a Narrative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Lesson 22 Respond to Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Lesson 23 Respond to Informational Texts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Lesson 24 Revising, Editing, and Publishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Lesson 25 Using Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Lesson 26 Grammar and Usage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Lesson 27 Punctuation, Capitalization, and Spelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Lesson 28 Finding Word Meanings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Lesson 29 Roots and Affixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Lesson 30 Denotation and Connotation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Lesson 31 Word Relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

Answer Keys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108

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1 Fiction

Getting the Idea

Fiction is a literary work produced from a writer’s imagination. A genre is a

category, or type, of literature. The chart below lists some of the major genres
of fiction.

Type of Fiction Definition Example

contemporary a narrative set in modern times Holes
fiction
historical a narrative set in the past that gives Number the
fiction a fictional account of historical figures Stars
or events
novel a long narrative, usually divided into My Side of the
chapters Mountain
short story a short narrative with a plot and “The Ransom of
characters Red Chief”
fable a short story with a moral or lesson; often “The Ant and the
has animal characters Grasshopper”
myth a traditional story that tells about a “How Sun and

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culture’s heroes, ancestors, or gods; Moon Came to
may explain how the natural world was Be”
created or how it works

A work of fiction may be very long or very short. It may deal with familiar scenes
from everyday life or describe events that would never happen in the real world.
It may tell about serious issues or be lighthearted and comical. While there are
many different ways in which authors shape their works, fictional texts include
the same basic elements: characters, a setting, and a plot.
You will learn more about the elements of fiction later in this chapter. The
important thing to remember is that fiction is a work of invention, even when the
story includes facts or realistic events.

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 Lesson 1: Fiction

A good example of this is historical fiction, which blends fact and fiction. In The
Autobiography of Miss Jane Pittman, author Ernest James Gaines chronicles the life of the
fictional title character. Told mostly from Jane’s point of view, the novel describes events
from Jane’s childhood until she is about 110 years old. Although Jane is a fictional character,
the context of her experiences is real. A former slave, she tells about her life before and after
the end of the American Civil War. She is a personal witness to the cruelty of slavery and the
injustice of racial discrimination. She lives through the turmoil of the civil rights movement in
the 1960s. The reader experiences these events through Jane’s eyes. In that way, the reader
gains insight into what life was like for many African Americans during specific periods in our
country’s history.
When authors set out to write historical fiction, they begin by immersing themselves in the
time period in which their novel will be set. This involves reading a great many different
books and studying other relevant source materials. An author will especially want to read
firsthand accounts of the period written by the people who actually lived at the time, such
as letters, diary entries, autobiographies, personal essays, and newspaper articles.
In the end, though, historical fiction is fiction. Sometimes, authors will change the facts in
order to make the narrative more interesting. They may gloss over the flaws of real-life
characters in order to make them appear more heroic. The dialogue of the characters
will almost certainly be made up by the author, though it may be based on a firsthand
source. Well-written and well-researched historical novels are enlightening and educational.
However, if you read historical fiction and become interested in a particular time period,
seek out authoritative historical accounts. It is the best way to learn about the real characters
and events.
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Thinking It Through

Read the following paragraph, and then answer the question that follows.

One day, long ago, a dog found a bone while digging in a

forest. “What luck!” thought the dog, snatching up the bone
to carry home. As the dog crossed the bridge over a stream,
he glanced into the water and spotted his own reflection.
“What’s this?” he thought. “Another dog is carrying a bone
twice as large as mine!” Immediately, the dog jumped into
the stream and began to struggle with his own reflection,
attempting to take the bigger bone. As he opened his mouth,
the bone slipped out. It fell into the stream and floated away
before he could retrieve it. Thus, he was left without either bone.

What type of fiction is this paragraph? Explain how you know.

HINT Think about what the main character learns from his experience.

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DISCUSS What lesson do you think the dog learned? Discuss it with a partner.

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 Lesson 1: Fiction

Coached Example
Read the passages and answer the questions.

When Spring Comes, Winter Must Leave

Many years ago, when the world was new, a fellow named Old Man Winter lived in
a lodge made of ice and snow. Wherever he walked, the ground turned hard and cold.
When he breathed, the rivers froze, and the lakes became solid.
One day, Old Man Winter noticed that the snowdrifts were growing smaller, and the
ice on the lake was cracking. One afternoon, as he was dozing off, there was a knock on
the door of his lodge. “Go away!” he shouted. Suddenly, the door fell down and a young
man rushed into the lodge. “Who are you? And how dare you burst into my home?” Old
Man Winter shouted. “I am the one who makes birds fly away!”
“I am young and strong, and you do not frighten me,” the young man responded.
“When I walk over the land, the snow melts, and the birds and animals come to see me.
You cannot stay. It is time now for you to go.”
The old man opened his mouth to speak, but no words came out. Sweat poured from
his brow, and he grew smaller and smaller. Before long, he was gone. His lodge melted
away, and where it once had been, flowers began to grow. Once again, Young Spring had
chased away Old Man Winter.

Walking to School
It was a cold, windy morning. Ryan walked along the snowy sidewalk with his best
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friend, Jake. Snowflakes carried on the wind flew briskly into their faces. “As if getting
up at the crack of dawn to go to school wasn’t bad enough, we have to do it through a
snowstorm,” Ryan grumbled.
Jake laughed. “This isn’t a snowstorm! This is awesome! I hope it builds up so I can go
sledding this afternoon. Want to come?”
Ryan shook his head and buried his face in his wool scarf. “No thanks! Right now I’m
trying to imagine myself on the beach, catching a serious tan.”
“Oh, come on. Don’t tell me you’re afraid of a little snow. I mean, summer’s fun, but
winter is great. Sledding, skiing, skating, snowball fights—that’s what winter’s all about.”
Ryan shivered. “I’m just glad spring is around the corner. Walk a little faster, will you?
I can’t wait to get indoors where it’s warm and dry.”

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1. The first passage is an example of 2. How are the two passages similar?
A. a myth. A. They are both contemporary
fiction.
B. a novel.
B. They both focus on the change
C. historical fiction.
of seasons.
D. contemporary fiction.
C. They both illustrate that summer is
the best season.
The passage explains an occurrence
HINT
in nature. D. They both suggest that it should be
winter all year round.

The correct answer is true for both

HINT
passages.

3. Which character in “When Spring Comes, Winter Must Leave” would Ryan MOST
LIKELY relate to? Explain your answer.

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HINT Choose the character that would most appeal to Ryan.

4. Explain one key difference between the two passages.

HINT Think about the major elements in the passages, and choose one to contrast.

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 2 Drama

Getting the Idea

A drama is a literary work intended to be performed by actors for an audience.

Plays, films, and television shows are types of dramas. The author of a play is
called a playwright, which literally means “one who crafts plays.”
Most plays are divided into sections. An act is a major division of a play. Three-
and five-act plays are very common. Each act is made up of scenes. A scene is
a subdivision of an act with a fixed setting and continuous time frame. A drama’s
setting is the time and location in which it occurs. The setting may change over
the course of a drama. When the action of the play moves to a different setting or
a different time, the scene ends and the next one begins.
A drama includes dialogue, or the words spoken by characters to each other.
Some plays include soliloquies. A soliloquy is a speech delivered by one
character while he or she is alone onstage. Soliloquies allow the audience to
know what a character is feeling or thinking. A good example is the soliloquy in
Shakespeare’s play Hamlet that begins, “To be or not to be.” As Hamlet recites
the words, his inner torment is revealed to the audience.
Typically, the way that characters speak reflects the time period in which the
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play was written or the time and place in which the play takes place. Sometimes
dialogue may include rhyme. The rhyming may elevate the dialogue, making it
more formal and sophisticated, or it may make it lighthearted and fun.
Stage directions tell actors what to do. For example, they tell actors what
actions to perform, how to speak their lines, and when to enter and exit the
stage. When you read a play, you will see the stage directions in italic print;
for example: Nathan opens the box and peeks inside. He smiles broadly.
Sometimes, stage directions are shown in parentheses.
Reading a play is very different from seeing it performed onstage. For one thing,
a staged play uses lighting and sound effects. The written play may say: A clap
of thunder startles the children. During a performance, you will actually hear
the thunder and may be startled yourself. Dramas also include music to set the
mood. As you may know, a movie becomes a lot scarier when you hear spooky
music in the background.

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The elements of a drama interact to create meaning. For example, a drama about a family
lost in the wilderness focuses on the characters’ struggle to survive in a harsh environment.
The setting shapes the characters and plot, forcing the characters to deal with challenges
they would not normally face.

Thinking It Through

Read the following stage directions from a play, and then answer the question
that follows.

Aisha slams the phone receiver down and bangs her fist on the table. The phone rings,
but she ignores it. She stands up and storms out of the room.

Explain what the stage directions reveal about Aisha.

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HINT How does someone who acts like Aisha most likely feel?

With a group, come up with new stage directions that show a different
DISCUSS character revealing the same feelings as Aisha but in a different way.

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 Lesson 2: Drama

Coached Example
Read the passage and answer the questions.
Bernard enters his bedroom on crutches and carefully lowers himself onto his bed. His left foot is
in a cast. He leans the crutches against the wall. He looks at his trophies on the bookshelf and
then picks up the picture frame on his nightstand. He stares at the picture for a long moment.

BERNARD: (after a deep sigh) Hey, Dad. The doctors say I may not play again for a year.
This morning I didn’t even want to get out of bed. I can’t believe this happened to me.
The scout from the university is going to be at the big game next month. Coach says I’m
a shoo-in for a scholarship. But now the scout won’t get to see me play. I really wish you
were here. I need your advice. The cast comes off next week, and I know I can be ready for
the game. I know it! I just have to push myself and convince the doctors and Coach. But
what if I make a mistake, pushing myself to heal too quickly? I could damage my foot for
life. What do I do, Dad? What do I do?
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1. This passage is a soliloquy because 2. If this scene included background

music, what kind of mood should the
A. the audience cannot hear it.
music set?
B. it takes place in one scene.
A. mysterious
C. Bernard is speaking with his father.
B. excited
D. Bernard is really speaking to
C. happy
himself.
D. sad
HINT Think about the definition of a soliloquy.
The music should reflect the feelings that
HINT
the scene conveys to the audience.

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3 Poetry

Getting the Idea

Poetry is literature written in verse, or in short lines. Poems are usually divided
into stanzas, or groups of lines within a poem.
Poems are typically shorter than other works of literature, so poets have fewer
words to create meaning and express their thoughts and feelings. This requires
an imaginative and careful use of words. For example, most poets use figurative
language to create images in the reader’s mind.
Poems often include rhyme. Rhyme is the repetition of sounds at the ends of
lines. Read this stanza from “The Dumb Soldier” by Robert Louis Stevenson.
In the silence he has heard
Talking bee and ladybird,
And the butterfly has flown
O’er him as he lay alone.
This stanza has two pairs of rhyming lines. The words heard and ladybird rhyme
in the first two lines. The words flown and alone rhyme in the last two lines. So,
the rhyme pattern in this poem can be expressed as AABB. Each new letter

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represents a new rhyming sound.
Notice, too, that the poem has a rhythm, or musical quality. This is a result of
the meter. Meter is the pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables in a line of
poetry. Read the poem aloud and note where the beats, or stressed syllables,
fall in each line. The beats are the syllables you say more loudly as you read.
In the example below, the stressed syllables are shown in boldface print to help
you “hear” the rhythm.
I climbed a steep and rocky cliff
That overlooked a shining sea
Then sat upon a narrow ledge
And listened to the wind blow free.

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 Lesson 3: Poetry

Another way that poets create rhythm is through alliteration. Alliteration is the repetition
of consonant sounds at the beginning of words. You’ve probably come across alliteration
in nursery rhymes: sing a song of sixpence (repeated s sound). This literary device is also
common in limericks: A tutor who tooted a flute tried to tutor two tooters to toot
(repeated t sound).
As you read this stanza from “The Sea Wind” by Sara Teasdale, listen for alliteration.
I am a pool in a peaceful place,
I greet the great sky face to face,
I know the stars and the stately moon
And the wind that runs with rippling shoon—
But why does it always bring to me
The far-off, beautiful sound of the sea?
Several lines have two or more words that begin with the same sound. For example: a pool
in a peaceful place; greet the great sky face to face. Alliteration enhances the rhythm and
flow of a poem, thus making the poem sound more pleasant for the reader. Alliteration is
also used to make certain words stand out to the reader. See if you can find other examples
of alliteration in the stanza.
Some poems follow specific forms or structures. A sonnet is a fourteen-line poem with a
precise rhyme scheme and meter. Because of their structure, sonnets are considered formal
poems. Their formal quality makes them especially appropriate to deal with serious themes,
such as love, death, and nature.
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Thinking It Through

Read the following stanzas from “The Fossil Raindrops” by Harriet Prescott Spofford,
and then answer the question that follows.

Over the quarry the children went rambling,

Hunting for stones to skip.
Into the clefts and the crevices scrambling,
Searching the quarrymen’s chip.

Sweet were their voices and gay was their laughter,

That holiday afternoon,
One tumbled down and the rest tumbled after,
All of them singing one tune.

Explain how the author creates rhythm in this poem.

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HINT Read the poem aloud and listen for the number of beats in each line. Do you detect a pattern?

With a partner, compose one verse—about any subject you like—in

DISCUSS the style of the verses from “The Fossil Raindrops.” Share it with
the class.

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 Lesson 3: Poetry

Coached Example
Read the poem and answer the questions.

The Evening Comes

by Lloyd Mifflin
The evening comes: the boatman lifts the net,
Poles his canoe and leaves it on the shore;
So low the stream he does not use the oar;
The umber1 rocks rise like a parapet2
5 Up through the purple and the violet,
And the faint-heard and never-ending roar
Of moving waters lessens more and more,
While each vague object looms a silhouette.
The light is going; but low overhead
10 Poises the glory of the evening star;
The fisher, silent on the rocky bar,
Drops a still line in pools of fading red;
And in the sky, where all the day lies dead,
Slowly the golden crescent sinks afar.

1
umber brown
2
parapet a wall-like structure for defense
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1. This poem can be described as a sonnet 2. What is the rhyme scheme of the first
because four lines?
A. every line rhymes with another. A. AABB
B. it has fourteen lines and a rhyme B. ABCD
scheme.
C. ABAB
C. it describes a scene in nature.
D. ABBA
D. the poet uses some difficult words.
Different letters stand for different
HINT
Choose the answer that most specifically sounds. Compare each answer choice to
HINT the rhymes you see in the poem.
applies to sonnets.

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4 Plot

Getting the Idea

Plot is the sequence of events, or what happens, in a work of fiction or a drama.

Elements of a plot are connected and unfold logically as the story progresses.
The chart below lists the major elements of plot.

Elements of Plot
exposition the beginning of the story, when the setting and
characters are established
conflict a problem that a character must resolve
rising action the bulk of the story, during which the character
works to resolve the problem
climax the turning point, usually the most exciting part
falling action the events after the climax, leading to the solving of
the problem
resolution the ending of the story, when the conflict has been
resolved

You will see this type of structure in most stories and books. For example,

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imagine an adventure story about a boy named Vinay. In the exposition, Vinay
travels to a rain forest with his uncle during summer vacation. The conflict arises
when Vinay finds a treasure map pinpointing the location of a large diamond.
Vinay decides to find the diamond, but he must find it fast because a group of
criminals knows he has the map. The rising action happens as Vinay and the
criminals search for the diamond. The climax occurs when Vinay is caught by
the criminals but outwits them and takes the diamond. During the falling action,
Vinay finds his way back to his uncle, leaving the criminals far behind. In the
resolution, Vinay and his uncle fly back home with the diamond.

16
 Lesson 4: Plot

Setting is where and when a story takes place. Usually, authors state the setting directly.
Sometimes you have to figure it out. Look for clues, such as description of the climate, the
available technology, or the ways people dress or talk. A book about using flying cars to
travel on Earth would be set in the future. If the story is about knights fighting a battle over
rights to a kingdom, it is most likely set in the Middle Ages.
The elements of a story often interact, or work together. The setting, for example, can have
a major impact on the characters and plot. In the novel Roll of Thunder, Hear My Cry, the
Logans, an African American family, live on a farm in rural Mississippi in the early 1930s. The
setting plays a key role in the racism and violence that they endure. How characters interact
with each other can lead to events that create or solve conflicts and shape the plot.

Thinking It Through

Read the following paragraph, and then answer the question that follows.

Rachel was the star of her school track team. She

had set the school record in the four-hundred-meter
hurdles. A month before a track meet against a rival
school, Rachel twisted her ankle jumping over a
hurdle. She would have to walk with crutches so it
would heal. Rachel returned to the track a month later.
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Which sentence in the story states the conflict?

HINT The conflict is a problem a character faces.

With a partner, discuss possible resolutions to Rachel’s story.

DISCUSS

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 Coached Example
Read the passage and answer the questions.
Dean felt Miranda grab his arm as he stumbled
over a particularly rocky part of the trail. “Careful
there,” she said. “We wouldn’t want you to fall when
you’re so close.”
“Are we really almost there?” Dean asked, wiping
the sweat from his brow. The climb to the top of
the mountain had taken six days. It had been rough
going at times. The other hikers had tried to talk
Dean out of it many times, but Dean had refused
to turn back. This was something he had to prove to
himself.
“Yes! Can you believe it? I’m so proud of you!”
“Tell me that when we reach the top,” Dean said with a smile.
Their ascent continued for another half hour. Finally, they reached the top. As his
friends watched, Dean stretched out his arms and stood like a conquering warrior on
the summit.
“Where are you, Miranda?” he asked.
“Right here,” she said, moving to his side.
“Tell me what it looks like,” Dean asked, his eyes tearing behind the dark sunglasses.
Miranda described the view. Then, the hikers headed back down the mountain.

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1. Which event is the climax? 2. What is the resolution of the story?
A. Dean stumbles over rocks. A. Dean wipes his brow.
B. The hikers climb for six days. B. The hikers reach the top of the
mountain.
C. Dean reaches the top.
C. Miranda describes the view.
D. Miranda describes the view.
D. The hikers walk back down
HINT The climax is the most exciting part. the mountain.

HINT The resolution occurs closest to the end.

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 5 Character

Getting the Idea

A character is a person, animal, or other creature in a fictional text. Characters

have traits, or qualities that define them. You can tell a character’s traits by
what he or she does, says, or thinks. For example, a boy who always does what
he wants and doesn’t care about others is selfish. A girl who makes up stories to
get out of trouble is dishonest. You can also determine characters’ traits by how
they interact with other characters. A character’s relationships with parents or
friends can reveal a lot about him or her.
Most literary texts have a central character who interacts with minor, or
supporting, characters. For example, in the novel A Tree Grows in Brooklyn by
Betty Smith, the central character is a young girl named Mary Frances Nolan, or
Francie, as she is called by her family and friends. Francie interacts with other
characters, including her mother, Katie; her father, John; her brother, Cornelius,
or “Neeley”; and other friends and family members.
Like most characters, Francie’s actions are motivated by her needs and desires.
Motivation is the reason why characters act the way they do. Growing up in
impoverished circumstances, Francie dreams of a better life. So, she reads and
studies in order to educate herself and make the life of her dreams a reality.
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Other characters have their own motivations. For example, Katie Nolan is driven
by the need to provide for her children and help them succeed. So, she works
hard and saves every penny. Her husband wishes to escape a life of hardship,
but he does it in self-destructive ways.
A character may have more than one trait or motivation. He or she may also
undergo a transformation, or change, as a result of his or her experiences
and interactions with other characters. A character’s transformation is an
essential part of character development. Authors give their characters complex
personalities and allow them to grow in order to make them interesting to
readers. Motivation is also what brings characters into conflict with each other.

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Point of view is the perspective of a character or narrator. Often, a story’s narrator is not a
character in the story. The narrator is a detached observer who describes the characters and
events. Sometimes the narrator is a character in the story, as in the novel Dragonwings by
Laurence Yep. This story is told from the point of view of a young boy named Moon Shadow.
We see the events and other characters through his eyes.
Authors often create multiple points of view in their stories. In that way, readers see what
happens from different characters’ perspectives. When you read, contrast these points of
view. Think about why characters view things differently and how their perspectives shape
the story.

Thinking It Through

Read the following paragraph, and then answer the questions that follow.

My sister, Kayla, is a really talented pianist. My brother, Mark, on the other

hand, has no musical ambitions. He wants to play in the NFL one day. I want to
be an astronaut. “Lucas,” he asks me, “aren’t you scared to fly up into space?” My
mother smiles when she hears that. “Lucas is fearless,” she says.

This story is told from which character’s point of view? How can you tell?

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HINT The reader sees the other characters through this character’s eyes.

How might this story be different if Mark was the narrator? With a
DISCUSS partner, rewrite the paragraph from Mark’s point of view and share it
with the class.

20
 Lesson 5: Character

Coached Example
Read the passage and answer the questions.
As I walked down the hallway to English class, I made a secret wish over and over
again. Please let Mr. Lang be out today. Please let Mr. Lang be out today. I entered the room
and stopped in my tracks. A substitute teacher was sitting at Mr. Lang’s desk! I couldn’t
believe it. She wouldn’t know that Mr. Lang had warned me that if my paper wasn’t in
today, my grade would go down to a D. And, of course, I still hadn’t finished my paper.
First of all, I had misplaced the assignment sheet twice and got a late start. Then I had
trouble deciding how to begin my paper, so I lost another couple of days. Finally, I started
it, but it was due the next day, so what could I do? Mr. Lang gave me an extension, but
I found lots of things more fun than writing my paper. I played video games with my
friend. I played baseball. I watched TV. But I sure had caught a lucky break today! After
I sat down, I suddenly noticed that the substitute was looking at Mr. Lang’s grade book.
She raised her head and called my name. My lucky streak sure was a short one.
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1. Why does the narrator want Mr. Lang 2. Which of the following BEST describes
to be absent? the narrator?
A. He does not like Mr. Lang. A. determined
B. He did not do his assignment. B. irresponsible
C. He did not study for a test. C. thoughtful
D. He wants to go home early. D. impatient

The narrator’s motivation is stated in the A character’s actions, thoughts, and

HINT HINT
passage. words reveal his or her traits.

21
6 Theme

Getting the Idea

The theme of a literary text is its central message or lesson. You have probably
read quite a few fables by Aesop and know that they typically involve animal
characters that learn a lesson. In “The Hare and the Tortoise,” for example, the
hare learns that “slow and steady wins the race.” In fables, the theme is usually
directly stated in the text. In most stories, plays, and poems, you have to figure
out the theme.
Themes are general statements about life and people. A written work may have
a single theme or multiple themes. Common themes in literature include:
• Honesty is the best policy.
• Don’t be afraid to try something new.
• Don’t put off till tomorrow what you should do today.
• Don’t pretend to be something you’re not.
• Hard work and determination are rewarded.
• Appearances can be deceiving.
• Be loyal to your friends.

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The title of a passage may be a clue to its theme. You can also determine
the theme by thinking about what characters say or do and the lessons they
learn. Pay attention to recurring images, events, or objects. Consider the
story’s setting and its important ideas. See how these elements work together
to suggest a larger message. Authors often use repetition to draw attention
to important ideas or themes. For example, a play in which a character helps
her friends or neighbors in several scenes might have the theme “Be kind to
people in need.”
To identify the theme, you have to consider all the details in the passage and
come up with a statement that captures the essential lesson or message of the
passage. This is similar to summarizing.

22
 Lesson 6: Theme

A summary is a short restatement of a text in your own words. A summary includes the
main idea or theme of a passage and only the most important and relevant details. For
instance, a summary of “The Tortoise and the Hare” could be: A hare and a tortoise have
a race. The hare is overconfident and loses the race. The hare learns that being slow and
steady is a better strategy than running full speed ahead.
When you summarize, do not include minor details or information that is not in the original
text. Also, be sure to use your own words.

Thinking It Through

Read the following paragraph, and then answer the question that follows.

Chris checked the list outside Coach Wilson’s office. His

heart sank when he saw that he had not made the basketball
team. After that day, Chris played basketball nearly every day,
working on his shooting and dribbling skills. The following
year, he tried out again. This time his name was on the list.

What is the theme of this story?

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HINT Think about what Chris does after he fails to make the team.

Consider the theme “look before you leap.” It means consider the
DISCUSS consequences of an action before you do it. In a group, discuss story
ideas that might illustrate this theme.

23
 Coached Example
Read the poem and answer the questions.

excerpted from
Mr. Nobody
I know a funny little man,
As quiet as a mouse,
Who does the mischief that is done
In everybody’s house!
5 There’s no one who’s ever seen his face,
And yet we all agree
That every plate we break was cracked
By Mr. Nobody.
’Tis he who always tears our books,
10 Who leaves the door ajar.
He pulls the buttons from our shirts,
And scatters pins afar;
That squeaking door will always squeak,
For, pray thee, don’t you see,
15 We leave the oiling to be done
By Mr. Nobody.

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1. What is the theme of the poem? 2. Which line from the poem BEST
supports this theme?
A. No one wants to take responsibility
for mistakes. A. “As quiet as a mouse”
B. No one ever sees Mr. Nobody. B. “I know a funny little man”
C. Don’t take the blame for others. C. “There’s no one who’s ever seen his
face”
D. Nobody is perfect.
D. “ ’Tis he who always tears our
HINT Mr. Nobody is not a real person. books”

Test each answer choice against the

HINT
correct theme.

24
 7 Figurative Language

Getting the Idea

Figurative language is the use of words to create an image in the reader’s

mind. Figurative language is creative, colorful, and often relies on comparisons.
Read the chart below.

Types of Figurative Language

simile a direct comparison of two unlike things, using the word
like or the word as
Examples: The detective was like a bloodhound after
its prey.
Roy is as huggable as a teddy bear.
metaphor a comparison of two unlike things, without using the
word like or the word as
Example: The cat’s eyes were two sparkling green
jewels.
imagery language that appeals to the five senses (sight, sound,
touch, taste, and smell)
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Example: David poured the thick, sweet syrup over the

steaming stack of buttery pancakes.
personification giving an animal, object, or abstract idea human qualities
Examples: Your plants are begging for water.
Time can be your enemy or your friend.

Figurative language can enhance meaning and emphasize ideas. Think about
the first simile example in the chart. It’s one thing to say that a detective
is persistent and focused. It’s quite another to compare the detective to a
bloodhound, a hunting dog that has the ability to find just about anything. The
simile expresses the same idea more vividly.
Although figurative language is more commonly seen in literature, it is also used
in informational texts. For example, a newspaper editor may write, “The new
mayor is as sharp as a butter knife.” Since butter knives are actually not sharp,
the editor’s meaning is clear. He thinks the mayor is dim-witted. The simile also

25
impacts the tone of the statement. Tone is an author’s attitude toward his or her subject, in
this case, the mayor. The tone of the editor’s statement is negative and sarcastic.
An allusion is an indirect reference to a well-known person, place, event, or object in history
or in a literary work.
• literary allusion: “Jaime is driving me crazy. I don’t know when he’s going to be
Dr. Jekyll or Mr. Hyde.” The novel The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde
explores the duality of good and evil within the human mind.
• biblical allusion: “After the fight, Frank stood triumphantly over Walter—like
David over Goliath.” In the story from the Bible, young David manages to slay
the giant Goliath.
• mythological allusion: “The candidate’s Delphic response to our question left us
confused.” In Greek mythology, the Oracle of Delphi was famous for her puzzling
answers to questions about the future.

Thinking It Through

Read the following sentences, and then answer the question that follows.

The first thing I do when I wake up is open

the window and look outside. I love how the sun
greets me in the morning.

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How is the sun described in sentence 2? What type of figurative language is used?

HINT Think about the action word greets in the sentence. Could the sun do this?

26
 Lesson 7: Figurative Language

Coached Example
Read the poem and answer the questions.

The Hummingbird
The hummingbird flits from place to place,
On tireless wings so full of grace,
And whirls before the ripened flower,
That sits atop the slim green tower.
5 Like a helicopter, she hovers midair,
Seeking nectar on days cloudy and fair;
Darting to and fro, a fuzzy orb of light,
Her wings spin dizzyingly during flight.
Every morning she comes buzzing by,
10 Iridescent wings buoying her to fly;
She is my companion in my free time,
While I sit by my window, writing this rhyme.

1. Read these lines from the poem. 2. Which line from the poem is a simile?
Darting to and fro, a fuzzy orb A. “On tireless wings so full of grace”
of light,
B. “Like a helicopter, she hovers
Her wings spin dizzyingly midair”
during flight
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C. “Her wings spin dizzyingly during

These lines include an example of flight”
A. personification. D. “She is my companion in my free
time”
B. metaphor.
C. an allusion. HINT A simile is a comparison that uses the
word like or the word as.
D. a simile.

HINT The hummingbird is compared to a fuzzy

orb of light.

27
8 Make Inferences

Getting the Idea

Much of the information that you gather from your reading is explicitly stated in
the text. In other words, authors tell you the information directly. This is true for
both informational and literary texts. For example, read the sentence below.
The whiskers on catfish are actually barbels, or feelers.
Now, answer this question: “What are catfish whiskers called?” You know the
answer because it is directly stated in the sentence: barbels.
Sometimes, however, you have to make inferences. Making an inference is a
little like reading between the lines. An inference is an educated guess based
on information and evidence in a text. Read the sentences below.
Catfish are attracted to nearly any kind of bait. Worms, chicken
livers, grasshoppers, cheese, shrimp, or even a piece of ribbon
will work. Some people have caught catfish with bare hooks!
Based on these sentences, you can infer that catfish are fairly easy to catch.
When you make an inference, you must be able to support it with textual
evidence. In this case, details about being able to catch catfish with almost

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any type of bait or even a bare hook support the inference that they are easy
to catch. Although this idea is not directly stated by the writer, you clearly
understand it.
Being able to make inferences can help you analyze the elements of literary
texts. For instance, it can help you understand characters. Read the following
paragraph.
Megan wiped her sweaty palms on her jeans and stared at the
math problems on the exam. She chewed on her pencil eraser
and stole another glance at the clock.
You can infer that Megan is nervous. There are several pieces of textual
evidence to support this inference; specifically, her palms are sweaty, she is
chewing on her pencil eraser, and she keeps looking at the clock. In this case,
you also used your own prior experience to help you make the inference.

28
 Lesson 8: Make Inferences

Literary writers want their readers to make inferences because they know that it makes for
a more interesting and engaging reading experience. Consider the paragraph you just read
about Megan. Would there have been any involvement or suspense or tension if the writer
had simply written, “Megan was taking a test, and she was nervous”? What would reading a
mystery be like if you didn’t have to make any inferences?
You can make inferences to understand events. If people are gathered in a city park to
watch an elaborate fireworks display, you can infer that they are most likely celebrating the
Fourth of July. Making inferences can help you identify the setting. If kids are playing in a
mound of red and orange leaves, you can infer that the story takes place in autumn.

Thinking It Through

Read the following paragraph, and then answer the question that follows.

Ari sat against a coconut tree and tried not to panic.

He had been walking for hours and not encountered
another human being. There was only jungle,
sand, and a limitless ocean. Suddenly, Ari leaped
up and ran to the water’s edge, waving his arms
frantically.
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Why does Ari most likely run to the water’s edge and start waving?

HINT Pay attention to the details in the paragraph.

29
 Coached Example
Read the passage and answer the questions.
Evan had already pulled the long black
robe on over his father’s old navy blue suit and
was struggling to adjust the shiny satin cap on
his head. He wished that a plain suit for the
ceremony would have sufficed, as the costume felt
terribly awkward. The gold tassel was dangling in
front of Evan’s nose when his mother walked into
the bedroom.
“Which side does the tassel go on?” he asked, losing patience as he fumbled with the
silky strings.
“The right, I think,” she answered softly, carefully moving the tassel into its proper
position. As she did so, Evan could see her eyes begin to well up and her lower lip start to
quiver.
“Please, don’t do that, Ma,” he said, embarrassed and annoyed. “If you get weepy and
emotional now, how are you going to hold up when I finish high school in four years?”
Evan’s mother laughed and hugged him tightly. “I don’t know—I’ll cry like a baby,
I’m sure. You make me so proud.”
“Ma, really, it’s no big deal—it’s just middle school,” he said dismissively.
“Yes, but it means you’re growing up way too quickly for my liking!”

1. Which of the following is stated directly 2. What can you infer from this passage?

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in the passage?
A. Evan’s dad is away.
A. Evan is wearing his dad’s old navy
B. Evan is an honor student.
blue suit.
C. Evan is going to his graduation
B. Evan is about to attend his
ceremony.
graduation ceremony.
D. Evan does not like to dress up.
C. Evan wants to tear off the tassel.
D. Evan hates the black robe. HINT Eliminate answer choices that you know
are incorrect. Then focus on evaluating
Use key words in the answer choices the others.
HINT
to determine whether those ideas are
mentioned in the passage. For example,
does the passage state anything about
Evan wanting to tear off his tassel?

30
 9 Cite Textual Evidence

Getting the Idea

When you cite textual evidence, you provide facts and details directly from
a text that support statements you make about that text. In other words, you
prove that your interpretation of a text is correct by backing up your claims
with specific facts and details from the text. This goes beyond summarizing,
which is restating the central idea and important details in your own words. After
reading a text, you should identify specific examples that support your opinions
and conclusions about it. Read the paragraph below.
Most Americans know that they should brush their teeth and
floss at least twice a day. However, many neglect seeing a
dentist, fearing the discomfort or expense of dental work.
Adults and children should see a dentist once every six months
for cleanings and checkups. Dentists can discover health issues
that patients may not be aware of. Left alone, such issues can
become serious. For example, ignoring tooth decay can lead to
far more extensive treatment than simple fillings, such as root
canals or tooth extractions. Untreated cavities can also lead to
serious infection that can extend beyond the mouth.
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You could assert that this paragraph is urging Americans to make visits to the
dentist a greater priority. What details from the paragraph could you cite to
prove that your assertion is accurate? You could quote the last two sentences,
which explain what may happen when cavities are left untreated.
To properly cite text when providing evidence, you must be sure to quote it
correctly. First, make your claim about the text. Then, introduce the quoted
material that supports it. Some good sentence starters include “The text says
that,” “According to the text,” and “In the text, the author explains that.” After
the quotation (which should be enclosed in quotation marks), explain how the
textual evidence you have just cited supports or proves your claim. Read the
following example.

31
 The paragraph warns Americans to visit the dentist so that dental issues
can be discovered before they become severe. For example, the author
states that “ignoring tooth decay can lead to far more extensive treatment
than simple fillings, such as root canals or tooth extractions.” The author
also says, “Untreated cavities can also lead to serious infection that can
extend beyond the mouth.” Both of these facts illustrate potentially serious
consequences of avoiding visits to the dentist.
The example demonstrates a reader’s claim supported by textual evidence cited from the
paragraph on the importance of visiting a dentist regularly. It concludes with an explanation
of how the textual evidence supports the reader’s claim.

Thinking It Through

Read the following paragraph, and then answer the questions that follow.

Although greyhounds were bred for hunting and racing,

they also make unique and excellent family pets. Long and
muscular in build, this breed is the fastest of all dog breeds
and can reach speeds of up to forty-three miles per hour!
Greyhounds are considered sight hounds, using their sense
of sight, rather than smell, to hunt other animals. Gentle, affectionate, and quiet-
tempered, greyhounds behave well in homes and usually get along with other pets.
As with any dog, they need exercise, so you must offer your greyhound a safe place
to run if you cannot commit to taking him or her for regular walks. Just be sure to

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never let your greyhound off a leash unless in an enclosed area. You’d have a hard
time catching him or her!

Which sentence in the paragraph supports the claim that greyhounds make unique family
pets? Which sentence explains why greyhound owners should be cautious, given their dog’s
uniqueness?

Find the sentence that demonstrates how greyhounds differ from other dogs. Then look for the sentence
HINT
that indicates why greyhound owners must restrict their behavior because of this difference.

What makes a greyhound an appealing family pet? Discuss your

DISCUSS answer with a partner.

32
 Lesson 9: Cite Textual Evidence

Coached Example
Read the passage and answer the questions.
On August 29, 2005, Hurricane Katrina hit
the central Gulf Coast and became one of the most
devastating natural disasters ever to strike the United
States. This Category 3 hurricane claimed more than
1,700 lives and left hundreds of thousands without
homes. With winds reaching 145 miles per hour, the
storm created a wall of water almost 30 feet high. This
storm’s surge broke levees and caused major flooding
as it swept over the land. Along much of the Gulf Coast, heavy rainfall totaling eight to
ten inches added to the flooding. Damage to the region was extreme, costing Americans
billions of dollars.

1. Which sentence BEST summarizes 2. Which text evidence should be cited to

the passage? support the claim that the storm greatly
impacted its victims?
A. Hurricane Katrina cost Americans
billions of dollars in damages. A. “This Category 3 hurricane claimed
more than 1,700 lives and left
B. Hurricane Katrina was a powerful
hundreds of thousands without
storm that caused much devastation.
homes.”
C. Hurricane Katrina created very
B. “With winds reaching 145 miles
heavy winds.
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per hour, the storm created a wall

D. Hurricane Katrina caused major of water almost 30 feet high.”
flooding in its path.
C. “This storm’s surge broke levees
and caused major flooding as it
The correct answer should focus not on a
HINT swept over the land.”
single detail, but rather on what all of the
details in the passage address. D. “Along much of the Gulf Coast,
heavy rainfall totaling eight to ten
inches added to the flooding.”

Find the detail that describes what happened

HINT
to the people in the storm’s wake.

33
10 Main Idea and Supporting Details

Getting the Idea

Nonfiction is writing that conveys information using facts and other details.
This type of writing tells about actual people, events, or other real-life subjects.
Nonfiction, or informational, texts usually include a main idea, or a central
message. Often, the main idea is explicitly stated in the text, but sometimes
you may need to figure it out.
A main idea is more than a topic. It makes a statement about a topic. For
example, the topic of a newspaper article is public libraries. The main idea is:
Public libraries help increase literacy. The author must develop this main idea
with details. Supporting details are the facts, reasons, examples, and other
details that back up the main idea. For example, the author may develop the
main idea with details such as the following:
• fact: Currently, there are nine branch libraries in our county.
• reason: Free books give people more opportunity to read.
• example: Students in Bedford County increased their reading and
writing test scores after they began using public libraries.
• statistics: Reading scores rose by 8 percent and writing scores rose

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by 5 percent as a result of increased library use.
• quotation: Famous author Li Chang says, “I wouldn’t be a writer
today if I hadn’t used the library as a child.”
A text may have more than one central idea. For instance, another main idea in
the article could be: Public library hours should be extended.
Authors structure their texts to emphasize key points and clarify information. A
science article about a complex topic like the human circulatory system could
be divided into sections on the heart, blood, and blood vessels to make it easier
for readers to understand. All of the sections contribute to the main idea of the
article. An author writing an article about an upcoming mayoral election might
structure the text to compare the major candidates so that readers make the
best choice.

34
 Lesson 10: Main Idea and Supporting Details

Details interact in a text to form a unified whole. For instance, an article may include the
points of views of several individuals in order to analyze a topic more fully. A book about
World War I would describe key events in the war and explain how they relate to each other,
showing their causes and effects. An article about an activist could show how her ideas
influenced others and led to social change.
To summarize a text, focus on the main idea and key supporting details. Do not include your
opinions or other information that is not in the text.

Thinking It Through

Read the following excerpt from John F. Kennedy’s inaugural address, and then
answer the question that follows.

Let every nation know, whether it wishes us well or

ill, that we shall pay any price, bear any burden, meet any
hardship, support any friend, oppose any foe, in order to
assure the survival and the success of liberty.

In one sentence, write the main idea of this excerpt.

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HINT Leave out the details and focus on the main message.

If you were delivering this excerpt of Kennedy’s address, what words

DISCUSS would you emphasize to stress the main idea? Practice with a partner.

35
 Coached Example
Read the passage and answer the questions.
Every year Americans celebrate Labor Day on the first
Monday in September. Labor Day has come to symbolize
the end of summer. Many people are unaware of the origins
and true meaning of the holiday. Labor Day was created
by the labor movement to recognize the achievements and
importance of American workers.
It is uncertain who exactly came up with the idea for the
holiday, but the Central Labor Union adopted the proposal
for the holiday and organized a demonstration and a picnic.
The first Labor Day was celebrated in New York City on
September 5, 1882. It fell on a Tuesday. In 1884, the holiday
was permanently moved to the first Monday of the month.
As labor organizations grew, other cities began to celebrate
the holiday. Still, Labor Day was not an official government holiday. This evolved as states
passed legislation to make it official. On June 28, 1894, by act of Congress, Labor Day
became a national holiday.

1. What is a main idea of the passage? 2. Which sentence BEST summarizes

paragraph 2?
A. The first Labor Day fell on a
Tuesday. A. The Central Labor Union

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organized the first Labor Day.
B. People see Labor Day as the end of
summer. B. Labor Day was not celebrated on
Monday until 1884.
C. Labor Day was created to celebrate
American workers. C. No one knows who first had the
idea to create the holiday.
D. Over time, labor organizations grew
bigger and more powerful. D. First celebrated in 1882, Labor Day
became a national holiday in 1894.
Choose the idea that is most important,
HINT
not just a detail. The correct answer captures the main
HINT
idea of the paragraph as a whole.

36
 Argument and Author’s
11 Point of View

Getting the Idea

An argument is an attempt to convince others to think or act in a certain way.

It is an opinion that must be supported with facts and evidence. An argument
expresses an author’s point of view, or perspective. It usually begins with a
claim, a statement of the author’s point of view that the author must prove. For
example, here is an excerpt from a letter that a student at Green Valley Middle
School wrote to the school newspaper.
Students should not be forced to take foreign language classes.
The only language people need to know to get along in life is
English. Some kids may find it fun to learn French, Spanish,
or Italian, but it’s just a waste of time. Instead of learning
languages we will never use, we should be learning more
valuable skills, like how to use computers.
The author’s claim is stated in the first sentence: Students should not be forced
to take foreign language classes. But how well does the author support this
claim? An argument must be sound. In other words, its reasoning must be
logical. The student says that English is the only language one needs to know.
He ignores the value of being able to communicate with others in a multilingual
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world and the advantage of being bilingual for many careers. He says “we will
never use” foreign languages, but since millions of English speakers also use
other languages, his statement is not valid. The student’s purpose is to persuade
readers that students should not have to take foreign language classes. But
because his reasoning is flawed, he will leave many readers unconvinced.
Sometimes authors present others’ points of view in an argument. This is often
the case with complex issues. For example, an author may write an argument
about health insurance in the United States. She knows that politicians, health
professionals, the insurance industry, and the average person have widely
different points of view on this issue. She addresses these points of view but
is careful to distinguish her position from others’. For example, she presents a
point of view she disagrees with, but she refutes it, or argues against it, to show
why it is flawed. Pointing out the weaknesses in opposing viewpoints makes an
argument stronger.

37
An argument must also provide relevant and sufficient evidence to support its claims.
Suppose the middle school student’s evidence is that his grandfather never spoke anything
but English. This is not convincing support. His grandfather’s personal experience does not
apply to the experiences of the student’s readers. One man’s experience is also not enough
to show that the student’s claims have any merit.

Thinking It Through

Read the following paragraph, and then answer the question that follows.

Today, many people skip breakfast. For example, dieters skip breakfast to
save calories. However, studies show that eating a healthy breakfast helps you lose
weight by boosting your metabolism and helping you burn more calories.

In one sentence, explain the author’s point of view regarding breakfast.

The author’s point of view is how he or she

HINT
feels about the subject.

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With a partner, brainstorm
DISCUSS topics upon which people
have strong points of view.

38
 Lesson 11: Argument and Author’s Point of View

Coached Example
Read the passage and answer the questions.
Last month, a player on the school football team was badly hurt
during a game. Luckily, he is going to be all right. Unfortunately,
some parents and school officials want our school to eliminate the
football program. This is a terrible idea! Sure, football has its risks,
but so does getting into a car, and the same parents who complain
about football put their kids in a car almost every day. Car accidents
cause a lot more injuries than we’ll ever see in football. People
should also remember that football is more than a game. It’s a way
for thousands of high school students who cannot afford college to
earn athletic scholarships. I happen to be on the team. My parents
do not have a lot of money. I hope to help them out by earning a
scholarship one day. The risks of playing football are minimal, but
the potential benefits are great.

1. Which of the following states a central 2. Which of the following states the
claim made by the author? MOST convincing and relevant
evidence to support the author’s point
A. “The risks of playing football are
of view?
minimal, but the potential benefits
are great.” A. “Luckily, he is going to be all right.”
B. “Last month, a player on the school B. “It’s a way for thousands of high
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football team was badly hurt during school students who cannot
a game.” afford college to earn athletic
scholarships.”
C. “I hope to help them out by
earning a scholarship one day.” C. “My parents do not have a lot of
money.”
D. “Luckily, he is going to be all right.”
D. “Car accidents cause a lot more
HINT Choose the sentence that expresses an injuries than we’ll ever see in
opinion that the author must prove. football.”

Eliminate answers that rely on personal

HINT
experiences or bring in unrelated ideas.

39
12 Primary and Secondary Sources

Getting the Idea

A source is something that provides information, such as a printed text, an

electronic text, or a video. A primary source is material created by an eyewitness
or a participant in an event. A secondary source is material created by someone
who studied an event but was not present for it. This kind of source discusses
information originally presented elsewhere. It may interpret or evaluate a primary
source.
The chart below lists common examples of primary and secondary sources.

Primary Sources Secondary Sources

autobiographies, diaries, letters, biographies, encyclopedias,
journals, speeches, interviews, dictionaries, textbooks (e.g.,
photographs, news film footage, history, science, social studies),
research data, original documents newspaper and magazine
(e.g., the Declaration of articles (if written immediately
Independence, wills, transcripts), after the event, may be
and creative works (e.g., novels, considered primary sources),
stories, music, art, drama.) book or movie reviews, and
literary criticism

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When you read a primary and a secondary source on the same topic, you
have the benefit of a firsthand account as well as an evaluation of, or other
commentary on, this account. For instance, the letters and journal of Christopher
Columbus are primary sources. Columbus is the author. So, reading them
allows you to learn firsthand what Columbus saw and did and how he felt about
his experiences. In a biography of Columbus, another author would interpret
the explorer’s actions and analyze the historical significance. The biography
would put into perspective what you learned from the primary sources. When
doing research, seek out both primary and secondary sources to enrich your
understanding of your topic.

40
 Lesson 12: Primary and Secondary Sources

As with any text, you may sometimes need to determine the central ideas of a primary or
secondary source. Think about Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.’s “I have a dream” speech. What
is a central idea of this primary source? The hope that someday people will be judged by the
content of their character and not by the color of their skin.
You may also have to summarize a source. A summary is a short restatement of a text in
your own words. For example, you’re writing a research paper about a government program
created during the Great Depression. To establish the context, you want to begin with a brief
overview of the causes of the Great Depression. First, look in the library and on the Internet
to find primary and secondary sources that contain this information. Then, summarize the
key events that led to the Great Depression. Be sure the summary is accurate and distinct
from your own ideas and opinions.
You might need to determine the conclusions of a source. Authors will usually state these at
the end of their texts. For example, you might read a science article about space exploration
that ends with the statement below.
Space exploration has led to the development of technologies and products
used in everyday life, including satellite dishes, cell phones, GPS, and
various medical instruments.
A summary of the author’s conclusions could be: Space exploration has resulted in many
useful products and technologies.
When you analyze primary or secondary sources, be sure to cite specific evidence from the
texts to back up your conclusions. Remember to name the author of the primary source and
put his or her exact words in quotes. Finally, list all of your sources in a bibliography at the
end of your paper.
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41
Thinking It Through

Read the following paragraph, and then answer the question that follows.

In 1543, physician Andreas Vesalius published De humani corporis

fabrica, or On the Fabric of the Human Body. In the book, Vesalius
brought anatomy, the study of bodily structures, to a new level. The book
contained detailed descriptions of all parts of the human body, carefully
drawn illustrations, and directions for performing dissections. This
may not seem like much of an accomplishment today, when similar
information is available in medical textbooks or encyclopedias.
However, in Vesalius’s time, such anatomical studies were
revolutionary. Before Vesalius’s study of human anatomy, scholars
and physicians relied greatly on the work of Galen, a physician and
philosopher from ancient Greece. His studies informed medicine for
centuries. Many scholars would not even dream of questioning
Galen’s scientific conclusions. But Vesalius realized that Galen’s ideas
about anatomy were flawed. Galen had based his findings on his experiments on
animals and applied his discoveries to human anatomy. Vesalius corrected many
errors in traditional thought about body structure. He emphasized the importance
of studying the human body in order to truly learn about human anatomy.

Write a brief summary of this source.

Determine the main idea and most important details expressed in the paragraph, and then put them in Duplicating any part of this book is prohibited by law. © Triumph Learning, LLC
HINT
your own words.

With a partner, identify the primary source that this secondary source
DISCUSS is about. How do you know that it is a primary source?

42
 Lesson 12: Primary and Secondary Sources

Coached Example
Read the passages and answer the questions.

excerpted from
General Dwight D. Eisenhower’s
Order of the Day (D-Day Message)
Soldiers, Sailors, and Airmen of the Allied Expeditionary Force!
You are about to embark upon the Great Crusade, toward which we have striven these
many months. The eyes of the world are upon you. The hopes and prayers of liberty-loving
people everywhere march with you. In company with our brave Allies and brothers-in-
arms on other Fronts, you will bring about the destruction of the German war machine,
the elimination of Nazi tyranny over the oppressed peoples of Europe, and security for
ourselves in a free world.
Your task will not be an easy one. Your enemy is well trained, well equipped and
battle hardened. He will fight savagely. But this is the year 1944! Much has happened
since the Nazi triumphs of 1940–41. The United Nations have inflicted upon the
Germans great defeats, in open battle, man-to-man. Our air offensive has seriously
reduced their strength in the air and their capacity to wage war on the ground. Our Home
Fronts have given us an overwhelming superiority in weapons and munitions of war, and
placed at our disposal great reserves of trained fighting men. The tide has turned! The free
men of the world are marching together to Victory! I have full confidence in your courage,
devotion to duty and skill in battle. We will accept nothing less than full Victory!

D-Day
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On June 6, 1944, nearly 175,000 troops from the United States, Canada, and
Great Britain landed in Normandy, a region of northwest France on the English Channel.
Called “Operation Overlord,” the attack played a pivotal role in World War II. Its
objective was to win a beachhead in France. A beachhead is a position on an enemy
shoreline that is captured by troops in advance of an invading force. If the troops could
take Normandy, then they could open a second area of attack against the German armies.
The beachhead would also serve as a springboard to free France and Belgium, which were
under German occupation. Achieving this could eventually lead to the conquest of Nazi
Germany. The attack was fierce and thousands of lives were lost, but by nightfall, the
Allied forces had succeeded. The historic day is commonly known as D-Day. One of its
most famous documents is General Dwight D. Eisenhower’s Order of the Day, which was
distributed to the troops the day before the attack. In it, Eisenhower rallied the troops,
inspiring them to victory.

43
1. How can you tell the first passage is a 2. What does the primary source provide
primary source? that the secondary source does NOT?
A. It makes references to historical A. historical context
events.
B. strong emotion
B. It emphasizes statements with
C. details and facts
exclamation points.
D. objective viewpoint
C. It includes dates and other specific
information.
Think about the purpose of the primary
HINT
D. It is an original document from a source. Compare the content with that of
period in history. the secondary source.

A primary source is created closest to the

HINT
time and events it discusses.

3. Explain how the secondary source helps you understand the primary source.

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HINT Think about what you learn from the secondary source.

44
 13 Compare and Contrast

Getting the Idea

Sometimes you have to analyze how individual texts relate to each other. When
you compare texts, you examine their similarities. When you contrast texts, you
analyze their differences. This is true whether you are gathering primary sources,
such as an autobiography written by an astronaut, or secondary sources, such
as a book about the U.S. space program. Read the paragraphs below.
In 1803, the United States acquired a territory of almost nine
hundred thousand square miles from France. The transaction,
known as the Louisiana Purchase, nearly doubled the area of
the United States. The territory extended from the Mississippi
River west to the Rocky Mountains. The United States paid
France fifteen million dollars for the land.
The Louisiana Purchase was the greatest real estate deal in
American history. The United States gained a vast area of
land, nearly doubling its size. This became extremely important
as the population grew. There was more land for agriculture,
mining, and commerce, and pioneers were able to travel west
and make new lives for themselves on the frontier.
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What do you notice when you compare and contrast these paragraphs? The
first paragraph provides more details about the purchase (the territory’s location
and size, the sale price). The second paragraph focuses on the effects of the
purchase. It also expresses opinions, whereas the first paragraph is objective
and does not offer the author’s point of view.
The two paragraphs on the Louisiana Purchase demonstrate that authors shape
the content of their texts, even when they are writing about historical or scientific
facts. Even when the basic topic of two texts is the same, authors can develop it
in very different ways.

45
Authors with strong points of view may emphasize evidence that supports their attitudes
toward a topic. In addition, they may ignore evidence that contradicts their points of view
or purpose. For example, two authors write about Thomas Jefferson. For one author, this
American president was a hero who played a crucial role in our country’s early history. In her
article, she focuses on Jefferson’s achievements, highlighting the positives. The other author,
who has a more mixed view of Jefferson’s character and legacy, includes information that
illustrates Jefferson’s flaws—details that the other author leaves out.
Authors interpret the facts differently, which raises the question: Is anything in our history
books absolutely true? Of course it is. But when historians look back on the past, they
do it through a subjective lens. They all have unique experiences, beliefs, prejudices, and
agendas. Sometimes they lack key pieces of information. These factors may color their
perspective and how they interpret and present the facts.
Sometimes, an author may present information on one topic while using comparison and
contrast. For example, an author may contrast what agriculture was like before and after the
Louisiana Purchase. Science and technical writers can also use compare-and-contrast text
structure. In a text about astronomy, for example, a writer may compare and contrast details
and attributes of solar systems, galaxies, and the universe.
As a student, you make comparisons, too. For example, you might compare information you
gained from doing a science experiment with what you learned on the same topic from a
science textbook.

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46
 Lesson 13: Compare and Contrast

Thinking It Through

Read the following paragraphs, and then answer the question that follows.

Beginning around 1760, England experienced

technological, economic, social, and cultural changes that
came to be known as the Industrial Revolution. Prior
to 1760, England was chiefly an agrarian society. This
meant its economy depended largely on agriculture. In
addition, most products, including clothing and shoes, were
manufactured by hand, often at home or in small shops.
The Industrial Revolution changed this. Machines were
invented that mechanized labor. For example, the power
loom and the spinning jenny made spinning wool and
cotton faster and easier. Thus, production increased.
Before the Industrial Revolution, people used wood
for fuel and water and wind to power machines. The Industrial Revolution
introduced the use of new energy sources, such as coal, the steam engine, and
electricity. The factory system spread, creating more jobs and the need for
specialized skills. Farming changed, too, as new machines and methods enabled
farmers to produce more food for a growing nonagricultural population. From
about 1830, the Industrial Revolution spread to other countries, including the
United States. It would have a permanent impact on the world.

Write three key changes brought about by the Industrial Revolution.

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HINT The author contrasts life before and after the Industrial Revolution.

47
Coached Example
Read the passages and answer the questions.

An Important Discovery
Before the invention of the compass, sailors and explorers would often get lost. All
they had to work with were crude maps; natural landmarks, such as cliffs; and celestial
bodies, like the sun and stars. While these provided some direction, they were limited
and far from foolproof. Then, people discovered that lodestone, a magnetic mineral,
aligned itself to point north and south. This occurs because Earth has a magnetic field
with two poles in the north and south. As early as the twelfth century, Chinese, western
European, and Arab navigators began using lodestone to determine their position and
direction. Early compasses were made of a piece of wood or cork set to float in a bowl of
water. Eventually, the needle itself was made of lodestone. Over time, cards marked with
directions were added to compasses to make them easier to read. The development of the
compass had a major impact on navigation and exploration of new worlds.

GPS: Global Positioning System

GPS is a navigation and location system that uses satellites, computers, and receivers.
Originally developed for the United States military, it is operated by the United States
Air Force. How does it work? A constellation of twenty-four satellites in outer space,
inclined to 55º to the equator, transmit signals around the world twenty-four hours a day.
The satellites are monitored and controlled at stations throughout the world. The system
provides precise information for people on Earth on their position, velocity, and time.

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It can determine the longitude and latitude of a receiver on Earth. Today, GPS systems
are used by people everywhere, including hikers, sailors, pilots, and drivers, to determine
where they are and how to arrive at their destination. Officers on ships, for example, use
GPS to know their location in the open seas, how fast they are traveling, and to determine
the best route. GPS is not affected by weather and can be used by anyone who has the
equipment to receive the signals from the satellites. For many people, it has become an
essential navigational tool.

48
 Lesson 13: Compare and Contrast

1. The authors’ main purpose in 2. A key difference between the

both passages is to two passages is that
A. describe the challenges that A. only “GPS: Global Positioning
navigators on land and sea System” is about navigation.
overcome.
B. “An Important Discovery” has
B. persuade readers that GPS systems more historical context than
are more effective than compasses. “GPS: Global Positioning System.”
C. inform readers about devices that C. “An Important Discovery” has
help people find destinations. more technical information than
“GPS: Global Positioning System.”
D. inform readers about recent
advances in technology. D. only “An Important Discovery”
includes a before-and-after
HINT The correct answer must apply to comparison.
both passages.
Check each answer choice against
HINT
both passages.

3. How would having GPS technology have helped early navigators?

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HINT Use information from both passages to answer the question.

49
14 Text Structures

Getting the Idea

The text structure of a passage is its pattern of organization. Authors choose

the structure that best suits the content and purpose of their texts.
A text arranged according to sequence presents ideas in the order in which
they occur. This is a common pattern in biographies, where events occur in
chronological order. Look for key words that indicate sequence, including first,
next, last, then, finally, before, and after. The dates in a text also help you to
follow the sequence and to see how much time has elapsed between events.
Read this example.
Ella Fitzgerald was born in Newport News, Virginia, in 1917.
After Ella’s father died, her mother took her to live in Yonkers,
New York. She soon developed an interest in singing. In 1934,
she performed at the Apollo Theater.
Comparison-and-contrast texts analyze the similarities and differences
between two or more things. Notice how the key words both, however, and
differences are used in this example.
Squids and octopuses are both cephalopods, a type of marine

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mollusk. However, there are differences between them. An
octopus has eight arms, but a squid has ten arms, two of which
are tentacles. Squids can also grow to be much larger than
octopuses.
Cause-and-effect texts analyze the causes, or reasons why things happen, and
the effects, or the results of a cause. Key words and phrases like because, as
a result, therefore, due to, and consequently signal cause and effect. Read this
example.
For centuries, people from other countries have migrated to
the United States. Some migrate here because they want to
escape political or religious persecution. Some come here for
other reasons, such as new work opportunities and a better
life. Immigrants have had a great impact on American culture,
including food, music, and language.

50
 Lesson 14: Text Structures

A procedure explains how to do something in a series of steps. It is not merely sequence, or

the order in which events happen. A procedure involves a series of actions to be performed.
For example, science experiments require that you follow a specific procedure. The following
are the first three steps in an experiment to compare how mold grows on three different
types of cheese.
1. Cut three pieces of Swiss, American, and cheddar cheese and apply a mold
solution to each one.
2. Seal each piece in a plastic bag and label each bag.
3. Wait twenty-four hours.
A text organized according to process explains how a series of actions or functions bring
about a result. For example, an author would use this pattern to explain how the president is
elected or how the digestive system works. A procedure involves steps that someone must
take. A process does not necessarily require action; it may happen naturally.
Authors sometimes divide their texts into sections. This helps readers follow complex ideas.
Each section contributes to the text as a whole.

Thinking It Through

Read the following paragraph, and then answer the question that follows.

One of the best-known effects of heat is the change that it causes in the size
of a substance. Heat causes all liquids to occupy more space, or to expand. For
example, water heated in a tube will expand and force its way up the tube. As the
water cools, it will contract and recede back into the tube.
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Why does the water force its way up the tube?

HINT Look for the key words cause and effect to help you understand the process being described.

With a group, discuss the procedure you would need to follow to

DISCUSS perform the experiment above. What steps would you need to follow
to perform an experiment that shows the effect of cooling and freezing
water?

51
 Coached Example
Read the passage and answer the questions.
For this experiment, you will need: water, sand, teaspoon,
filter paper, paper towels, jar with lid, salt, funnel, jar without lid,
shallow aluminum pan
1. Pour one-quarter cup of water into a small jar that has a lid.
2. 
Add one teaspoon of salt to the water. Put the lid on the jar
and swirl the contents to mix them well. Observe the mixture.
3. 
Add one teaspoon of sand to the mixture. Put the lid on the
jar and swirl the mixture again. Observe the mixture. Record
your observations.
4. 
Allow the mixture to stand and observe it again after five, ten,
and fifteen minutes. Record your observations.
5. 
Fold a piece of filter paper in fourths and place it into a funnel. Place the funnel
in the second jar.
6. 
Swirl the mixture well. Quickly remove the lid and pour the mixture into the
filter paper. After the liquid has passed through the paper, observe the liquid and
the contents of the filter paper.
7. Set the filter paper and its contents aside on a paper towel.
8. Pour the liquid into a shallow pan and let it sit out overnight.

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9. The next day, observe the contents of the pan and the filter paper.

1. Which part of the procedure must be 2. Which step of the procedure must be
performed several times? done first?
A. observing your results A. Allow the mixture to stand.
B. adding a teaspoon of sand B. Set the filter paper aside.
C. pouring the liquid into a pan C. Add a teaspoon of salt.
D. folding a piece of filter paper D. Place the funnel in a jar.

HINT Read the steps of the procedure carefully.

HINT The numbered steps will help you find the
correct answer.

52
 15 Domain-Specific Vocabulary

Getting the Idea

Knowing the vocabulary used in academic courses such as history, science,

technology, and language arts is essential to success in those classes. Often,
domain-specific vocabulary has meanings that are specific to a subject area.
Learning new vocabulary helps you process and understand new content.
Suppose that you are learning a new sport. You need to know the vocabulary
used in the sport so you can understand the various plays and moves. In
volleyball, the words ace, bump, set, kill, dig, serve, spike, and rally have specific
meanings in the context of the sport. Knowing how they apply in this context is
key. Read the paragraph below.
Bumps, sets, and spikes are ways of hitting the ball to get it
over the net. First, one player bumps, or passes the ball, to
another player. That player sets, or hits the ball upward, for
another player to spike, or hit the ball hard over the net.
The words bump, set, and spike have specific meanings in the above paragraph,
but they also have meanings used in other contexts. Now, read the paragraph
below.
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In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, Europeans settled

in America. Indigenous tribes helped the Europeans become
established; in return, the Native Americans received steel
knives, copper kettles, and other interesting artifacts. But
eventually, the Europeans sought to take control of the land
and also introduced diseases, such as smallpox, cholera, and
yellow fever, to the tribes.
Without some prior knowledge, you might not know the meaning of some of the
words in the paragraph, such as indigenous and cholera.
There are many ways to learn and study domain-specific vocabulary. When
you are reading on your own, look for context clues to help you understand
the meaning of a new word. Even if context clues don’t reveal the meaning of
the word, clues in the passage can tell you whether the context is positive or
negative.

53
Read the following sentence from the paragraph on page 190.
Indigenous tribes helped the Europeans become established; in return,
the Native Americans received steel knives, copper kettles, and other
interesting artifacts.
In the sentence above, the context provides two clues about the definition of indigenous.
The phrase “helped the Europeans become established” suggests that something about the
tribes, such as their familiarity with the land, enabled them to do this. An even stronger clue is
provided by the term “Native Americans,” which directly reveals who made up these tribes.
During class, if you hear a word you don’t understand, write it down. Listen for context clues
to help you determine its meaning or use a dictionary. The more you hear and read new
words, the better you will be able to remember and understand them.

Thinking It Through

Read the passage below, and then answer the question that follows.

An ecosystem refers to all the life forms, both plant and animal, in one area
and how they interact or work together. Ideally, a predator population keeps other
species’ populations down without wiping them out. The plants in an ecosystem
should also be varied, and no plant species should crowd out other types of plant
life. Conditions like these must be met in order for an ecosystem to be balanced.
Many factors can impact an ecosystem, including human activities and weather
patterns. In order to help preserve or restore an ecosystem, people need to understand
the complex relationships among all species of plants and animals in an area.

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What are some of the domain-specific vocabulary words in this passage? What makes them
domain-specific?

HINT Which words are specific to this topic?

How might these words have different meanings in another context?

DISCUSS Discuss your ideas with a partner.

54
 Lesson 15: Domain-Specific Vocabulary

Coached Example
Read the passage and answer the questions.
Smallpox is a contagious disease caused by a virus
known as variola. It has existed for thousands of years
and has killed about 30 percent of those who contracted
it. However, people who survived the disease became
immune to it. Doctors attempted to combat the disease
with inoculation, a process in which people are
intentionally exposed to a small amount of the virus that
causes a particular disease. Although those who were
inoculated exhibited smallpox symptoms, the resultant death rate was not nearly as high as
for uninoculated individuals who contracted the disease.
Cowpox is a much milder disease that is similar to smallpox, but it is carried by cows.
In eighteenth-century England, some people thought milkmaids who had contracted
cowpox were immune to smallpox. In 1796, English scientist Edward Jenner took material
from a fresh cowpox sore on a milkmaid’s hand and inoculated a young boy. The boy
developed mild symptoms of cowpox. Several weeks later, Jenner inoculated the boy
with material from a smallpox sore. The boy showed no symptoms. After he repeated his
successful experiment a few more times, Jenner published his findings in 1798. He called
his procedure vaccination, after the Latin term vaccinia, meaning “cowpox.”

1. Given the article’s context, what do you 2. In this specific passage, what is the
think the purpose of inoculation is? meaning of the word contracted?
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A. to make people sick by introducing A. came down with

the smallpox virus
B. formally committed to
B. to stop smallpox from being
C. avoided infection from
contagious
D. spread to someone else
C. to prevent people from dying from
smallpox
Read the sentences surrounding this word
HINT
D. to cure people of smallpox to help you.

Read the last sentence in the first

HINT
paragraph carefully.

55
16 Graphics

Getting the Idea

Graphics are visual representations of information and ideas. Graphics show

information instead of explaining it with words. They allow readers to “see”
information and understand complex ideas more easily.
A timeline is a graphic representation of events in chronological order.
For example, a timeline may list inventions and the dates, in order, when
they were invented.
A map is a graphic representation of regions on Earth and their geographical
features. Maps can show many other things, too; for example, the network of roads
in a city, the population density in a state, or the locations of airports in a country.
A chart is a graphic organizer that presents information arranged into columns
and rows in a box. The chart below shows the names of three early explorers of
North America and where and when they explored.

Explorer Places Visited Year of Exploration

John Cabot Canada 1497
Jacques Cartier St. Lawrence River 1534

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Henry Hudson Hudson River and 1609
New York Harbor

A diagram is an illustration with labels that describes something or shows how it

works, usually pointing out its individual parts. The diagram below shows Earth’s
biosphere, the zone where all life forms are found. It includes the land, water,
and part of the atmosphere.

Atmosphere (air)
Biosphere

Lithosphere (Earth)

Hydrosphere
(water)

56
 Lesson 16: Graphics

A graph shows relationships between sets of data, such as a bar graph or line graph. The
line graph below shows how the temperature in a town changed from November to May. To
find the average temperature for any given month, follow the line that extends up from that
month and stop at the black dot. Then, trace your finger along the horizontal line to the left
to find the temperature.

Weather Data
80°
70°
Temperature (°F)

60°
50°
40°
30°
20°
10°
0°
Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May
Month

Another way that authors represent ideas visually is through videos, or electronic recordings.
For example, documentaries about wild animals are videos.

Thinking It Through

Look at the following chart, and then answer the question that follows.
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Country Capital Official Language

Greece Athens Greek
Algeria Algiers Arabic
Sweden Stockholm Swedish
Tunisia Tunis Arabic

In which two countries is Arabic the official language?

HINT Find “Arabic” in the “Official Language” column, and then follow the rows back to the “Country” column.

57
 Coached Example
Read the passage. Study the map and answer the questions.
Puerto Rico is a small island located between the Atlantic Ocean and the Caribbean
Sea. It is a commonwealth of the United States, so people born on the island are
American citizens. It has a population of fewer than four million people. Its tropical
climate and beautiful beaches make it a popular vacation spot. It is home to El Yunque,
or the Caribbean National Forest—the only tropical rainforest in the U.S. National
Forest System. The Arecibo Observatory on the island boasts the largest single-dish radio
telescope in the world. Scientists from around the globe go there to pursue research in
astronomy and atmospheric sciences.

PuertoRico
Puerto Rico Atlantic Ocean

Arecibo San Juan

Bayamón Rio
Aguadilla Grande Fajardo
Caguas
Mayagüez
Ponce Caribbean
National
Forest
Caribbean Sea

1. According to the map, the Arecibo 2. According to the map, which two cities

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Observatory would be nearest to which or towns are closest to each other?
part of the island?
A. Mayagüez and Caguas
A. northeast
B. San Juan and Rio Grande
B. southeast
C. Ponce and Bayamón
C. northwest
D. Fajardo and San Juan
D. southwest
Find each set of locations and then
HINT
Look for Arecibo on the map and then compare the differences in distance.
HINT
check its location against each answer
choice.

58
 17 Fact and Opinion

Getting the Idea

Understanding a text often requires evaluating authors’ statements. This kind

of analysis can help you determine if the content is valid and reliable. When
you read, consider carefully what authors say and how they say it. Distinguish
between facts, opinions, and reasoned judgments.
A fact is a statement that can be verified, independently and objectively. The
statements below are facts.
• Hawaii became the fiftieth U.S. state on August 21, 1959.
• An asteroid is a celestial body that orbits the sun.
• The Sahara is the largest desert in the world.
An opinion is a personal belief that cannot be proven true and with which others
may disagree. Do not confuse an opinion with a fact, even when an author tries
to present it as such. In an argument, for example, an author will make many
strongly worded statements. He or she is trying to persuade you to think or act
in a certain way. Even if you agree, you need to remember that these personal
viewpoints are opinions. You need to evaluate them based on the facts the
author uses to support them. The statements below are opinions.
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• Nobody could possibly be entertained by that silly movie.

• William Shakespeare was the best playwright of all time.
• Soccer will never be as popular in America as football is.
A reasoned judgment is a statement based on an issue for which there is more
than one standard of judgment. A standard is a law or rule with which a group of
people agree. However, people have different standards. This is why a reasoned
judgment can be a source of disagreement. Distinguishing between an opinion
and a reasoned judgment can be tricky. Keep in mind that a reasoned judgment
is usually weighed more carefully. A person makes a reasoned judgment
after carefully considering the pros and cons of the issue. A scientist makes a
reasoned judgment based on the findings of his or her research. The statements
on the following page are examples of reasoned judgments.

59
 • Everyone should exercise regularly and eat healthy foods.
• State funding for libraries should be maintained.
• The government should provide health care for all citizens.
These statements express a point of view, so they are not facts. However, the statements
are logical and reasonable. They are reasoned judgments based on standards with which
many people would agree.

Thinking It Through

Read the following excerpt from the Declaration of Independence, and then answer
the question that follows.

We hold these truths to be self-evident,

that all men are created equal, that they
are endowed by their Creator with certain
unalienable Rights, that among these are
Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness.

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This excerpt is BEST described as what type of statement?

Is the sentence a fact that can be proven true? Is it an opinion, or someone’s personal belief? Or is it a
HINT
reasoned judgment based on serious study and observation of an issue. As you consider your answer, keep
in mind that the sentence is part of the Declaration of Independence.

60
 Lesson 17: Fact and Opinion

Coached Example
Read the passage and answer the questions.
excerpted and adapted from
The Voyage of the Beagle
by Charles Darwin
The guanaco, or wild llama, is the characteristic four-legged animal of the plains
of Patagonia. It is an elegant animal. It has a long, slender neck and fine legs. It is
very common throughout the temperate parts of the South American continent,
as far south as the islands near Cape Horn. It generally lives
in small herds from half a dozen to thirty in each. They are
generally wild and extremely cautious. But they are very
easily domesticated, and I have seen some thus kept in
northern Patagonia near a house. They are in this state
very bold, and readily attack a man by striking him from
behind with both knees. The wild guanaco, however, do
not know how to defend themselves. Even a single dog
will secure one of these large animals, till the huntsman
can come up. In many of their habits, they are like sheep
in a flock.

1. Which sentence is an opinion? 2. Read this sentence from the passage.

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A. “It is an elegant animal.” In many of their habits, they are

like sheep in a flock.
B. “The wild guanacos, however,
do not know how to defend This sentence is
themselves.”
A. a fact.
C. “It generally lives in small herds
B. an opinion.
from half a dozen to thirty in each.”
C. a fact and an opinion.
D. “The guanaco, or wild llama, is the
characteristic four-legged animal of D. a reasoned judgment.
the plains of Patagonia.”
Review the definition of each type of
HINT
HINT An opinion expresses a personal belief. statement.

61
 Compare and Contrast Texts
18 Across Genres

Getting the Idea

When you compare and contrast informational texts from different genres, pay
attention to the way different authors shape their texts. The primary reason for
writing an informational text is to present facts and details, but an author’s style,
opinion, tone, and the way that he or she structures the text will all influence the
way information is presented and received.
You can compare and contrast information about a particular topic when you
read texts across different genres. This provides an opportunity to deepen your
understanding of the topic. For instance, a primary source will have a certain
style, tone, and structure. In contrast, a secondary source on the same topic will
have a different audience and purpose, so will present different information in a
different manner. To compare texts of different genres, examine how they are
alike. To contrast them, analyze their differences.
Compare and contrast these two passages.

Passage 1
For Immediate Release
October 6, 2015

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Released By:
Mayor’s Office
Today Mayor Ahlstead joined with Parks Commissioner Rick
Delano to announce the grand opening of Mount Willow Park
in Madison. The park is open to the public, and there will be a
ribbon cutting ceremony today at 2:00 p.m. on the main lawn.
“We envisioned a park where people of all ages and
backgrounds could come for a picnic, a friendly ballgame, or
simply to relax in the sun. These are the things a community
park should provide. And I believe we have succeeded in
providing them,” said the mayor.

62
 Lesson 18: Compare and Contrast Texts Across Genres

The park was built on former landfill and took six years to complete. It is now
considered one of the most successful reclamation projects in the state’s
history. The park covers nearly fifty acres and includes multiple-use sports
fields, twenty acres of conservation land, nature trails, a state-of-the art
playground, an amphitheater, and a handicapped-accessible canoe launch.
Parks Commissioner Delano adds, “It takes dedication and creativity to
create a park like this. I am proud to be part of this vibrant community’s
efforts to make the city a better place for its residents.”

Passage 2
June 9, 2015 - The High Bridge, which connects the boroughs of the Bronx
and Manhattan, is set to reopen Tuesday after being closed for more than
forty years.
The $61.8 million restoration project was part of a plan by Mayor Michael
R. Bloomberg to restore eight major parks and other public recreation areas
across New York City. Workers re-mortared stone joints, repainted the
steel, repaired the brick walkway, restored an antique handrail, and installed
decorative lighting, ramps, and safety fencing to bring the bridge back into
the city’s landscape. The High Bridge will be open to pedestrian and bicycle
traffic daily from 7:00 a.m. to 8:00 p.m.
Most of the funding for the project came from New York City public funds,
with some additional funds from the Federal Highway Administration.
What do you notice when you compare and contrast these passages? The first passage is a
press release about the opening of a new park. The second passage is a news article about
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the reopening of a bridge after forty years. News articles are designed to give readers facts
and details about a topic. They answer who, what, when, where, and why about a topic.
Press releases address these questions as well, but they often contain quotes and other
interesting details to entice reporters to pick up the information and write articles about it.
The quotes are usually celebratory and express excitement about the subject. Even when the
topic of two informational texts is similar, the texts can be shaped very differently, leaving
readers with different impressions of the subject.

63
Thinking It Through

Read the following passages, and then answer the question that follows.

Passage 1
Watching a movie is a great way to bring people together. In my family, movie
nights are a thing I cherish because, afterward, we all sit around enjoying snacks
and discussing the film. It is part of our quality time as a family. Movies are often
criticized; people complain that they are too violent, spread bad messages, and
negatively influence young people. Some even say they are a complete waste of
time. Certainly, some movies spread bad messages, but not all of them do. If you
choose wisely, I think watching a movie can be a meaningful event that allows
people to share experiences outside of their own lives.
Passage 2
As a movie director for over thirty years, my goals have always been simple.
I want to tell amazing stories. However, the stories must have heart, courage,
humor, and most of all, compelling heroes. Part of my process is collaborating
with the best writers and most talented actors. I have been lucky. It has always
been important to me that my films are successful on many levels. For example,
in my latest adventure film, I strive to keep the kids laughing while engaging the
adults in the important themes of environmental awareness and family bonding.
After all my years in the movie business, all I want is for people to sit in a movie
theater for two hours and feel united in a shared experience.

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Compare and contrast the passages. What genre is each passage? How are they similar
and different?

HINT Think about how the authors describe the topic from different viewpoints.

Which writer affects you more? How do the two texts end on a
DISCUSS similar note?

64
 Lesson 18: Compare and Contrast Texts Across Genres

Coached Example
Read the passages and answer the questions.

Running Out of Water

It is hard to conceive of, but we are running out of water. We have been
running out of water for a long time—this is not new. We need to face this
problem, because it is not going away. While I do believe everyone has a right to
Earth’s water, I don’t believe that some people should have better access to water
than others. It is a travesty that some people have no access to clean water, while
others use it excessively and wastefully. Some have cheaper, easier access to water
because there are infrastructures in place to make that happen. This can lead to
thoughtless waste. Others have no access to water and pay a price. Governments
need to step up and finance infrastructures for poverty-stricken areas. Governments
have the power necessary to get things done quickly on behalf of their people.

The Problems with Privatizing Water

According to the latest figures, about 768 million people in the world lack
access to clean drinking water. Debate continues over how to address this sobering
reality. As individual communities struggle to navigate their situation, the picture
remains muddy as to whether solutions should come from the government, private
companies, or a combination of the two.
Private companies, banks, and aid organizations are often called upon to
consult with federal and local government authorities about the problem. Building
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the costly infrastructures necessary for water processing and transportation

is difficult. When local governments become overburdened with the cost of
maintaining water resources, they may choose to transfer the responsibility of water
infrastructure to private companies. This practice can be controversial.
Establishing a solution that works for all parties involved can be problematic.
Satisfying corporate demands, raising funds, and convincing the public that
companies won’t profit from these solutions are some of the problems that stall
negotiations. While negotiations often stretch over many months, thirsty people
continue to wait for their water.

65
1. What is the main opinion expressed in 2. Which detail below from “The
“Running Out of Water”? Problems with Privatizing Water” is
ignored in “Running Out of Water”?
A. We are running out of water.
A. “According to the latest figures,
B. Governments should step in to
about 768 million people lack
address the water crisis.
access to clean drinking water.”
C. Some people have better access to
B. “Debate continues over how to
water than others.
address this sobering reality.”
D. Water is necessary to survival.
C. “Private companies, banks, and aid
organizations are often called upon
The correct answer will not apply to
HINT to consult with federal and local
both passages.
government authorities about the
problem.”
D. “Establishing a solution that works
for all parties involved can be
problematic.”

Read each answer choice against

HINT
“Running Out of Water”.

3. How do the details from the “The Problems with Privatizing Water” compare to the
opinions in “Running Out of Water”?

HINT Which passage presents a more complicated challenge to solving water shortage issues? Why? Duplicating any part of this book is prohibited by law. © Triumph Learning, LLC

66
 19 Write an Argument

Getting the Idea

An argument is an attempt to convince others to think or act in a certain way.

Its main purpose is to persuade its audience, or readers. When you write an
argument, you need to support your statements, organize your ideas, and
present them clearly.
The first paragraph of your argument is the introduction. This is where you state
your claim. The claim is the central idea that you want to persuade your readers
to agree with. It expresses your point of view. For example, you might write an
argument with this claim:
Professional athletes need a salary cap to put an end to their
excessively high salaries.
Next, write at least three or four supporting paragraphs to develop your claim;
the paragraphs should include facts, examples, and other relevant details. Each
paragraph should have its own topic sentence. You could create an outline to
plan the main ideas of your argument. Look at the sample outline below.

I. Introduction (claim)
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A. The high salaries of professional athletes result in

higher ticket prices.
B. Athletes’ exorbitant salaries send the wrong
message to young people.
C. Playing sports is not a job that justifies such high
salaries.
II. Conclusion

The conclusion is the last paragraph in the composition. It summarizes the main
ideas of the argument. Include a concluding statement, such as: Professional
athletes should be paid a reasonable salary.
Use logical reasoning, or common sense, when you argue. Provide evidence,
such as examples and data, to back up your claims. For the salary cap
argument, include the names of actual athletes and specific details about their

67
multimillion-dollar contracts. Be sure that your evidence is accurate. Any errors will cause
your readers to doubt the validity of your argument. Use details that are relevant to the topic
and your purpose. For example, do not mention the high price of hot dogs at a game unless
you can directly connect it to athletes’ high salaries.
Acknowledge opposing claims and refute them. For example, suppose you include the
following opposing claim in your argument: Athletes claim that team owners make so much
money that their salaries represent a fair share of the owners’ profits. If you don’t refute it,
you are essentially arguing against yourself. So, you should include a refutation, such as
the following: There is nothing fair about the profit that either owners or players make at the
fans’ expense.
Create cohesion, or link ideas, in your argument. Transitional words and phrases such as for
example, in contrast, furthermore, thus, in addition, and however will clarify the relationships
among your ideas.
Sometimes you may need sources to find information for your argument. Choose sources
that are accurate and credible, such as government Web sites, educational Web sites,
encyclopedias, and reputable newspapers.
Your writing style should be formal. Use standard English; do not be too casual or use slang.
Remember that your audience for school compositions is your teacher and sometimes your
fellow students.
Sometimes you will write an argument based on a science or history topic. Use the same
principles you would use to write any argument.

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68
 Lesson 19: Write an Argument

Coached Example
Read the topic sentences below. Then write a supporting paragraph for each one,
developing it with reasons and evidence. You can choose to take the opposite point
of view for either topic.

1. Students should not be required to learn history in school.

HINT You can use specific history topic(s) as examples.

2. The United States should provide financial aid to struggling countries.

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HINT Consider how providing aid affects the United States and/or struggling countries.

69
20 Write an Informative Text

Getting the Idea

An informative text informs the reader or explains something. Textbooks,

research reports, how-to manuals, and newspapers are examples of informative
texts. When you write an informative text, you need to choose its text structure.
The text structure is the organizational pattern of a text.
Choose the text structure that is best suited to the purpose of your writing. For
example, a cause-and-effect structure would be best for a text that examines
why the French Revolution happened and how it changed French society. A
comparison-and-contrast structure would best explain how a hurricane and a
tornado are alike or different. Use a classification structure to inform readers
about different categories of plants. Choose a sequential structure to explain
how to record on a DVD recorder.
An informative composition should have an introduction, supporting
paragraphs, and a conclusion. The introduction will introduce the main topic
and preview the key ideas. The supporting paragraphs will develop the topic,
using relevant details, such as:
• facts: statements that can be verified, such as the dates of historic

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events or the chemical composition of minerals
• details: descriptive information that expands upon the main idea
• quotations: the exact words of someone other than the writer;
Thomas Paine said, “It is error only, and not truth, that shrinks
from inquiry.”
• examples: things that represent a group or type; for example, crabs,
shrimp, and lobsters are types of crustaceans.
Your composition may include headings. A heading is a title over a section of
text. It is usually in boldface print. Authors use headings to organize smaller
sections within a text. An informative text often includes graphics, like charts
and diagrams, to illustrate concepts.

70
 Lesson 20: Write an Informative Text

Use transitions to clarify relationships between ideas and improve the flow of your writing.
Transitional words and phrases include therefore, in addition, for example, in contrast,
furthermore, and as a result.
Word choice is important in a composition. Choose your words carefully and use precise
language. Avoid vague words like bad and things. For example, don’t say: “Picasso was a
good painter.” Replace good with talented, accomplished, or skillful. Use vocabulary that is
specific to the field of your topic. Your science report, for example, would include scientific
terms and any necessary definitions.
Use a formal writing style for your compositions. Do not use language that is too
conversational or includes slang. Standard English is appropriate for your audience, which is
typically your teacher or fellow students. The graphic organizer below shows how a text on
the French Revolution might be organized.

Main idea
Social inequality was a major cause of the French Revolution.

Fact Detail Example Quote

The common About 25 million Causes of hardship “Restore to
people paid heavy people were included rising rents mankind their
taxes, but the commoners. and food prices. rights.”
nobles did not. –Richard Price

Conclusion
The French Revolution shows that people will rebel against injustice and oppression.
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71
 Coached Example
Read the topics below. Then use what you learned about informative texts to
develop the topics.

1. Write an informative paragraph about the duties of the United States president.

HINT Use facts and/or examples to show what the president does.

2. Write an informative paragraph about a person in U.S. history you admire. Tell about
his or her accomplishments. Use whatever facts or other details you know about this
person’s life.

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HINT For example: you could write about a political leader, an athlete, an astronaut, a scientist, an inventor.

72
 21 Write a Narrative

Getting the Idea

A narrative is writing that tells a story. Fictional stories and books are narratives.
A narrative can tell a true story, also, such as your retelling of events at a family
picnic. Historical accounts that tell the story of a famous person’s life or step-
by-step descriptions of scientific investigations are also narratives.
Incorporate the following elements into your narrative:
• plot: the sequence of events in a narrative
• characters: the people, animals, or other creatures in a narrative
• conflict: a problem that a character must solve
• setting: where and when a narrative takes place
• dialogue: the words spoken by characters to each other

Your narrative will also need a point of view, or the perspective from which the
narrative is told. For example, you would use a first-person narrator to describe
events that happened to you. For a fictional narrative, your narrator could be
first-person or third-person. Choose the point of view that is best suited to your
narrative.
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Establish the context of the narrative. The context is the background or

circumstances in which events occur. For example, your narrative begins with a
boy who stands on the edge of a skating rink, too afraid to join his friends. You
explain his fear by establishing the context: a year ago, the boy fractured his
ankle after a bad fall.
Organize events so that they flow naturally and logically from one to the next.
It would not make sense if a character crying over a terrible toothache in one
scene were eating pretzels a few minutes later.
Narratives often have shifts in time frame and setting, and your reader will
be confused if you do not clarify these shifts. Use transitions to show the
sequence, or order of events, as well as shifts in time and place. Here are
some examples: The following day; Later that evening; Meanwhile, at Jenny’s
apartment; After Michael finished the test.

73
Pacing is the rate of speed in which events are described. If you are writing about a
character who stops to enjoy the scenic view from a mountaintop, slow down the pace
of the narrative. Describe what the character sees in detail to convey a sense of leisurely
enjoyment.
Use precise words and sensory language to create a picture in the reader’s mind. Sensory
language appeals to the five senses: sight, hearing, taste, touch, and smell. Describe the
colors of a sunset, the scent of grass after the rain, or the musical sound of a character’s
laugh.
Write a satisfying conclusion that follows from, and reflects, the events. It does not have to
be a happy ending, but it should provide a resolution to any conflict, wrap up loose details,
and provide a sense of closure.
Use a flowchart to plan your story. This graphic tool will help you map out the sequence
of events.

Introduction/ Event Event Event Conclusion/

Context She accuses She sees her She finds her Ending
Kay loses her her brother of dog digging a diary in the hole. Kay apologizes
diary. taking it. hole. to her brother.

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74
 Lesson 21: Write a Narrative

Coached Example
Read the sentences below. Each sentence is the first line to a paragraph in a story.
Complete each paragraph, using what you learned about writing narratives.

1. Rochelle’s heart pounded as the roller coaster began its slow climb.

HINT Describe Rochelle’s experience on the roller coaster.

2. Tyler tore off the birthday wrapping and opened the box.
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HINT Describe what is in the box. Is Tyler pleased or disappointed? Tell why he feels the way he does.

75
22 Respond to Literature

Getting the Idea

Literature is a work of imaginative or creative writing that many people consider

to be exceptional. Works of literature can be in the form of a novel, story, drama,
poem, or graphic novel. Reading literature and responding to it in writing is
a way to learn how to become a better writer and reader. If you wanted to learn
how to create a successful computer game, it would make sense to study other
successful computer games. Once you determined what makes those games
especially good, you would be better equipped to produce a new game that
consumers would desire. The same is true for writing; in order to write well, you
must first understand what is considered “good” writing.
When you respond in writing to literature, you will usually focus either on how
the various elements of a piece work together to achieve an overall purpose or
on how the piece makes you feel. If your writing focuses on how the parts of a
piece work together, the result is a literary analysis. An example of this would
be an assignment asking you to analyze how the setting in a drama affected the
characters’ actions. Another example of literary analysis would be an assignment
asking you to compare the plot elements or the traits of characters in more than
one story. If your writing conveys how a piece makes you feel, the result is a

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literary reflection. An example of this would be an assignment asking you to
analyze the emotional impact of the figurative language in one or more poems.
Regardless of the type of response to literature that you are writing, you will
need to use evidence from the text to support your claims. For example, if you
assert that a character is vain, you will need to cite details, events, actions, and
dialogue from the text that reveal and support your assertion, or claim. You
should typically seek to include two or three citations from the story that support
each of your assertions. Finally, keep the tone of your writing formal.

76
 Lesson 22: Respond to Literature

When you plan your writing for a response to literature, you may want to use a chart to
organize your ideas. The information you put into the chart should show that:
• You understand the author’s message.
• You have insight about the characters, setting, events, and ideas in the story.
• You can cite examples and evidence from the text that support your
interpretation of the piece of literature.
Suppose that you were asked to write about the conflicts and changing relationships in a
story about a teenager named Jay and his extended family. Your completed chart might look
something like this:

Supporting Detail Supporting Detail Supporting Detail

Author’s Message: Jay’s grandparents Jay’s grandparents Jay’s family is
It is more important are hurt when he are always at his always there for him
to spend time doesn’t visit them. games and school in an emergency.
with family than concerts.
with friends.
Character He doesn’t want Jay would rather He ignores his
Description: to attend his go to the movies grandparents’
Jay is only grandparents’ with his friends than phone calls when
concerned about anniversary party. be treated to lunch he is playing
his own interests with his family. video games.
and needs.
My Interpretation: Jay spends His grandfather Jay’s friends come
Jay realizes that the night at his spends the day over to admire the
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he can have a grandparents’ helping him restore restored bike, and

good time with his house and has a classic bicycle, his grandfather
grandparents as fun playing cards and they enjoy shares stories of
well as with with them. it together. his bike racing days
his friends. with them.

77
 Coached Example
Read the passage and answer the questions.
Derek arrived at the Hartmans’ home early. He had come to stay with his neighbor,
Aiden, while Aiden’s parents were out shopping in the city. Although Derek knew Aiden,
he had never spent much time with him. Derek didn’t expect to enjoy their interaction
since Aiden was so much younger, but he didn’t care because all he could think about was
being paid ten dollars an hour to babysit while playing video games on his smart phone.
Soon after his parents left, Aiden interrupted Derek’s game and said he had a newer
version of the game and invited Derek to play against him on the family’s big-screen TV.
The boys played and had fun until it was time for lunch. Derek was surprised that Aiden
was so good and that every game they played was very close. When the Hartmans returned
home, Derek told Aiden he’d see him tomorrow to play some more and dashed out the
door. It wasn’t until Derek was getting ready for bed that he realized he had completely
forgotten about the money.

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1. Suppose you were asked to write a literary reflection on the characters’ interactions in this
story. What is one point you might include? Remember to support your point by citing
information from the story.

A literary reflection conveys how a piece of writing makes you feel, but remember to cite evidence from the
HINT
text to support your response.

78
 23 Respond to Informational Texts

Getting the Idea

Informational text is nonfiction that provides information on a specific topic.

Some people use the terms nonfiction and informational text to refer to the same
thing, but they should not be used interchangeably. Informational texts provide
information, while nonfiction can include accounts of factual events while
incorporating literary elements, such as setting and plot. A magazine article on a
famous court battle would be an example of this. On the other hand, a science
article about octopuses provides information. This information can be important
if you happen to be researching octopuses. However, a science article on
octopuses wouldn’t use literary techniques. Typically, informational text can be
found in reference books, research books and journals, textbooks, newspapers,
magazines, some online sources, and historical documents.
Informational texts will often contain technical, historical, or scientific vocabulary
that is unfamiliar to readers. You can use context clues to determine the
meaning of unfamiliar words, or you can use a glossary if one is available.
Sometimes, unfamiliar words must be looked up in a dictionary. A historical
document might also reference events that readers might not be familiar with, in
which case the author can include footnotes to provide background information.
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When you are asked to write a response to informational text, you will often
be asked to analyze or summarize the information in it. A summary involves
restating briefly the main idea and most important details of a text in your own
words. Analyzing a text involves judging an author’s presentation of a particular
point of view and the support for it that he or she provides. If a historian claims
that Julius Caesar was the greatest general in ancient history, that claim must
be supported by solid facts, evidence, and reasons. Literary analysis can also
involve comparing and contrasting informational texts on the same subject.

79
When planning your writing, you can organize an author’s main idea and important
supporting details into a web. You can write the main idea of the text in the center circle with
supporting details in the circles around it. These details might include facts, expert opinions,
or quotations from firsthand accounts. It is important to remember that each paragraph or
section of an informational text usually includes a main idea of its own, as well. As you write,
use your web to help present your information in a logical fashion. Finally, keep the tone of
your writing formal.

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80
 Lesson 23: Respond to Informational Texts

Coached Example
Read the passage and use it to answer the questions.

A Short History of Blue Jeans

It may surprise you to learn that blue jeans were first worn as work clothes back in the
1500s, long before they became the clothing of choice for people worldwide. Blue jeans
first came on the scene about five hundred years ago in Genoa, Italy, where they were
created for fishermen and sailors in the Italian navy. Designed for function and durability,
the bulky pants were a far cry from the sleek, form-fitting pants of today. Nimes, France,
followed with its own version of the Italian garment. It was different in color and was
partially made of cotton. It was this French version, adapted by Levi Strauss in 1873, that
became the denim blue jeans, or dungarees, that we know today. Strauss added another
feature to his blue jeans: the rivets, which are there to keep the pockets from ripping!

1. What is the main idea of this article? How does the author support that idea?

HINT
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The title and the first sentence or two of an article often state the main idea.

2. Write a summary of the history of blue jeans.

HINT Think about how the first blue jeans were introduced and how they developed into the blue jeans of today.

81
24 Revising, Editing, and Publishing

Getting the Idea

No piece of writing is perfect the first time. Even professional writers make
extensive changes to their drafts. To revise is to check the organization of
your paper and to make any needed changes. To edit is to correct errors
in grammar, punctuation, spelling, and sentence structure (how words are
arranged in a sentence).
Revising and editing make your writing suitable for publishing. To publish
means to produce writing for others to read. You could write an editorial to be
published in the school newspaper. A description of your science project and its
findings could be published on the school’s Web site.
Below are common errors to look for when you revise and edit. Publishing
electronically enables you to add links to related sites and to the sources of
your research.

Poor Organization
Check that every sentence in a paragraph relates to the topic sentence of that
paragraph. If a sentence does not belong, move it to a different paragraph or
delete it. For example, a sentence about the taste buds does not belong in a

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paragraph about bone structure. Also, make sure your ideas are presented in
logical order. If you are explaining the sequence of a scientific procedure, make
sure you present the steps in the right order.

Mistakes in Subject-Verb Agreement

Subject-verb agreement is using the right verb for the subject. Both the subject
and the verb must be singular or both must be plural. Read these examples.
Incorrect: Cows belongs to the family Bovidae.
Revised: Cows belong to the family Bovidae.
Incorrect: Every student need to read this book.
Revised: Every student needs to read this book.

Errors in Sentence Structure

Read every sentence to make sure it is grammatically correct and makes its
meaning clear. Check for the following common errors.

82
 Lesson 24: Revising, Editing, and Publishing

• A sentence fragment is a sentence that is missing either a subject or a verb.

Incorrect: When the wind blows strongly. Our windows rattle.
Revised: When the wind blows strongly, our windows rattle.
• A run-on sentence is made up of two or more independent clauses joined
without the proper punctuation.
Incorrect: Most beetles eat animals or plants, some eat decaying matter.
Revised: Most beetles eat animals or plants; some eat decaying matter.
• Watch for awkward sentences, too.
Incorrect: The purpose of radio was invented to entertain listeners.
Revised: Radio was invented to entertain listeners.

Inconsistent Tenses
Tense is the form of a verb used to indicate time in a sentence, such as past, present, or
future. Edit any sentences with shifts in tense.
Incorrect: Lee played on the team last year and scores in every game.
Revised: Lee played on the team last year and scored in every game.

Thinking It Through

Read the following sentences, and then answer the question that follows.

After Terrell finish his homework. He plays video games with his brother.
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Edit the sentences and write the corrected sentence below.

HINT Are these both complete sentences? If not, how can they be fixed? Are the tenses consistent?

83
 Coached Example
Read the passage and answer the questions.
(1) Anastazy scooped shovelfuls of sand and poured them
into his bucket. (2) He was determined to make a sandcastle
even if his brother, Patryk, refuses to help. (3) Suddenly,
Anastazy hit something with his shovel in the sand. (4) He
dug deeper until he saw the edge of a golden object reflecting
the summer sun. (5) Excitedly, Anastazy rapidly scooped out
more sand. (6) Had he stumbled upon a buried treasure, the
secret stash of a pirate ship? (7) A shadow suddenly loomed
over Anastazy, and he realized Patryk was standing over him.
(8) “Ready to go in the water?” Patryk asked.
(9) “I’m busy,” Anastazy answered. (10) “Go away.”
(11) But his brother had grown curious and bent down to peer into the hole. (12) “It’s
nothing!” Anastazy shouted, trying to shield the object from Patryk’s view. (13) But it was
too late. (14) An excited gleam leaped into Patryk’s eyes.
(15) “What is that?” he exclaimed.
(16) Anastazy sighed and held out an extra shovel. (17) “Just help me dig, will you?”

1. What revision should be made to 2. What is the BEST way to revise

correct sentence 2? sentence 3?
A. Change refuses to will refuse. A. Suddenly, Anastazy hit something

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in the sand with his shovel.
B. Change was determined to
determines. B. Suddenly, Anastazy hit in the sand
something with his shovel.
C. Change refuses to refused.
C. Suddenly, Anastazy hit with his
D. Change was determined to was
shovel something in the sand.
determining.
D. Suddenly, Anastazy in the sand hit
HINT Check that the subject and verb agree something with his shovel.
and that the tense is consistent.
One way to detect an awkward sentence
HINT
is to read it aloud.

84
 25 Using Resources

Getting the Idea

A resource is a text, audio recording, or video used to gather information. You

use resources to conduct research, a scholarly or scientific investigation of a
topic. For example, when you read a history book to learn the causes of World
War I, you are conducting research. There are various types of sources you can
use to write a research paper.
Print sources include books, newspapers, magazines, academic journals,
encyclopedias, dictionaries, almanacs, and atlases. Digital sources include
Web sites, online newspapers, CD-ROMs, databases, audios, and videos,
such as films.
Most research papers begin with a question. For example: What was the Battle
of Waterloo? Your research will help you generate more focused questions:
Where and when did the battle occur? Which countries took part? What
happened to Napoleon as a result of the battle? Asking questions will help you
narrow and develop your topic.
Sometimes you need to use search terms, or key words, to locate information
on a topic. For example, you do Internet research on Napoleon’s role in the
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Battle of Waterloo. The search term “Napoleon” or “Waterloo” is too broad. Type
in “Napoleon Battle Waterloo.”
Choose sources that are credible and trustworthy. Textbooks and Web sites
ending with .gov, .edu, and .org usually provide reliable information. Confirm the
accuracy of your sources by checking more than one source. Use sources that
are relevant, or most directly connected, to your topic.
When you use ideas from a source, paraphrase the ideas, or put them in
your own words. Suppose a source says: Amnesia is sometimes triggered by
emotional pain. You can paraphrase it to say: Emotional suffering can cause
amnesia. Use quotation marks to quote the exact words from your sources:
According to May Rizzo, “Amnesia is sometimes triggered by emotional
pain.” Failure to use quotation marks or give credit to your sources is called
plagiarism. Provide citations, which are specific references to the sources
where you obtained the information.

85
Also include a bibliography. A bibliography is an organized list of all your sources. In
general, entries include the author’s name, title, city and year of publication, and publisher.
Below are sample entries for a book, a newspaper article, and a CD-ROM:
García, Luz. Understanding Magnets. Chicago: Blue Garnet, 2008.
Jensen, Greg. “The City Fights Back.” The Waterville Daily. 13 July 2010: A4.
“Botulism.” Medical Terminology. New York: Link Press, 2006. CD-ROM.
Some disciplines, like history and science, have different formats for bibliographies and
citing sources. Check with your teacher to be sure you use the correct format.

Thinking It Through

Read the following paragraph, and then answer the question that follows.

Barnacles are shellfish with what some

might consider a lazy lifestyle. They do
not hunt for food in the sea. They attach
themselves to rocks, ships, and other sea
creatures and wait for food to swim or
float by.
—Lester O’Brien

Quote a sentence from the paragraph.

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HINT Lead into the quote with the author’s name, and use quotation marks.

With a partner, discuss what sort of research resource the paragraph

DISCUSS likely came from.

86
 Lesson 25: Using Resources

Coached Example
Read the passage and answer the questions.
When Martha Jane Cannary was thirteen years old, her family joined a wagon train
traveling from Missouri to Montana. To her, the dangerous journey was an adventure. At
stream crossings, she sometimes got on her pony and swam back and
forth while the heavy wagons were slowly pulled across. Sometimes,
the rushing water swept her downstream, but she always survived.
She also learned to shoot, and she helped the men hunt for food.
After both of her parents died, Martha Jane was left to look
after her five younger brothers and sisters. She was only a teenager.
She worked at all kinds of jobs, from washing dishes and cooking
to driving a team of oxen. Then she became a scout for the United
States Army during conflicts with Native Americans. She told wild,
exaggerated tales about her adventures. She became very popular
when she began performing in Buffalo Bill’s Wild West Show.
Her lifestyle and her own tall tales about her life earned her the
nickname Calamity Jane.

1. Which would be the BEST resource to 2. Which resource is a type of video?

find more information on Calamity Jane?
A. a textbook entry about wagon trains
A. an encyclopedia entry called “Early
B. a newspaper article about Calamity
Pioneers”
Jane
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B. a map showing Jane’s route to

C. a voice recording of a descendant
Montana
of Calamity Jane
C. a history Web site on famous
D. a documentary about Buffalo Bill’s
American women
Wild West Show
D. the autobiography of Calamity Jane
HINT A video is a digital resource.
Choose the source that is most relevant to
HINT
the topic.

87
26 Grammar and Usage

Getting the Idea

Understanding the parts of a sentence can help you write better sentences.
Subject: the word that performs the action in a sentence.
Predicate: the part of a sentence that contains the verb.
Verb: a word that shows action or describes a state of being.
Phrase: a group of words that contains a subject or a predicate but not both.
(the house on the hill)
Clause: a group of words that contains a subject and a predicate. (Mahendra
swims in the pool twice a week.)
Independent clause: a clause that can stand alone as a complete sentence. It
expresses a complete thought. (Nikolai watched the fireworks light up the sky.)
Dependent clause: a clause that cannot stand alone as a complete sentence.
(Although the movie received good reviews.) A sentence is not complete unless
the dependent clause is joined to an independent clause. (Although the movie
received good reviews, Jim thought it was boring.)

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Subordinating conjunction: a word or phrase that introduces a dependent
clause (when, because, if, after, until, unless, as soon as, and before)
Modifier: a word or group of words that describes or limits another word or
word group. (To do well on tests, students must be prepared.)
Misplaced modifier: a modifier that is positioned incorrectly in a sentence. It
describes a word that it is not intended to describe, which distorts the meaning.
(Dee put all the clothes into the box that did not fit her.)
Dangling modifier: describes or limits a word or word group that does not
appear in the sentence, or it is associated with a word or word group other than
the one intended. (Sitting on the porch, the cool breeze was delightful.) Fix some
misplaced or dangling modifiers by rephrasing or changing the order of words in
the sentence. (Dee put all the clothes that did not fit her into the box. Sitting on
the porch, we found the cool breeze delightful.)

88
 Lesson 26: Grammar and Usage

Thinking It Through 1
Read the following sentences. Write “phrase,” “independent clause,” or “dependent
clause” under each sentence on the lines provided.

1. Breathed in the delightful scent of the perfume.

HINT Check that the example has both a subject and a verb.

2. If Nathan can figure out how to put the bicycle together.

3. Because Ralph expected to get a higher grade on the test.

4. You can go ice skating with Isabel today.

Read the following sentences. Write them correctly on the lines provided. If the
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sentence is correct, write “correct as is.”

5. Jon assembled the chair that he had bought carefully.

HINT It is not the buying, but the assembling, that Jon did carefully.

6. While vacuuming the floor, the doorbell rang.

7. Share the enclosed stickers with your friends.

89
All sentences fall into four basic types:
A simple sentence is made up of one independent clause. (Lia and Sheree visited their aunt
last summer.)
A compound sentence is made up of two or more independent clauses joined by a
coordinating conjunction (and, but, for, so, or, nor, yet.) Independent clauses are on either
side of a conjunction such as but. (Brett’s car is old, but it is still in good condition.)
A complex sentence has at least one dependent clause connected to an independent
clause. Complex sentences usually include subordinating conjunctions. (I spent two hours in
the department store before it closed.)
A compound-complex sentence contains more than one independent clause joined to a
dependent clause. (After I finish my research paper, I’m going to read it carefully, so I can
make any necessary revisions.)
A key aspect of good writing is conciseness. Concise writing is direct and to the point. The
opposite of conciseness is wordiness. Wordiness is the use of too many words to express
an idea. Avoid words and phrases that do not contribute to the essential meaning of a
sentence. (For example: at any rate, in case of, as a matter of fact, due to the fact that, in a
very real sense, in light of the fact that)
To be more concise, avoid redundancies. A redundancy is a repetition of words or ideas.
(Nadia and Pam have nothing in common with each other.) Phrases like final completion,
circled around, and join together say the same thing twice.
Write more concise statements by using the active voice. The active voice makes the
sentence shorter and more direct. With passive voice, the subject is acted upon. Passive
voice often leads to wordiness. (Passive: The art work was created by Jacqueline. Active:

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Jacqueline created the artwork.) Also, use strong verbs in your writing. (Wordy: The recipe
involves the use of a fresh lemon. Concise: The recipe requires a fresh lemon.)
Wordiness also occurs when ideas are repeated from one sentence to the next. Combine
sentences to be more concise. You can also eliminate wordiness by reducing clauses that
begin with who, which, or that when these are unnecessary. ( Wordy: The store threw a
party for the people who had won the contest. Concise: The store threw a party for the
contest winners.)

90
 Lesson 26: Grammar and Usage

Thinking It Through 2
Read the following sentences. Write “simple,” “compound,” “complex,” or
“compound-complex” below each sentence on the lines provided.

1. Gina ran down the block and caught the bus just in time.

HINT Compound sentences have independent clauses on both sides of the conjunction.

2. You’re not going to the park until you clean up your room.

3. Although the test was hard, T.J. had studied for it, so he did very well.

4. Stephanie works long hours, yet she always has time for her family.

Read the following sentences. Write them correctly on the lines provided. If the
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sentence is correct, write “correct as is.”

5. My favorite actor is writing the autobiography of his life.

HINT Think about the meaning of autobiography. Eliminate the redundancy.

6. As a bonus, our company will send new subscribers a free gift.

7. Due to his past history with the shop, Dean refused to take his bike there.

91
 Punctuation, Capitalization,
27 and Spelling

Getting the Idea

Punctuation is the set of standard marks used to clarify meaning in writing.

Follow the rules below to punctuate your sentences correctly.
Use a comma to separate coordinate adjectives. Coordinate adjectives are
two or more adjectives that modify a noun equally. Adjectives are coordinate if
they pass either of these tests: 1) You can insert the word and between them.
2) You can switch the order of the adjectives without changing the meaning or
creating a nonsensical statement.
Read this sentence: The tired, hungry players walked off the field. These
adjectives pass both tests and are coordinate. Now read this sentence: Emily
admired the fancy silver watch. These adjectives do not pass the tests. They
are not coordinate and are not separated by a comma.
Use a colon to introduce a list when you lead into the list with an independent
clause (complete sentence). For example:
Correct: I got everything I needed: a shirt, new shoes, and a belt.
Incorrect: I went: hiking, fishing, and swimming all summer.

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Use a semicolon to separate two or more independent clauses that are closely
related. For example:
I’ll let you know tomorrow; right now I can’t decide.
Use quotation marks around someone else’s exact words.
“You never listen to me,” Trey complained.
Use a dash to set off nonessential information in a sentence.
The cheetah—the fastest land animal—can run up to sixty miles
per hour.
In this example, the information about the cheetah is set off with dashes. It
would also be correct to use commas around this phrase.

92
 Lesson 27: Punctuation, Capitalization, and Spelling

Thinking It Through 1
Read the following sentences. Write them correctly on the lines provided. If the
sentence is correct, write “correct as is.”

1. All that was in the box was: an ugly, red shirt, a pair of socks, and a hat.

HINT Ask yourself, does the colon introduce a complete sentence? Also, test for coordinate adjectives.

2. Dante laughed and said “I can’t believe you slipped on a banana”.

Review quotation marks on the previous page. Do you see any missing or misplaced punctuation in this
HINT
sentence?

3. Mammals are vertebrates, this means they have a spinal column.

4. Olivia to no one’s surprise—was carrying her favorite, leather bag.

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5. The following: items are missing, my earrings, my wallet, and my phone.

6. “I’ve been writing for hours I wish I could go to sleep” Tanisha cried.

7. Tarsiers are known for their enormous, creepy eyes and long tails.

8. I’m not eating that nasty, foul-smelling soup!

93
Capitalization is the use of capital, or uppercase, letters in certain circumstances and
situations. Follow these rules for capitalization.

Rule Examples
proper names and titles Neil Armstrong, Mrs. Chen, Aunt Ruthie,
Dr. Callas, President Obama
geographical names Grove Street, Pacific Ocean, Mount
McKinley, Lake Superior, Poland
names of organizations Children’s Aid Society, Salvation Army,
U.S. Forest Service
days of the week, Monday, December, Memorial Day
months, and holidays
major words in titles A Wrinkle in Time, “The Gift of the
Magi” (Do not capitalize a word like a,
the, and, in, of, or for unless it is the
first word in a title.)
abbreviations and NAFTA, NASA, DNA, FBI, NBA
acronyms
languages English, Italian, Swahili, Spanish

Correct spelling is an essential part of a well-written composition. There are specific rules
for spelling. For instance, put i before e, except after c. As for many spelling rules, there are
exceptions. The best way to improve your spelling is to read often and check your spelling
in a dictionary. Below is a list of words that are frequently misspelled because they are
confused with words that look or sound alike.

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accept, except forth, fourth stationery, stationary
advice, advise hear, here there, their, they’re
affect, effect it’s, its then, than
all ready, already know, no through, threw, thorough
assistants, assistance moral, morale two, too, to
board, bored patience, patients weak, week
coarse, course personnel, personal where, were
compliment, complement presents, presence whether, weather
conscience, conscious principal, principle whose, who’s
desert, dessert right, write you’re, your

94
 Lesson 27: Punctuation, Capitalization, and Spelling

Thinking It Through 2
Read the following sentences. Write them correctly on the lines provided. If the
sentence is correct, write “correct as is.”

1. Mark twain’s expereinces on the Mississippi river influenced his writing.

HINT Reading each word carefully can help you find spelling errors.

2. On Arbor day, our School planted a tree on franklin street.

HINT Proper names should be capitalized.

3. Principle Kavanagh told students too dress warmly four the whether.

4. Their are only two patience in dr. Medina’s wading room write now.
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5. You’re book report on My Side of The Mountain is do on friday.

6. Will the students whose parents are here tonight raise their hands?

7. This terible headache effects my abiliety to get thorough this book.

8. The EPA is an agency that enforces pollution-control standards in the United States.

95
28 Finding Word Meanings

Getting the Idea

When you read, you often come across unfamiliar words. One of the simplest
ways to learn their meanings is to use a dictionary. However, you may not
always have one at hand. An effective strategy for figuring out the meaning of
a word is to use context. Context is the words and sentences surrounding a
particular word in a text. Read the sentence below.
You have to stop being so impetuous and start thinking things
through before you act.
Suppose you do not know what impetuous means. The context suggests that
someone who is impetuous does not think things through before acting. You
figure out that impetuous means “to act rashly or hastily.”
Many words in the English language have more than one meaning. Context can
help you determine how a multiple-meaning word is being used in a sentence.
Read the sentence below.
Liam could not recall where he had last seen his helmet.
The word recall can be a noun, as in a company’s recall of an unsafe product. In

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this sentence, though, it is used as a verb. The verb recall has several meanings,
including “restore,” “take back or revoke,” or “remember.” Try each meaning
in the sentence. As you see, only the meaning “remember” makes sense. The
word’s function in the sentence helped you figure out the meaning.
Using context can help you determine the meaning of words in historical and
scientific texts. Read this sentence from a history book.
Tired of being disenfranchised, women fought a long battle to
win the right to vote.
Based on the second half of the sentence, you might guess that disenfranchised
means “deprived of the right to vote.” But what if your guess is wrong? Perhaps
disenfranchised means “disrespected” or “ignored.” Key words in textbooks are
usually listed in a glossary at the back of the book. First, check the glossary
to see if disenfranchised is defined. If the word is not in the glossary, use a
dictionary to verify the meaning. In fact, disenfranchised does mean “deprived of
the right to vote.”

96
 Lesson 28: Finding Word Meanings

A dictionary is an essential tool for finding word meanings. Read this sample entry.

ag•gra•vate \á-gr -vat\ v.1. to make worse or more troublesome 2. to rouse to

e
exasperation or anger [Latin aggravare, aggravat- : ad- + gravare, to burden
(from gravis, heavy)]

The entry tells you the word’s pronunciation, part of speech (verb), definitions, and origin
(the information in brackets).

Thinking It Through

Read the following paragraph, and then answer the question that follows.

An ectotherm is an animal whose body temperature

depends on external sources, such as sunlight. Thus,
it changes depending on the temperature
of the environment. In this way, ectotherms are
different from endotherms. Ectotherms are
sometimes called “cold-blooded” and include
amphibians and reptiles. Examples of endotherms
are birds and mammals.

What is an endotherm?
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HINT Use context clues to figure out the meaning of this scientific term.

Individually, come up with words you know the meaning of that

DISCUSS classmates might not. Then, in small groups, share your words and
work out unknown word meanings.

97
 Coached Example
Read the passage and answer the questions.
Cartography, or mapmaking, has been practiced for many centuries. Ptolemy, a Greek
man skilled in the sciences and mathematics, created maps around 150 ce. During the
Renaissance, a period from around the fourteenth century through the sixteenth century,
cartographers created maps from Ptolemy’s writings. None of Ptolemy’s actual maps were
extant during the Renaissance. Cartographers created maps based on reconstructions of
Ptolemy’s writings. These early maps look very different from modern maps of the world.
The land formations are much larger. Bodies of water are different. The words are written
in Latin. Limited knowledge of Earth was an impediment for early mapmakers. They did
not know all of the world’s features. In modern times, satellites allow people to make very
accurate maps. Cartography has advanced greatly over thousands of years. Maps give us
pictures of the world we live in and our place in it.

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1. The word extant MOST LIKELY 2. What does the word impediment
means MOST LIKELY mean?
A. still in existence. A. an obstacle
B. in bad shape. B. an advantage
C. exaggerated. C. a surprise
D. missing. D. an impossibility

Read the surrounding sentences and use Replace impediment with each answer
HINT HINT
context to figure out the meaning. choice. Choose the one that best fits the
meaning of the sentence.

98
 29 Roots and Affixes

Getting the Idea

Understanding the parts of a word can help you figure out its meaning. The
root is the main part of a word. For example, consider the word invisible. In
this word, the root is vis. It comes from the Latin verb video, which means “to
see.” The root has additional parts attached to it. An affix is one or more letters
attached to the beginning or end of a root. Affixes change the meaning of the
root. A prefix is an affix added to the beginning of a word. The prefix in invisible
is in-, which means “not.” A suffix is an affix added to the end of a word. The
suffix in invisible is -ible, which means “capable of.” When you put all of the
parts together, you figure out that invisible means “not capable of being seen.”
Many of the roots and affixes found in English words come from Greek and
Latin. The charts below list commonly used Greek and Latin roots.

Greek Roots
Root Meaning Examples
bene good, well benefit, benevolent
demos people demographics, democracy
gen birth generation, genetics
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graph write graphics, graphite

hydr water dehydrate, hydrant
meter measure thermometer, diameter
phon sound phonics, symphony

Latin Roots
Root Meaning Examples
corp/corpus body corporation, corpuscle
cred believe incredible, credulous
frater brother fraternity, fraternize
magna/magni great, large magnificent, magnitude
mater/matri mother maternal, matrimony
omni all omniscient, omnivore
tempo time temporary, temporal

99
The charts below list prefixes and suffixes and show how they change the meaning of
root words.

Prefixes
Prefix Meaning Examples
ambi- both ambidextrous, ambiguity
anti- against antibacterial, antifreeze
ex- out expel, exhale
mono- single, one monopoly, monologue
multi- many multigrain, multitask
peri- around perimeter, periscope
pseudo- false pseudonym, pseudopod

Suffixes
Suffix Meaning Examples
-able, -ible worthy, capable of laughable, flexible
-cian having a skill mathematician, magician
-fy to make fortify, liquefy
-ic relating to poetic, historic
-ity state of, quality clarity, equality
-ness state of, quality coarseness, forgiveness
-ure act or process exposure, legislature

Thinking It Through

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Read the following paragraph, and then answer the questions that follow.

An oxide is a chemical compound in which oxygen is combined with another

element. Some oxides are human-made, but some occur naturally, such as carbon
dioxide. Oxides are also found in water, sand, and quartz. They are also a part
of carbon monoxide, a poisonous gas that is produced when certain fuels are not
completely burned.

What is the prefix in the word monoxide? Based on that, how many atoms of oxygen are
MOST LIKELY in each molecule of carbon monoxide?

HINT Look back at the chart of prefixes. What does the prefix mono mean?

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 Lesson 29: Roots and Affixes

Coached Example
Read the passage and answer the questions.
Throughout history, most cultures have traced their roots through
the father’s line of descendants. A person’s lineage would follow the path
of the father, the grandfather, the great-grandfather, and so on. Often,
the mother’s line of descendants was completely ignored. Today, it is still
common for brides to take the surnames of their husbands.
Interestingly, some Native American tribes were matrilineal societies.
Iroquois women played important roles in their tribes. They performed
traditional duties, including making clothing and taking care of the
children. However, they also organized agricultural labor. Colonial women
were excluded from political meetings. Iroquois women not only attended
meetings but also selected the men who would represent each tribe at
village councils. The women also had the power to remove the men from
their position if they did not fulfill their duties. The Iroquois mother was the head of her
family. She ran the household and arranged her children’s marriages. When a couple was
married, the man came to live in the longhouse of his wife’s family.

1. What does the word matrilineal mean? 2. The word exclude means to
A. managed by women A. involve.
B. resembling a woman B. request.
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C. traced through the mother’s line C. invite.

D. traced through the father’s line D. keep out.

HINT Use your knowledge of the root matri and HINT Think about the meaning of the prefix ex-.
the information in the passage to figure
out the meaning of the word.

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30 Denotation and Connotation

Getting the Idea

Denotation is what a word literally means, or how it would be defined in a

dictionary. Connotation is the emotional weight a word carries, or the set of
associations implied by the word. Read these sentences.
Russell is a very careful editor. He is known in the company for
being thorough.
Based on the word thorough, you probably have a positive image of Russell.
Now, substitute the word fastidious in this sentence. Both words have a similar
denotation. They describe a person who is very careful and pays attention to
small details. However, fastidious also means “someone who is excessively
careful to the point of fussiness.”
If you were to look up the word thorough in a thesaurus, you would see the word
fastidious listed as a synonym. But words with similar denotations can have
different connotations. This is why it is important to consider not only what a word
literally means but the ideas it implies. Words are said to have neutral, positive, and
negative connotations. The words below all have the denotation of “to converse,”
but think about their associated meanings as you read these sentences.

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Audra talked with her neighbors outside her building.
Audra chatted with her neighbors outside her building.
Audra gossiped with her neighbors outside her building.
The word talked is neutral. It has neither positive nor negative connotations.
The word chatted is positive. It connotes a sense of ease and familiarity.
The word gossiped is negative. It is associated with spreading rumors about
personal matters.
If you think about the connotation of words as you read, you will have a more
precise idea of what authors are trying to tell you. Authors choose their words
carefully, and when they choose one word over another, it is because they
are trying to convey a particular idea. For instance, an author describes a
candidate’s speech as drawn-out. He could have chosen the synonym long.
Both words have a similar denotation: going on for an extended period of time.
By choosing drawn-out, the author suggests to the reader that the speech was
tiresome and boring.

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 Lesson 30: Denotation and Connotation

The chart below contains more examples of the denotations and connotations of words.

Denotation Positive Negative

(literal meaning) Connotations Connotations
a well-developed intelligent, brilliant, cunning, crafty,
ability to think clever, bright, smart calculating, sly
truthful in candid, frank, direct, blunt, brusque, abrupt,
speech straightforward insensitive
firmness of strong-minded, stubborn, willful,
purpose determined, persistent inflexible

Thinking It Through

Read the following paragraph, and then answer the question that follows.

The aardwolf is a member of the hyena family.

Although it is similar in appearance to the hyena,
the aardwolf is more of a runt. Also, it has weaker
teeth and jaws than the hyena. The aardwolf is
found primarily in eastern and southern Africa. Its
diet consists of small animals and insects.

Choose a word from the paragraph that has a negative connotation. What other word or phrase
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could you use to change this connotation?

HINT Think about the meaning of the word and its associations.

In small groups, come up with words that have positive connotations

DISCUSS and words that have negative connotations but share basically
the same dictionary definition as the following: thin, shy, reserved,
persistent, inactive.

103
 Coached Example
Read the passage and answer the questions.
excerpted and adapted from
Heroes Every Child Should Know
by Hamilton Wright Mabie
If there had been no real heroes, imaginary ones would have been created, for people
cannot live without them. The hero is just as necessary as the farmer, the carpenter, and
the doctor; society could not get on without the hero. There have been a great many
different kinds of heroes. In every age and among every people, the hero has stood for the
qualities that were most admired and sought after by the bravest and best.
If you want to know what the men and women of a country care for most, you must
study their heroes. To the child, the hero stands for the highest success; to the grown man
and woman, he or she stands for the deepest and richest life. Courage and achievement are
the two signs of the hero; heroes may possess or lack many other qualities, but they must
be daring and must do things, not just dream or talk about them.

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1. Which synonym for imaginary has a 2. The author uses the word dream to
negative connotation? connote
A. fantasy A. sleep deeply.
B. fake B. lose touch with reality.
C. pretend C. make plans without fulfilling them.
D. make-believe D. let the imagination go wild.

Choose the word that is most closely Reread the sentence in which the word
HINT HINT
associated with something that is false dream appears. Test each answer choice
and misleading. in the sentence.

104
 31 Word Relationships

Getting the Idea

Understanding how words relate to one another can help you understand what
you are reading. It It is important to be aware of word relationships such as
synonyms, antonyms, and analogies.
Synonyms are words that mean almost the same thing. For example, admire
and respect mean about the same thing. Bewildered and confused are also
synonyms. Read the sentences below.
I eat right so that I can stay healthy.
I eat right so that I can stay well.
In the example above, healthy and well are synonyms; therefore, either word
could be used in the sentence. Using one word instead of the other wouldn’t
change the sentence’s meaning.
Antonyms are words that mean the opposite. Selfish and generous are the
opposite of each other. Someone who is selfish thinks mostly or only about
himself or herself. Someone who is generous thinks about and helps others.
Read the sentences below.
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Kate’s ordinary Friday night was spent at home watching movies.

Kate’s unusual Friday night was spent at home watching movies.
In the first sentence, we learn that Kate typically spends Friday nights at home
watching movies. In the second sentence, we learn that Kate typically does not
spend Friday nights at home watching movies.
Knowing synonyms and antonyms for words you use will not only help increase
your vocabulary, but can also spice up your writing. When you are writing
something, use a thesaurus to help find new words for what you are trying to say.
The chart below contains more examples of synonyms and antonyms.

Word Synonym Antonym

allow permit prohibit
cautious wary reckless
friendly welcoming aloof

105
Analogies are a type of figurative language—they are an extended comparison in which
one situation or idea is used to reveal information about a similar situation or idea. The table
below shows some of the more common types of analogies. Note the way the analogies
are written. Use a single colon [:] to separate words in an analogy and double colons [::] to
separate analogies.

Types of Analogies Examples

part : whole classroom : school :: ship : fleet
category : example dog : poodle :: begonia : flower
cause : effect rain : flood :: fire : smoke
tool : its use pencil : write :: automobile : drive
noun : closely related adjective grain of sand : tiny :: mountain : huge
occupation : place of work teacher : school :: doctor : hospital

Thinking It Through

Read the following paragraph, and then respond to the instruction below.

As much as people dislike ants, they are very social insects. They communicate
with one another through smell and by tapping their antennae. Each individual
ant within a colony has its own job. Without each ant carrying out its specific
task, the whole colony would fall apart! In fact, if a single ant were removed from
its colony, it usually would die very quickly because it performs only one job and

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relies on others to survive. Ants have such an organized social structure that each
member of a colony is said to be like a cell in a larger organism.
Circle ten words in the paragraph that you can replace with a synonym. Then write
your new paragraph on the lines below.

HINT Think of words with the same or similar definitions as the words you are changing.

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 Lesson 31: Word Relationships

Coached Example
Read the passage and answer the questions.

Clumsy or Graceful?
Just as the ballet performance was commencing,
I hobbled up the stairs to the theatre balcony. I always
adore watching the nimble dancers as they glide across the
stage, and I never tire of the classical compositions and
beautiful movements. The arabesque, pas de chat, and
battement are some of my favorite moves.
Suddenly, as I was becoming fully engrossed, my
sister jabbed me in the ribs. “Hey,” she said with a wicked
grin on her face. “Those dancers are almost as graceful as
you are clumsy.”
I stuck my tongue out at her, but I knew her claim
wasn’t entirely unmerited. I had just fractured my left tibia while playing soccer, and
a new bruise colored my left shoulder from having smacked into a bookshelf earlier
that afternoon.
Although I would never be known for being graceful or poised, that wasn’t difficult
for me to accept. Watching the ballerinas’ production on stage while I relaxed was just fine
with me. I was happy to leave the hard work up to the dancers and save my energy for the
soccer field instead!
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1. Which analogy BEST applies to 2. Which word is the BEST antonym for
the passage? graceful as it is used in the passage?
A. ballerina : clumsy :: sister : graceful A. violent
B. ballerina : graceful :: sister : clumsy B. ugly
C. writer : clumsy :: sister : graceful C. awkward
D. writer : clumsy :: ballerina : graceful D. odd

HINT Think about the description of each HINT What is an antonym for graceful?
subject, or noun.

107
Answer Keys
Lesson 1 Coached Example
Thinking It Through 1. C
Answers will vary. Sample answer: The passage 2. D
is a fable. It is about an animal character that
Lesson 5
learns a lesson.
Thinking It Through
Coached Example
Answers will vary. Sample answer: The story is
1. A
told from Lucas’s point of view. I can tell from
2. B the use of the words I, me, and my that Lucas
3. Answers will vary. Sample answer: Ryan would is the narrator.
most likely relate to Young Spring. Ryan hates Coached Example
winter and can’t wait for spring. Young Spring 1. B
chases Old Man Winter away.
2. B
4. Answers will vary. Sample answer: A key
difference between the two passages is that Lesson 6
the first passage is a myth that explains the Thinking It Through
change of seasons, but the second passage is Answers will vary. Sample answer: If at first you
contemporary fiction—using familiar characters don’t succeed, try again.
in a modern setting to tell a story about the Coached Example
seasons. 1. A
2. D
Lesson 2
Thinking It Through Lesson 7
Answers will vary. Sample answer: Aisha feels Thinking It Through
angry. She slams the phone down, bangs her Answers will vary. Sample answer: The sun is
fist on the table, and storms out of the room. given a human quality, so the sentence uses
Coached Example personification.
1. D Coached Example

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2. D 1. B
2. B
Lesson 3
Thinking It Through Lesson 8
Answers will vary. Sample answer: The poem Thinking It Through
has a fixed meter, or number of beats per line. Answers will vary. Sample answer: Ari runs to
In each stanza, lines 1 and 3 each have four the water’s edge and starts waving because he
beats, while lines 2 and 4 each have three sees a ship that can rescue him.
beats. This creates a sing-song quality, Coached Example
or rhythm. 1. A
Coached Example 2. C
1. B
Lesson 9
2. D
Thinking It Through
Lesson 4 Students should write “Long and muscular in
Thinking It Through build, this breed is the fastest of all dog breeds
Answers will vary. Sample answer: A month and can reach speeds of up to forty-three miles
before a track meet against a rival school, per hour!”; “You’d have a hard time catching
Rachel twisted her ankle jumping over a hurdle. him or her!”

108
 Answer Keys

Coached Example 3. Answers will vary. Sample answer: According

1. B to “An Important Discovery,” early navigators
2. A had only crude ways to figure out where they
were and how to get to their destination. The
Lesson 10
development of the compass helped them out,
Thinking It Through
but a GPS system would have allowed them to
Answers will vary. Sample answer: Let every
navigate with much greater precision. Today,
nation know that we will do anything to protect
ships’ officers use GPS to know where they
our freedom.
are, track their speed, and plan routes. Early
Coached Example navigators would have benefitted from this
1. C technology.
2. D
Lesson 14
Lesson 11 Thinking It Through
Thinking It Through Answers will vary. Sample answer: The heat
Answers will vary. Sample answer: The author’s causes the liquid to expand, taking up more
point of view is that eating a healthy breakfast is room and forcing its way up the tube.
good for you and can help dieters lose weight. Coached Example
Coached Example 1. A
1. A 2. C
2. B
Lesson 15
Lesson 12 Thinking It Through
Thinking It Through Answers may vary. Sample answer: ecosystem,
Answers will vary. Sample answer: In On the predator, population, species. These words
Fabric of the Human Body, physician Andreas are domain-specific because they relate to a
Vesalius explored human anatomy as it had not specific science topic.
been done before. Vesalius corrected errors Coached Example
in the anatomical studies of Galen, a physician 1. C
from ancient Greece.
2. A
Coached Example
Duplicating any part of this book is prohibited by law. © Triumph Learning, LLC

1. D Lesson 16
2. B Thinking It Through
The countries are Algeria and Tunisia.
3. Answers will vary. Sample answer: The
secondary source establishes the context of Coached Example
Eisenhower’s “Order of the Day.” It explains 1. C
what D-Day was, when it happened, and how 2. B
many troops were involved. It also tells the Lesson 17
outcome of the attack. Thinking It Through
Lesson 13 The excerpt is a reasoned judgment.
Thinking It Through Coached Example
Answers will vary. Sample answer: 1) less 1. A
reliance on agriculture; 2) increased production 2. D
in manufacturing and agriculture; 3) the creation
Lesson 18
of more factory jobs requiring specialized skills
Thinking It Through
Coached Example Answers will vary. Sample answer: One
1. C passage is an opinion piece. The other passage
2. D is from a personal memoir. The passages
are both about the topic of movies. The first

109
 passage expresses an opinion about movies, Lesson 22
and the second passage expresses feelings Coached Example
about making movies. They both stress the Answers will vary. Sample answer: The beginning
importance of movie viewing as a shared of this story made me feel sad. Derek’s lack of
experience. desire to pay attention to Aiden when arriving to
Coached Example babysit reminded me of when my older brother
1. B didn’t want to spend time with me.
2. D Lesson 23
3. Answers will vary. Sample answer: The details Coached Example
support the main idea in “Running Out of 1. Answers will vary. Students should state that
Water”: There is a serious global problem the main idea is that blue jeans have been
that governments must address. But facts around longer than most people think. Students
and details presented in “The Problems with should include important supporting details,
Water Privatization” also show that there is no such as the fact that blue jeans were worn in
simple solution and that governments need to Italy five hundred years ago.
work with private organizations, which can be 2. Answers will vary. Students should write a few
difficult. sentences that accurately summarize the article.
Lesson 19 Lesson 24
Coached Example Thinking It Through
1. Answers will vary. Students should argue for After Terrell finishes his homework, he plays
or against requiring students to learn history in video games with his brother.
school, supporting their position with reasons
Coached Example
and evidence.
1. C
2. Answers will vary. Students should argue for or
2. A
against the United States providing financial aid
to struggling countries, supporting their position Lesson 25
with reasons and evidence. Thinking It Through
Answers will vary. Sample answer: As Lester
Lesson 20 O’Brien writes, “Barnacles are shellfish with
Coached Example

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what some might consider a lazy lifestyle.”
1. Answers will vary. Students should write an
Coached Example
informative paragraph about the duties of the
1. D
U.S. president.
2. D
2. Answers will vary. Students should write an
informative paragraph about a person in U.S. Lesson 26
history. Thinking It Through 1
1. phrase
Lesson 21
Coached Example 2. dependent clause
1. Answers will vary. Students should describe 3. dependent clause
Rochelle’s experience on the roller coaster. 4. independent clause
2. Answers will vary. Students should describe 5. Jon carefully assembled the chair that he had
Tyler’s birthday present and how he feels bought.
about it. 6. While Rob was vacuuming the floor, the
doorbell rang.
7. correct as is

110
 Answer Keys

Thinking It Through 2 Coached Example

1. simple 1. A
2. complex 2. A
3. compound-complex Lesson 29
4. compound Thinking It Through
5. My favorite actor is writing his autobiography. Answers will vary. Sample answer: The prefix
6. correct as is in monoxide is mono. That indicates there is
7. Due to his history with the shop, Dean refused one oxygen atom in each molecule of
to take his bike there. carbon monoxide.
Coached Example
Lesson 27
1. C
Thinking It Through 1
1. All that was in the box was an ugly red shirt, 2. D
a pair of socks, and a hat. Lesson 30
2. Dante laughed and said, “I can’t believe you Thinking It Through
slipped on a banana.” Answers will vary. Sample answer: The word
3. Mammals are vertebrates; this means they have runt has a negative connotation. You could say
a spinal column. the aardwolf is smaller in size than the hyena.
4. Olivia—to no one’s surprise—was carrying her Coached Example
favorite leather bag. 1. B
5. The following items are missing: my earrings, 2. C
my wallet, and my phone. Lesson 31
6. “I’ve been writing for hours; I wish I could go to Thinking It Through
sleep,” Tanisha cried. Answers will vary. Possible answer: As much as
7. correct as is human beings dislike ants, they are very social
8. correct as is animals. They interact with each other through
Thinking It Through 2 olfaction and by tapping their antennae. Each
1. Mark Twain’s experiences on the Mississippi single ant within a colony has its own role.
River influenced his writing. Without each insect carrying out its precise job,
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2. On Arbor Day, our school planted a tree on the entire colony would fall apart! Also, if an
Franklin Street. individual ant were separated from its colony,
3. Principal Kavanagh told students to dress it usually would perish very soon because it
warmly for the weather. executes only one job and depends on others
to live. Ants have such a systematized social
4. There are only two patients in Dr. Medina’s
arrangement that each member of a colony is
waiting room right now.
said to be like a cell in a bigger organism.
5. Your book report on My Side of the Mountain is
Coached Example
due on Friday.
1. D
6. correct as is
2. C
7. This terrible headache affects my ability to get
through this book.
8. correct as is
Lesson 28
Thinking It Through
Answers will vary. Sample answer:
An endotherm is a warm-blooded animal
whose temperature does not depend on the
temperature of the environment.

111