Measurements & Automation

CAPACITIVE TRANSDUCER
A capacitive transducer is a type of sensor that uses changes in capacitance
to measure physical quantities like displacement, pressure, force, and level. It
works on the principle that capacitance changes when either the distance
between the plates, the overlapping area, or the dielectric constant changes.
Construction:-
A basic capacitive transducer consists of:

• Two parallel metal plates: These act as the electrodes of the capacitor.
• Dielectric material: An insulating material (such as air, mica, or plastic)
between the plates.
• Mounting frame: To hold the plates in position.
• Output terminals: Connected to a measuring circuit or signal
conditioner.
Working:-

A capacitor has two conductive plates separated by an insulator (dielectric).

When voltage is applied, it stores an electric charge. The amount of charge it
can store for a given voltage is its capacitance (C).
𝜀𝐴
The capacitance (C) of a parallel plate capacitor is given by: 𝐶 = 𝑑

Where,
ε = permittivity of the dielectric material
A = overlapping area of the plates

d = distance between the plates

In a capacitive transducer, one or more of these factors (ε, A, or d) are made to
vary in response to a physical quantity you want to measure (like
displacement, pressure, etc.).
As the physical quantity changes, it causes a change in either the distance
between the plates, the overlapping area, or the dielectric. This change
directly affects the capacitance (C) of the transducer.

This change in capacitance is then measured and converted into a

proportional electrical signal (voltage or current). This electrical signal now
represents the magnitude of the physical quantity being measured.
EDDY CURRENT DYNAMOMETER
An Eddy Current Dynamometer is a device that measures the torque and
power of a rotating shaft by using electromagnetic braking.

Working principle:-
Eddy Current Dynamometer works on the principle that, “when a conductor
moves through a magnetic field, it induces eddy currents (called as local
currents). These eddy currents flow in a short circular path around the
conductor and are dissipated in the form of heat.”
Working:-

Stator winding is excited by a d.c. supply as shown in figure. When the solid
rotor moves in the magnetic field produced by stator winding, an e.m.f is
produced in it, thereby inducing eddy currents. These eddy currents oppose
the rotation of rotor. The moment of resistance is measured by torque arm or
brake arm and then torque and hence, shaft power can be calculated. The
mechanical power supplied to dynamometer is converted in the form of heat.
This heat is dissipated or carried away partly by air circulation and partly by
water. Therefore, cold water is circulated through the air gap between the
stator and rotor.
ROBOTS
A robot can be described as a mechanical or virtual agent that is
programmable and capable of carrying out tasks autonomously or semi-
autonomously. These tasks can range from simple actions like moving objects
to complex operations such as surgical procedures or exploring distant
planets.
Robots may be classified on the basis of the end purpose as follows:-

• Industrial Robots: They have arms with grippers attached, which are
finger like and can grip or pick up various objects. They are used to pick
and place. Such type of robots can be programmed and computerised.
• Laboratory Robots: They take many shapes and do many things. They
have micro computer brains, multi joint arms or advance vision or
tactile senses. Some of these maybe mobile and others stationary.
• Explorer Robots: They are used to go where humans cannot go or fear to
tread, e.g. outer space probes, to explore caves, dive far deeper under
water and rescue people in sunken ships. They are sophisticated
machines that have sensory systems and are remotely controlled.
• Classroom Robots: They are developed to assist the instructor in
various aspects of the teaching-learning process.
• Entertainment Robots: They have the ability to speak and respond to the
spoken word. They can be used to entertain the people at various events
or operate as a roving advertisement.
VENTURIMETER
A venturimeter is a device used for measuring the flow rate of fluids in pipes. It
is based on the principle of Bernoulli’s equation, which relates the velocity
and pressure of a fluid. The venturimeter is designed to create a pressure
difference as the fluid flows through it, allowing for accurate flow
measurement. Its primary purpose is to provide reliable and precise data on
fluid flow rates, making it an essential tool in various industries and
applications.
Working:-

One end of U-Tube differential manometer is connected to the pipe at

entrance section (before converging section) and another end is connected at
the throat. This differential manometer is used for the measurement of
pressure difference.
When the liquid flows through the venturimeter’s converging cone, its flow is
accelerated resulting in an increase pressure at section 2.
When the liquid flows through divergent cone, its flow is decelerated or
retarded. As a result of this retardation, the velocity of liquid decreases with
subsequent increase in pressure.
Thus, venturimeter works on the principle of converging pressure energy into
kinetic energy by reducing cross sectional area of flow passage. This leads to
pressure difference, which is measured by means of U-tube differential
manometer.
Flow rate of fluid can be measured using the following equation:
𝐶𝑑 ∗ 𝐴1 ∗ 𝐴2
𝑄= ∗ √2𝑔ℎ
√𝐴12 − 𝐴22
Where, Cd = Coefficient of discharge = 0.98, h = pressure difference, A1 = Area
of pipe, A2 = Area of thread
RESISTANCE TEMPERATURE DETECTOR

A Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD) is a sensor that measures

temperature by detecting changes in electrical resistance. It works on the
principle that the resistance of a material changes with temperature.
Specifically, as the temperature increases, the resistance of the RTD element
also increases. RTDs are commonly used in industrial applications for their
accuracy and stability.

THRESHOLD
If the instrument input is increased very gradually from zero then there will be
some minimum value below which no output change can be detected. This
minimum value defines the threshold of the instrument.
RESOLUTION

When input signal is increased from non-zero value, it is observed that, the
output does not change, until a certain amount of input increment is
exceeded. This increment is called as resolution or discrimination.
STROBOSCOPE
A stroboscope or strobe is an instrument that works on the phenomenon of
stroboscopic effect. It creates a stop motion effect of a rotating object by
flashing a high-intensity light on it. This appearance of a moving object to be
stationary can be used to study rotating, oscillating or vibrating objects.
Hence, a stroboscopic instrument can be used for the measurement of
rotational speed or rotary motion or angular velocity (RPM) of a motor or any
rotating object.
HYSTERESIS

Hysteresis is a phenomenon that occurs in an instrumentation system when

the output of the system does not immediately respond to a change in input.
In other words, the output of the system depends not only on the current input
value but also on the previous input values.
DEAD ZONE

It is defined as the largest change of input quantity for which there is no output
in the instrument.
For example, the input applied to the instrument may not be sufficient to
overcome the friction and will in that case, not move at all. It will only move
when the input is such that it produces a driving force which can overcome
friction forces.