MECHANISMS

3.6LINKAGES
A linkage is a type of mechanical part designed to transmit motion and force. When an input motion is
given to a linkage system, it can be transferred into a required output motion and force. Linkages can be
used to divide the output movement along, two or more paths. Linkages can make two things move at
the same times or make objects move parallel to each other. Linkages are very important in mechanical
systems, because they can be used to change:

• The direction of movement

• The size of the force
• The amount of movement

Linkages can do a lot of things; they are used and applied in many different ways.

3.5.1 TYPES OF LINKAGES

There are different types of linkages such as:

1. Reverse motion linkage

2. Parallel motion linkage
3. Push – pull motion linkage
4. Bell and crank linkage
5. Pantograph – a sketch, parallel linkage.

3.51.1 REVERSE MOTION LINKAGES

These are types of linkages mostly used in a good number of things to make them move in opposite
directions. It may have fulcrum (pivots) at different points on a connecting lever. If the fulcrum where
the connecting lever pivots is at the centre, the output movement will be the same as the input
movement, except that it will be in the opposite direction. If the fulcrum of the connecting lever is
not at the centre, the output movement will not be equal to the input.

Look at the diagrams below:

1. Push – pull motion linkages
These are types of linkages which are used in things to make movement in the same direction as
the input. The linkage connects two levers together ensuring that both move in the same direction
at the same time.

2. Parallel motion linkages

They are types of linkages systems with levers set at a distance apart and parallel to each other at
all times. Any movement they make will be parallel always. Very useful in things such as tool
boxes, lazy tongs(Give diagram of lazy tongs) and many others that work in a similar way. On the
other hand they are also used for respect or copy movement. In some cases by changing the
positions of pivots/ fulcrum, can be used to copy, enlarge or reduce drawings e.g. in a pantograph.
A pantograph is a sketch graph of parallel linkages, which is usually fixed to the drawing (drawing
board) and used to copy, enlarge and reduce drawings at the same time.

4. Bell cranks

These are types of linkage system that can be used to change the direction of motion or force
through 90o e.g. the bicycle brakes; they use the bell crank principle.
Double bell Crank

Double bell Cranks work in the same way as a single bell Crank, but are important and useful where two
things can work at the same time and in different directions. Double bell Cranks can change direction of
motion of things. Also used to operate controls e.g. on a model aeroplane.

3.6 HARMOGRAPH
It is not a linkage system, but a type of mechanism with links and pivots used to make random patterns on
a paper.

Linkages do not only apply in lever systems, they also apply, in other mechanisms such as cams, pulleys,
gears, pneumatic and hydraulic systems. Linkages are not always straight, they are of various shapes.

3.7 THE CAM SYSTEM

What is a Cam?

A cam is a rotating or sliding piece fixed to a Cam shaft or an axle that moves a follower in a desired way.
A cam is a form of a wheel which does not have a true centre. Most cams are connected to rods, levers
or springs. Cams provide repetitive motions.

What is a cam follower?

It is a piece or a rod which is held in contact with a cam system and it gives a regular repetitive motion by
a rotating or sliding a cam. Some followers have rollers or circular wheels to reduce friction.
What is a cam shaft?

It is a rod to which a cam is fixed.

A cam is a mechanism which can be used to change the direction of motion to another, like a rotary motion
into a linear or reciprocating movement. Cams can be used as simple mechanical control devices. Cams
are very important in a lot of machines e.g. in a car engine; in industry where machines have to produce
identical piece of work. Most of the mechanisms or engines which use reciprocating movements have cam
systems.
There are different types of cam. They will be mentioned, but we will be concerned mostly with the rotary
and linear cams “which will be used in most design and Technology projects.

3.7.1 Rotary cams

A rotary cam is a type of mechanism that changes a rotary motion into reciprocating motion. A rotary cam
does not have to be circular. Instead it might be a special heart pear or round shaped piece of metal or
plastic fixed to a rotating shaft. A round or circular cam usually does not have a true centre sometimes
called eccentric cam. The profile of the cam determines direction or movement of the follower. A rotary
cam is often seen as an offset wheel or a wheel with shaped bumps on it; a wheel of an irregular out line
or profile. A cam with a pear shape is considered to be the most common. For half of its rotation, it has a
dwell period. Which means the follower does not move while in contact with the circular part.

There are types of Cam that are flat or plate, used to change the direction of reciprocating motion, often
used on machines such as automatic Lathe. The profile of the Cam raises and lowers the follower. Inclined
planes are linear cams, even though they are not very much used compared to circular or rotary cams.

Where are Cams used?

Cams are used in a lot of machines e.g. in a mortise lock. For the key to lock and open, it uses a system of
Cams. Cams make the pistons in a car engine allow the values open and close when sucking in fuel and air
in the cylinder and letting out the exhaust gas.

3.7.2 Types of cam

There are different types of cam systems. A cam can be designed depending on the type of work it is going
to perform.

3.8 THE CRANK

A crank is a lever which is attached to a rotating shaft. A simple crank may turn a rotary motion into an
oscillating motion. In the normal circumstances cranks have additional linkages for them to turn rotation
motions into reciprocating movements. Cranks may be similar to cams in doing work, but they are made
differently. That is to say, they are under special linkage system.

A crank uses a wheel and axle principle. With difference in length of handle, increases the leverage to put
more force to turn the shaft. To have more force and efficiency several handles or cranks are incorporated
into a shaft, i.e. they can be put together to form a crank shaft. A car is one of the machines that uses a
crank shaft to provide motion.

It is a mechanism which can convert rotary motion into linear motion. When the crank is rotated, it forces
the slider to move forward and backwards. If the input is provided by the slider, the crank is forced to
rotate. The longer the crank the more distance the slider can move. The slider moves twice the length of
the Crank through 180o forward and again through 180o backwards

Look at the example diagrams below.

A crank and a slide

3.9 GEAR SYSTEMS
A gear is a system of teeth that can transmit movement from one source to another. Gears are wheels
with teeth or pegs linked together usually made from metal or plastic. Sometimes they can be made of
other resistant materials depending on their use. Gears do not need belts as they drive each other directly.
Gears systems transmit motion and force by inter locking or meshing their teeth together.

A gear

3.9.1 GEARS
Gears are sometimes called Cogs. When two gears mesh together and they are made to run, they produce
a motion. Between the two gears, there must be a driver gear and driven gear. The driver is the input
gear and the driven is the output gear. When the driver gear turns, the driven gear turns in the opposite
direction i.e. reversing the motion. These two gears form a gear train. The more teeth the gear has the
bigger it is. Machine metal gears are expensive compared to plastic gears.
Inefficiency is found to be in metal gears due to friction which is usually reduced by lubrication IDLER
GEAR
In order for the driver and the driven gear to be able to run in the same direction, there must be another
gear in between the two. This gear is called “Idler”. An idler is an extra gear between two gears which
ensures that both the driver and the driven gears rotate in the same direction. On the other hand it can
be used to act as a spacer. An idler gear does not alter the gear ratio of the system, also it does not change
the velocity ratio of the system.

GEAR TRAIN

When two or more gears are meshed together they form a gear train. The gear train transmit rotary
(turning) motion torque through several gears. On many gear trains a small wheel called ‘pinion,’ is fixed
or mounted on a larger gear.
SPUR GEARS
These may be regarded as ordinary or normal gears (flat gears). When spur gears of different sizes are
meshed, the larger gear is called the wheel and the smaller gear is called pinion. These two gears make a
simple gear train. If the smaller gear is the driver and the large gear is the driven, the smaller gear (the
pinion) will rotate faster than the large gear (the wheel), the wheel will be slower. The velocity ratio (and
gear ratio) will depend on the number of the teeth of the driver gear and the number of the teeth of the
driven gear. Suppose the smaller gear has 20 teeth and the larger gear has 80 teeth
(see diagram below), the gear ratio of this simple gear train would be:-

Gear Ratio = Number of teeth on driven gear

Number of teeth on driver gear

GR = 80 = 4 = 4:1
20 1
So the gear ratio will be 4:1, which means while the smaller gear makes a complete revolution will only
move ¼ of its revolution. So for it to make a complete revolution, the smaller one must make four
revolutions. Therefore, the gear ratio is comparing the number of teeth of one gear to another. NB: Spur
gear transmission system is compact and has minimal backlash between the gears which is a great
advantage.
COMPOUND GEAR TRAIN
It is a combination of simple gear trains sometimes it is not possible that simple gear trains can provide a
big enough gear ratio. (Look at diagrams below). What motions can they make? Can their ratio be
calculated?
WHAT IS SPECIAL ABOUT GEARS?

Usually gears can be used to slow down motions. This is called gearing up. They can be used to rotate
things faster. This is known as gearing up.
Gears:
1. Are efficient and accurate.
2. Can be quiet.

3. Can transmit large loads.

4. Can run at fast or slow speeds.
5. Need to be mounted carefully or they won’t run properly.
6. Gear trains can have small or large ratios.

3.9.2 TYPES OF GEARS

There are different types of gear systems. Apart from the ordinary gears, there are several types which
may be called special gears. Special gears are used for transmitting rotary (turning) motions in special
ways. Some are used for turning a drive through 90%, of converting rotary to linear (straight line
movement). These are bevel gears, worm and wheel gears, Rack and Pinion gears, crown gears.

BEVEL GEARS They are gears that can drive round corners. Bevel gears can be driven at many different
angles, usually turning a drive through 90º. They have their teeth cut at an angle (usually 45º). When two
bevel gears are meshed together they change the direction of rotary motion into rotary motion through
90º angle. One example where the bevel gears are applied is a hand drill. The bevel gear ratio works in
the same way as normal gears.

CROWN GEARS This is another type of gear system used to transmit and change rotary motion through
90º.
WORM AND WORM WHEEL This is another gear system which is used to change the direction of motion
through 90º. A worm gear is a special type of gear. A worm is a screw. It is a single long tooth wrapped
around the cylinder, a thread cut like a screw which meshes with a worm wheel. The worm shaft is always
at 90º to the worm’s wheel shaft. When the worm turns once, the wheel turns ‘one tooth.’ This means
for every one complete turn of the worm, the worm wheel rotates by distance of just one of its teeth. For
example if the driven gear has 50 teeth, the worm must turn 50 times to produce one output revolution.
The teeth of a worm wheel are cut at a slight angle in such a way that it will mesh easily with a worm.
Worm gears only gear down. The worm can drive the wheel. The wheel cannot drive the worm this means
the gear acts like a brake. The worm tries to push itself off the shaft. This has to be stopped somehow.
Worm gear can convert high speed to low speed in one reduction. Worm gears can have very high gear
ratios. Worm gears can as well be inefficient.

GEAR RATIO = Number of teeth on worm wheel

Number of teeth on worm

Number of input turns = Number of output turns x Number of teeth in a worm wheel.

= 50 x 50 = 2,500 turns

Input torque = 300 kg – cm ÷ 50 = 6 kg – cm

Real input torque = input torque ÷ efficiency

Example efficiency = 25%

Real input torque = 6 kg – cm ÷ 0.25 = 24 kg – cm
GEAR RATIO = Number of teeth on worm wheel
 Number of teeth on worm gear

= 50 = 50:1

RACK AND PINION A rack is a flat bar with teeth cut along its surface and works together with a pinion. A
pinion is a small wheel with teeth cut on its outer edge used as part of a Rack and Pinion gear system. The
rack and pinion gear system converts rotary into linear movement and vice–versa. Examples of where Rack
and Pinion system is used are a pillar drill, canal lock gates, car steering wheel and several other machines

3.9.3 GEAR TRAINS IN FORM OF GEAR BOXES

Gear trains are very common in gear boxes of various machines. A gear box contain an assembly of gears
that connect input and output shafts. Usually pairs of gears are fixed together on rotating shafts and these
pairs mesh together in form of gear train. Gear boxes are used in cars, clock mechanisms, metal lathe
machines and many other machines. In gear boxes various speeds are produced, low, high and even
reverse speeds e.g for high speed (low torque) input usually is transformed or changed into low speed
(high torque) output. Gear boxes like those found in cars, have allowance for gears to be slipped in and
out of mesh by a gear level to give different ratios and a change of directions.

Gearbox Gear System

CHAIN AND SPROCKET

The chain and sprocket system is another type of mechanism with a strong drive linkage. A sprocket is
toothed wheel. A chain is a length of loosely jointed links. The best way to make the belt grip better is to
increase the friction between the belt and the wheel by changing surfaces of the belt. A chain and sprocket
uses wheels that slot into the chain belt. This stops the chain from slipping and makes the drive more
positive. This type of drive is common on bicycles, motor-cycles, some forklifts and many other machinery

ADVANTAGES
The chain and sprocket main advantages are positive non slip drive. It also serves a strong drive linkage.
- Chains don’t wear out so quickly.
DISADVANTAGES

- The cost of chain and sprocket.

- Need for lubrication.
 - Backlash between the chain and the sprocket.
- Nosy operation.

CHAIN AND SPROCKET VELOCITY RATIO

The ratio depends on the number of teeth on the driver and driven sprockets. For example if the number
of teeth of the small driver sprocket is 16 and the driven large sprocket is 32, the driven sprocket will rotate
slowly. For a complete turn of the driver sprocket, it will mean a ½ turn of the driven sprocket, and on the
chain link it would mean that only 16 links of the chain are moved along.
Therefore the velocity ratio will be VR = Number of teeth on the driven sprocket
Number of teeth on the driver sprocket

VR = 32 = 2 = 2:1
16 1

3.6 PULLEY SYSTEMS

A pulley is a wheel system with a groove in its rim used to transmit motion by means of a belt, rope or
string passing over a rim.

pulley

USES OF PULLEY SYSTEM

1. Pulleys are quite important means of transmitting forces in machines. Transmitting rotary motion
and torque (turning force) from one shaft to another.
2. Lifting things.
WHERE PULLEYS ARE USED
There are many things, domestic and industrial appliances and machinery in which pulleys are used e.g
Sewing machines, Lawn mowers, Elevators, Drilling machines etc. It will also depend on what type of
pulley system.

3.10.1 TYPES OF PULLEY SYTEMS

There are mostly two types of pulley system i.e.
1. Power pulleys – for changing and transferring motion
2. Lifting pulleys.

POWER PULLEYS
They are pulleys which are used for changing and transferring motion. Mostly, these are belt and pulley
transmission system.

• These types of pulleys are fixed on shafts and with belts transfer rotary motion from one point to
another.

Pulleys fixed on shafts

• They are also used to change speed, and can be used to change the direction of motion.

• Pulleys need to be fixed tightly onto shafts or else they might slip and render the effort and energy
lost.

In a belt and pulley transmission system, there are some advantages and disadvantages. These are:-
ADVANTAGES
- Their operation is quiet.

- Belts do not require lubrication.

- Belts are relatively cheap to produce.

- Belts can easily be replaced.
- Because of the above points, they are used in a lot of domestic appliances.

DISADVANTAGES
- Sometimes belt slips occur.

- On the other hand a belt slip is not always a disadvantage. When a slip occur it may be useful as it
might not cause some injury to the person using the equipment or damage the equipment being
used.
SPEED RATIO
In the machines that use belt and pulley, the output rotary speed of the shaft depends on the speed ratio
of the pulley system. Also at which the motor shaft rotates. For example, if a small pulley of 78.5
circumference for one complete revolution of the driver pulley on the belt, will be ¼ of the driven large
pulley moved along the belt. The rotary speed ratio between the driver pulleys is called speed ratio.
Look at the diagram below:

You have already known the lever velocity ratio which is:-
VR = Distance moved by effort
Distance moved by load

Similarly the pulley velocity ratio will be either by using the circumferences of both the driver and the
driven pulleys or by using the diameters of both the driver and the driven pulleys. So using the following
formula, the speed ratio can be calculated:
Speed ratio = circumference of the driven pulley
Circumference of the driver pulley
 = 314 = 4 = 4:1
78.5 1

Or VR = Diameter of driven pulley

Diameter of driver pulley

= 100 = 4 = 4:1
25 1

ROTARY SHAFT SPEED

Now that the velocity ratio of the pulley system is known, i.e. 4:1, therefore the rotary speed of a given
shaft can be known. If the input shaft could run at 60 rpm (revolution per minute), then the shaft would
then run at the speed of:-
RPM of driven shaft = RPM of driven shaft x diameter of driver pulley
Diameter of driven pulley

RPM = 60rpm x 25 mm = 60 x 25 = 15 rpm 100

100

NO SLIP BELT ON PULLEY SYSTEM

A special toothed belt and pulley are used in cases where quiet no slip drive is needed especially in engines
which use timing belts, where any slip would cause a serious problem to them.

BELT DRIVES
Belt drives are called friction drives because if they were left not to be tight, they can stretch and slip. That
is why it is even necessary to have a tensioner to prevent the belt slipping from the wheel. There are
several ways of making sure that belts are tight.
 1. Making sure the belt is made to measure.

2. Pushing the jockey (tensioner) pulley down makes the belt tight.

3. Slipping the pulley in the slot tightens the belt.

4. Where there is a provision for adjusting the position of the pulley, the belt can be
tensioned.

SOME POINTS TO REMEMBER ON PULLEYS

- The pulley belt when turned into 90º from the driver pulley to the driven pulley, changes the
direction of motion into quarter turn.
- Twisting the belt into 180º also changes the direction of motion into the opposite direction, i.e. the
driven pulley reverses the motion.
- Belt pulleys of the same size will run at the same speed and in the same direction when the belt is
not twisted to any particular angle.
- The principle is if a small pulley is used to drive a large pulley, the large pulley speed will be slower.
When a large pulley is used to drive a small pulley the small pulley speed will be faster.
When pulleys are of the same size, they will run at the same speed.
COMPOUND BELT DRIVE

It is a pulley system where more than two pulleys are used and connected not to one belt. For example in
a compound pulley system shown below, pulley A is small it will move faster but with low torque
(turning force). Pulley B is bigger it will move slower when driven by A but it will have more torque. Pulley
C mounted on the same shaft as pulley B is small but have the same torque as pulley B Pulley D is big same
as B driven by belt connected to pulley C and it will move slower but will have the most output torque.
A B C D

A B C D

LAYSHAFT
It is a shaft or spindle mounted with several pulleys at different positions which drives lots of different
machines at the same time from the same source of power.
VARIABLE SPEED DRIVE
A pillar drill serves a good example of a machine with variable speed drive using only one belt of the same
size. It has two sets of stepped cone pulleys with one set mounted on the driver motor shaft, and another
on the driven shaft. They are mounted in the opposite way. The smallest driven pulley will be give the
fastest speed because it is driven by a larger pulley. Likewise the largest driven pulley will provide the
slowest speed because it is driven by the smallest pulley. So using only one belt several speeds are
obtained from the stepped pulleys.

3.10.3. LIFTING PULLEYS

They are pulleys which are known as free running pulleys. They are used where lifting of heavy things are
required e.g. in factories, in building and construction industries, ware houses, mechanical workshops and
many other places where heavy loads have to be lifted. In lifting pulleys, there are compound and single
pulley systems. Compound pulley systems use two, three or more pulleys depending on the nature of
loads to be lifted. Lifting pulleys use ropes, strings and also chains in some instances or area.

Look at the machine rule of lifting pulleys given below

EXAMPLE DATA
Load = 100 kg
Number of falls = 4
Height lifted = 2m
 1. What will be the effort applied?
2. What will be the distance moved by effort?
Look at the diagram below:

1. Input effort = Load ÷ Number of falls

Input effort = 100 kg ÷ 4
Input effort = 100 = 2kg
4
2. Distance moved by effort = number of falls x height lifted

Distance move by effort = 4 x 2m

Distance move by effort = 8m

A simple pulley system is known as a simple pulley system. A simple pulley system does not multiply force.
Its advantages are that it changes the direction of force. As we can be aware, it is easier to pull down than
to pull up. Therefore a single pulley makes work easier by allowing pulling down in order to raise a load.

SEE DIAGRAM BELOW

3.10.4 BLOCK AND TACKLE SYSTEM

A block and tackle is made up of several fixed and moving pulleys. A block and tackle is commonly used
e.g. in butcheries for lifting carcasses; in auto mechanics workshops to lift cap engines. Using a block and
tackle uses a smaller effort to lift a large load.