Mathematics

II
Complex
Analysis

Dr.
Tarkeshwar Mathematics II
Singh
Complex Analysis
Functions

Limits and
Continuity

Continuity Dr. Tarkeshwar Singh

Derivatives
Department of Mathematics, BITS-Pilani K K Birla Goa Campus

March 19, 2025

 Complex functions

Mathematics
II
Complex A function from a subset of complex numbers into the set of complex numbers
Analysis
is called a complex function.
Dr.
Tarkeshwar
Singh

Functions

Limits and
Continuity

Continuity

Derivatives
 Complex functions

Mathematics
II
Complex A function from a subset of complex numbers into the set of complex numbers
Analysis
is called a complex function.
Dr.
Tarkeshwar Let S ⊂ C be a subset of C, then a mapping f : S → C is called a complex
Singh
function if it is well defined.
Functions

Limits and
Continuity

Continuity

Derivatives
 Complex functions

Mathematics
II
Complex A function from a subset of complex numbers into the set of complex numbers
Analysis
is called a complex function.
Dr.
Tarkeshwar Let S ⊂ C be a subset of C, then a mapping f : S → C is called a complex
Singh
function if it is well defined.
Functions
The set S is called the domain of the function. Sometime if the domain is not
Limits and
Continuity mentioned then the largest possible set where f is well defined is taken to be
Continuity the domain.
Derivatives
 Complex functions

Mathematics
II
Complex A function from a subset of complex numbers into the set of complex numbers
Analysis
is called a complex function.
Dr.
Tarkeshwar Let S ⊂ C be a subset of C, then a mapping f : S → C is called a complex
Singh
function if it is well defined.
Functions
The set S is called the domain of the function. Sometime if the domain is not
Limits and
Continuity mentioned then the largest possible set where f is well defined is taken to be
Continuity the domain.
Derivatives
The set {f (z) : z ∈ S} ⊂ C is called the range of the function.
 Complex functions

Mathematics
II
Complex A function from a subset of complex numbers into the set of complex numbers
Analysis
is called a complex function.
Dr.
Tarkeshwar Let S ⊂ C be a subset of C, then a mapping f : S → C is called a complex
Singh
function if it is well defined.
Functions
The set S is called the domain of the function. Sometime if the domain is not
Limits and
Continuity mentioned then the largest possible set where f is well defined is taken to be
Continuity the domain.
Derivatives
The set {f (z) : z ∈ S} ⊂ C is called the range of the function.
As in the real variable situation sometime the graph of the function
{(z, f (z))|z ∈ S} is also considered synonymous with the function.
 Complex functions

Mathematics
II
Complex A function from a subset of complex numbers into the set of complex numbers
Analysis
is called a complex function.
Dr.
Tarkeshwar Let S ⊂ C be a subset of C, then a mapping f : S → C is called a complex
Singh
function if it is well defined.
Functions
The set S is called the domain of the function. Sometime if the domain is not
Limits and
Continuity mentioned then the largest possible set where f is well defined is taken to be
Continuity the domain.
Derivatives
The set {f (z) : z ∈ S} ⊂ C is called the range of the function.
As in the real variable situation sometime the graph of the function
{(z, f (z))|z ∈ S} is also considered synonymous with the function.
Suppose w = f (z) is function f at z = x + iy , then we also write
w = u(x, y ) + iv (x, y ).
 Examples

Mathematics

f : C −→ C defined by f (z) = an z n + an−1 z n−1 + · · · + a0

II
Complex 1
Analysis

Dr. where ai ∈ C is called a polynomial function.

Tarkeshwar
Singh

Functions

Limits and
Continuity

Continuity

Derivatives
 Examples

Mathematics

f : C −→ C defined by f (z) = an z n + an−1 z n−1 + · · · + a0

II
Complex 1
Analysis

Dr. where ai ∈ C is called a polynomial function.

Tarkeshwar
Singh P(z)
2 f = where P, Q are polynomial functions, is called a
Functions Q(z)
Limits and
Continuity
rational function, note that the domain of the function is all
Continuity of complex plane except for the roots of Q.
Derivatives
 Examples

Mathematics

f : C −→ C defined by f (z) = an z n + an−1 z n−1 + · · · + a0

II
Complex 1
Analysis

Dr. where ai ∈ C is called a polynomial function.

Tarkeshwar
Singh P(z)
2 f = where P, Q are polynomial functions, is called a
Functions Q(z)
Limits and
Continuity
rational function, note that the domain of the function is all
Continuity of complex plane except for the roots of Q.
f (z) = e z is the exponential function which is defined by
Derivatives
3

e z = e x e iy = e x (cos y + i sin y )
for z = x + iy . Note that the domain is all of the complex
plane.
 Examples. cont

Mathematics
II
Complex 1 If z = x + iy then define f (z) = x 2 − y 2 is a real valued function since
Analysis
the range is contained in the real line.
Dr.
Tarkeshwar
Singh 2 The function f (z) = z + z0 for some fixed complex number z0 is called a
Functions
translation.
Limits and
Continuity 3 f (z) = e iθ0 z is called a rotation since the image is z rotated by the angle
Continuity θ0 .
Derivatives
4 f (z) = az + b for some complex numbers a, b is an affine transformation
of the real vector space C to itself.
5 f (z) = z is a reflection about the X axis.
 Limit

Mathematics
II
Complex
Analysis
Definition
Dr.
Tarkeshwar Let the function f be defined on a deleted neighborhood of a
Singh
point z0 then we say
Functions

Limits and
Continuity lim f (z) = w0 ,
Continuity
z→zo
Derivatives
if for each positive real number  there is a positive real number
δ such that

|f (z) − w0 | <  whenever |z − z0 | < δ

 Uniqueness

Mathematics
II
Complex As we “move” closer to the point z0 the value of the function
Analysis

Dr.
moves closer to the value wo . Note that a limit may or may not
Tarkeshwar
Singh exist. But if it exists then one can show as in the next theorem
Functions that it is unique.
Limits and
Continuity
Theorem 1
Continuity

Derivatives If a limit lim f (z) exists then it is unique.

z→z0
 Uniqueness

Mathematics
II To prove the assertion, (prove by contradiction) let us assume if possible there
Complex
Analysis are more than one limits, let us say w1 , w2 are two limits.
Dr.
Tarkeshwar
Singh

Functions

Limits and
Continuity

Continuity

Derivatives
 Uniqueness

Mathematics
II To prove the assertion, (prove by contradiction) let us assume if possible there
Complex
Analysis are more than one limits, let us say w1 , w2 are two limits.
Dr.
Tarkeshwar
Singh So for each positive  > 0 there are δ1 , δ2 positive such that
Functions |f (z) − w1 | <  whenever |z − z0 | < δ1 and
Limits and
Continuity |f (z) − w2 | <  whenever |z − z0 | < δ2 .
Continuity

Derivatives
 Uniqueness

Mathematics
II To prove the assertion, (prove by contradiction) let us assume if possible there
Complex
Analysis are more than one limits, let us say w1 , w2 are two limits.
Dr.
Tarkeshwar
Singh So for each positive  > 0 there are δ1 , δ2 positive such that
Functions |f (z) − w1 | <  whenever |z − z0 | < δ1 and
Limits and
Continuity |f (z) − w2 | <  whenever |z − z0 | < δ2 .
Continuity

Derivatives
So whenever |z − z0 | < δ = min{δ1 , δ2 }, we have
|w1 − w2 | = |(f (z) − w2 ) − (f (z) − w1 )| ≤ |f (z) − w1 | + |f (z) − w2 |
< 2
Since  in the above was arbitrary, we must have w1 = w2 .
 Uniqueness

Mathematics
II To prove the assertion, (prove by contradiction) let us assume if possible there
Complex
Analysis are more than one limits, let us say w1 , w2 are two limits.
Dr.
Tarkeshwar
Singh So for each positive  > 0 there are δ1 , δ2 positive such that
Functions |f (z) − w1 | <  whenever |z − z0 | < δ1 and
Limits and
Continuity |f (z) − w2 | <  whenever |z − z0 | < δ2 .
Continuity

Derivatives
So whenever |z − z0 | < δ = min{δ1 , δ2 }, we have
|w1 − w2 | = |(f (z) − w2 ) − (f (z) − w1 )| ≤ |f (z) − w1 | + |f (z) − w2 |
< 2
Since  in the above was arbitrary, we must have w1 = w2 .We choose an  smaller
than |w1 − w2 |/2 we arrive at a contradiction |w1 − w2 | < |w1 − w2 |.
Mathematics
II
Complex Theorem 2
Analysis

Dr.
Tarkeshwar
Let us suppose that f (z) = u(x, y ) + iv (x, y ) where z = x + iy
Singh
and u, v are real valued functions of two real variables. And let
Functions
us say z0 = x0 + iy0 and w0 = u0 + iv0 then :
Limits and
Continuity

Continuity lim f (z) = w0

Derivatives
z→z0

if and only if

lim u(x, y ) = u0 and lim v (x, y ) = v0 .

(x,y )→(x0 ,y0 ) (x,y )→(x0 ,y0 )
 Proof of Theorem-2

Mathematics
II For the other direction let us assume that the limits lim u(x, y ) = u0 and
Complex (x,y )→(x0 ,y0 )
Analysis

Dr.
Tarkeshwar
Singh

Functions

Limits and
Continuity

Continuity

Derivatives
 Proof of Theorem-2

Mathematics
II For the other direction let us assume that the limits lim u(x, y ) = u0 and
Complex (x,y )→(x0 ,y0 )
Analysis
lim v (x, y ) = v0 exist.
Dr. (x,y )→(x0 ,y0 )
Tarkeshwar
Singh

Functions

Limits and
Continuity

Continuity

Derivatives
 Proof of Theorem-2

Mathematics
II For the other direction let us assume that the limits lim u(x, y ) = u0 and
Complex (x,y )→(x0 ,y0 )
Analysis
lim v (x, y ) = v0 exist.
Dr. (x,y )→(x0 ,y0 )
Tarkeshwar
Singh

Functions
So given
p  > 0, there exists δ1 , δ0 > 0 such that whenever
Limits and
0 < (x − x0 )2 + (y − y0 )2 < δ0 we have |u − u0 | < /2
Continuity

Continuity

Derivatives
 Proof of Theorem-2

Mathematics
II For the other direction let us assume that the limits lim u(x, y ) = u0 and
Complex (x,y )→(x0 ,y0 )
Analysis
lim v (x, y ) = v0 exist.
Dr. (x,y )→(x0 ,y0 )
Tarkeshwar
Singh

Functions
So given
p  > 0, there exists δ1 , δ0 > 0 such that whenever
Limits and
0 < (x − x0 )2 + (y − y0 )2 < δ0 we have |u − u0 | < /2
Continuity
p
Continuity
and whenever 0 < (x − x0 )2 + (y − y0 )2 < δ1 we have |v − v0 | < /2.
Derivatives
 Proof of Theorem-2

Mathematics
II For the other direction let us assume that the limits lim u(x, y ) = u0 and
Complex (x,y )→(x0 ,y0 )
Analysis
lim v (x, y ) = v0 exist.
Dr. (x,y )→(x0 ,y0 )
Tarkeshwar
Singh

Functions
So given
p  > 0, there exists δ1 , δ0 > 0 such that whenever
Limits and
0 < (x − x0 )2 + (y − y0 )2 < δ0 we have |u − u0 | < /2
Continuity
p
Continuity
and whenever 0 < (x − x0 )2 + (y − y0 )2 < δ1 we have |v − v0 | < /2.
Derivatives

Putting
p these two together whenever
0 < (x − x0 )2 + (y − y0 )2 < δ = min {δ0 , δ1 }

we have |(u + iv ) − (u0 + iv0 )| = |(u − u0 ) + i(v − v0 )|

≤ |u − u0 | + |v − v0 | < /2 + /2 = .
 Proof of Theorem-2

Mathematics
II For the other direction let us assume that the limits lim u(x, y ) = u0 and
Complex (x,y )→(x0 ,y0 )
Analysis
lim v (x, y ) = v0 exist.
Dr. (x,y )→(x0 ,y0 )
Tarkeshwar
Singh

Functions
So given
p  > 0, there exists δ1 , δ0 > 0 such that whenever
Limits and
0 < (x − x0 )2 + (y − y0 )2 < δ0 we have |u − u0 | < /2
Continuity
p
Continuity
and whenever 0 < (x − x0 )2 + (y − y0 )2 < δ1 we have |v − v0 | < /2.
Derivatives

Putting
p these two together whenever
0 < (x − x0 )2 + (y − y0 )2 < δ = min {δ0 , δ1 }

we have |(u + iv ) − (u0 + iv0 )| = |(u − u0 ) + i(v − v0 )|

≤ |u − u0 | + |v − v0 | < /2 + /2 = .
 Proof contd.:

Mathematics
II First let us assume
Complex
Analysis lim f (z) = w0
z→z0
Dr.
Tarkeshwar exists.
Singh

Functions

Limits and
Continuity

Continuity

Derivatives
 Proof contd.:

Mathematics
II First let us assume
Complex
Analysis lim f (z) = w0
z→z0
Dr.
Tarkeshwar exists.
Singh

Functions
So given  > 0 we have a δ > 0 such that
Limits and
Continuity |(x + iy ) − (x0 + iy0 )| < δ =⇒ |(u + iv ) − (u0 + iv0 )| < .
Continuity

Derivatives Now we have |u − u0 | = |Re((u + iv ) − (u0 + iv0 ))| ≤ |u − u0 + i(v − v0 )| < .

 Proof contd.:

Mathematics
II First let us assume
Complex
Analysis lim f (z) = w0
z→z0
Dr.
Tarkeshwar exists.
Singh

Functions
So given  > 0 we have a δ > 0 such that
Limits and
Continuity |(x + iy ) − (x0 + iy0 )| < δ =⇒ |(u + iv ) − (u0 + iv0 )| < .
Continuity

Derivatives Now we have |u − u0 | = |Re((u + iv ) − (u0 + iv0 ))| ≤ |u − u0 + i(v − v0 )| < .

Similarly we have |v − v0 | = |Im((u + iv ) − (u0 + iv0 ))| <  whenever

|(x + iy ) − (x0 + iy0 )| < δ.
 Proof contd.:

Mathematics
II First let us assume
Complex
Analysis lim f (z) = w0
z→z0
Dr.
Tarkeshwar exists.
Singh

Functions
So given  > 0 we have a δ > 0 such that
Limits and
Continuity |(x + iy ) − (x0 + iy0 )| < δ =⇒ |(u + iv ) − (u0 + iv0 )| < .
Continuity

Derivatives Now we have |u − u0 | = |Re((u + iv ) − (u0 + iv0 ))| ≤ |u − u0 + i(v − v0 )| < .

Similarly we have |v − v0 | = |Im((u + iv ) − (u0 + iv0 ))| <  whenever

|(x + iy ) − (x0 + iy0 )| < δ.
p
or whenever (x − x0 )2 + (y − y0 )2 < δ.
This establishes the limits:
 Algebra of Limits

Mathematics
II
Complex
Analysis
Theorem 3
Dr.
Tarkeshwar Let us assume lim f (z) = p0 and lim g (z) = q0 Then:
Singh z→z0 z→z0
Functions 1 lim (f (z) + g (z)) = p0 + q0 .
z→z0
Limits and
Continuity

Continuity

Derivatives
 Algebra of Limits

Mathematics
II
Complex
Analysis
Theorem 3
Dr.
Tarkeshwar Let us assume lim f (z) = p0 and lim g (z) = q0 Then:
Singh z→z0 z→z0
Functions 1 lim (f (z) + g (z)) = p0 + q0 .
z→z0
Limits and
Continuity

Continuity 2 lim f (z)g (z) = p0 .q0 .

z→z0
Derivatives
 Algebra of Limits

Mathematics
II
Complex
Analysis
Theorem 3
Dr.
Tarkeshwar Let us assume lim f (z) = p0 and lim g (z) = q0 Then:
Singh z→z0 z→z0
Functions 1 lim (f (z) + g (z)) = p0 + q0 .
z→z0
Limits and
Continuity

Continuity 2 lim f (z)g (z) = p0 .q0 .

z→z0
Derivatives

f (z) p0
3 If q0 6= 0 then limz→z0 g (z) = q0
 Problems

Mathematics  z 2
II
Complex Show that the limit of the function f (z) = as z tends to 0
Analysis
z̄
Dr.
Tarkeshwar
does not exist.
Singh

Functions

Limits and
Continuity

Continuity

Derivatives
 Problems

Mathematics  z 2
II
Complex Show that the limit of the function f (z) = as z tends to 0
Analysis
z̄
Dr.
Tarkeshwar
does not exist.
Singh

Functions
Find which of the following limits exists:
Limits and
Continuity
1−z z2 − z2 z
Continuity 1 lim . lim . 3 lim .
z→1 1 − z
2 z→0 Rez
Derivatives z→0 z
 Limit to infinity

Mathematics
II
Complex It is sometime useful to consider a point at infinity along with the complex
Analysis
plane.
Dr.
Tarkeshwar
Singh

Functions

Limits and
Continuity

Continuity

Derivatives
 Limit to infinity

Mathematics
II
Complex It is sometime useful to consider a point at infinity along with the complex
Analysis
plane.
Dr.
Tarkeshwar One can show that geometrically the complex plane with a point at infinity
Singh
(Extended Complex Plane)is isomorphic to a sphere.
Functions

Limits and
Continuity

Continuity

Derivatives
 Limit to infinity

Mathematics
II
Complex It is sometime useful to consider a point at infinity along with the complex
Analysis
plane.
Dr.
Tarkeshwar One can show that geometrically the complex plane with a point at infinity
Singh
(Extended Complex Plane)is isomorphic to a sphere.
Functions
One can look up stereographic projection of a sphere with a point removed
Limits and
Continuity onto a plane to find out more.
Continuity

Derivatives
 Limit to infinity

Mathematics
II
Complex It is sometime useful to consider a point at infinity along with the complex
Analysis
plane.
Dr.
Tarkeshwar One can show that geometrically the complex plane with a point at infinity
Singh
(Extended Complex Plane)is isomorphic to a sphere.
Functions
One can look up stereographic projection of a sphere with a point removed
Limits and
Continuity onto a plane to find out more.
Continuity The important concept is limit of a function at infinity. A deleted
Derivatives
neighborhood of the point at ∞ is the set of points {z : |z| > 1 } is called an 
neighborhood of the point at infinity.
 Limit to infinity

Mathematics
II
Complex It is sometime useful to consider a point at infinity along with the complex
Analysis
plane.
Dr.
Tarkeshwar One can show that geometrically the complex plane with a point at infinity
Singh
(Extended Complex Plane)is isomorphic to a sphere.
Functions
One can look up stereographic projection of a sphere with a point removed
Limits and
Continuity onto a plane to find out more.
Continuity The important concept is limit of a function at infinity. A deleted
Derivatives
neighborhood of the point at ∞ is the set of points {z : |z| > 1 } is called an 
neighborhood of the point at infinity.
Once we have the neighborhood defined at the point at infinity we can make
sense of the limit limz→∞ f (z) in the usual sense.
 Limit to infinity

Mathematics
II
Complex
Analysis
Theorem 4
Dr. 1
Tarkeshwar
Singh
1 limz→z0 f (z) = ∞ if and only if limz→z0 f (z) =0
Functions

Limits and
2 limz→∞ f (z) = w0 if and only if limz→0 f ( z1 ) = w0 .
Continuity

Continuity
1
Derivatives
3 limz→∞ f (z) = ∞ if and only if limz→0 f (1/z) =0
Mathematics
II
Complex
Use the above theorem to find the following limits
4z 2
Analysis

Dr.
1 lim .
z→∞ (z − 1)2
Tarkeshwar
Singh

Functions

Limits and
1
Continuity 2 lim .
Continuity
z→1 (z − 1)3
Derivatives

z2 + 1
3 lim
z→∞ z − 1
Mathematics
II
Complex Definition
Analysis

Dr.
Tarkeshwar
A complex function is called continuous at a point z0 if the
Singh
following conditions are satisfied:
Functions
1 lim f (z) exists.
Limits and
Continuity
z→z0
Continuity

Derivatives 2 f (z0 ) exists.

3 lim f (z) = f (z0 ).

z→z0
Mathematics
II
Complex  − δ definition
Analysis

Dr.
Tarkeshwar
Given  > 0 real number there is a δ > 0 real number such that
Singh
|z − z0 | < δ =⇒ |f (z) − f (z0 )| < .
Functions

Limits and
Continuity We sometime say “f is a continuous function” to mean that the
Continuity
function is continuous at all the points of it’s domain or the
Derivatives
region in context.
 Properties of continuous functions

Mathematics
II
Complex Let f (z), g (z) be two functions defined on a domain D with
Analysis

Dr.
z0 ∈ D, continuous at z0 , then:
Tarkeshwar
Singh
1 f (z) + g (z), f (z) − g (z) are continuous at z0 .
Functions

Limits and
Continuity 2 f (z)g (z) is continuous at z0 .
Continuity

Derivatives
3If g (z0 ) 6= 0 then the quotient f (z)/g (z) is continuous at z0 .
Corollary A polynomial function is continuous at any point z0 .
Mathematics
II
Complex Theorem 5
Analysis

Dr.
Tarkeshwar
Let f : D1 → C , g : D2 → C be two continuous functions and
Singh
the image of the function g is contained in the domain D1 , then
Functions
Composition f ◦ g is continuous.
Limits and
Continuity

Continuity

Derivatives
Mathematics
II
Complex Theorem 6
Analysis

Dr.
Tarkeshwar
If a function f is continuous and non-zero at a point z0 then
Singh
there is a neighborhood around z0 where the function is non-zero.
Functions

Limits and
Continuity
Proof: Prove by contradiction, since the function is
Continuity non-zero at z0 let us take  = |f (z0 )|/2 6= 0.
Derivatives
Mathematics
II
Complex Theorem 6
Analysis

Dr.
Tarkeshwar
If a function f is continuous and non-zero at a point z0 then
Singh
there is a neighborhood around z0 where the function is non-zero.
Functions

Limits and
Continuity
Proof: Prove by contradiction, since the function is
Continuity non-zero at z0 let us take  = |f (z0 )|/2 6= 0. Now the continuity
Derivatives
of the function f at z0 means there is a δ such that whenever
|z − z0 | < δ we have |f (z) − f (z0 )| <  = |f (z0 )|/2.
Mathematics
II
Complex Theorem 6
Analysis

Dr.
Tarkeshwar
If a function f is continuous and non-zero at a point z0 then
Singh
there is a neighborhood around z0 where the function is non-zero.
Functions

Limits and
Continuity
Proof: Prove by contradiction, since the function is
Continuity non-zero at z0 let us take  = |f (z0 )|/2 6= 0. Now the continuity
Derivatives
of the function f at z0 means there is a δ such that whenever
|z − z0 | < δ we have |f (z) − f (z0 )| <  = |f (z0 )|/2. Now in this
neighborhood if the function is 0 at some point z then we have
|f (z0 )| = |f (z) − f (z0 )| < |f (z0 )|/2 a contradiction. So the
required neighborhood is {z : |z − z0 | < δ}.
Mathematics
II
Complex Theorem 7
Analysis

Dr.
Tarkeshwar
A function f (x + iy ) = u(x, y ) + iv (x, y ) is continuous at
Singh
x0 + iy0 if and only if the functions u(x, y ), v (x, y ) are
Functions
continuous at (x0 , y0 ).
Limits and
Continuity

Continuity

Derivatives
Mathematics
II
Complex Theorem 8
Analysis

Dr.
Tarkeshwar
If a function f is continuous in a closed and bounded region R,
Singh
then there is a real number M > 0 such that |f (z)| ≤ M for all
Functions
z ∈ R and |f (z)| = M for at least one z ∈ R.
Limits and
Continuity

Continuity Proof: The assertion follows from calculus of two real variables
Derivatives
if we consider the function F : R × R −→ R defined by
F (x, y ) = |f (x + iy )|.
 Derivatives

Mathematics
II
Complex
Analysis
Definition
Dr.
Tarkeshwar
Let f be a function defined in a neighborhood of a point z0 .
Singh
Derivative of f (z) at z0 is defined to be the limit
Functions

Limits and f (z) − f (z0 )

Continuity
f 0 (z0 ) = lim
Continuity z→z0 z − z0
Derivatives

If we use a new variable ∆z = z − z0 then we have:

f (z0 + ∆z) − f (z0 )
f 0 (z0 ) = lim
∆z→0 ∆z
 Differentiation formulae

Mathematics
II d n
Complex
Analysis 1 z = nz n−1 for any natural number n.
Dr.
dz
Tarkeshwar
Singh

Functions

Limits and
Continuity

Continuity

Derivatives
 Differentiation formulae

Mathematics
II d n
Complex
Analysis 1 z = nz n−1 for any natural number n.
Dr.
dz
Tarkeshwar d d d
Singh
2 (f (z) + g (z)) = f (z) + g (z).
Functions
dz dz dz
Limits and
Continuity

Continuity

Derivatives
 Differentiation formulae

Mathematics
II d n
Complex
Analysis 1 z = nz n−1 for any natural number n.
Dr.
dz
Tarkeshwar d d d
Singh
2 (f (z) + g (z)) = f (z) + g (z).
Functions
dz dz dz
Limits and
d d d
Continuity 3 f (z)g (z) = f (z) g (z) + g (z) f (z).
Continuity
dz dz dz
Derivatives
 Differentiation formulae

Mathematics
II d n
Complex
Analysis 1 z = nz n−1 for any natural number n.
Dr.
dz
Tarkeshwar d d d
Singh
2 (f (z) + g (z)) = f (z) + g (z).
Functions
dz dz dz
Limits and
d d d
Continuity 3 f (z)g (z) = f (z) g (z) + g (z) f (z).
Continuity
dz dz dz
Derivatives d d
4 cf (z) = c f (z) for any c ∈ C.
dz dz
 Differentiation formulae

Mathematics
II d n
Complex
Analysis 1 z = nz n−1 for any natural number n.
Dr.
dz
Tarkeshwar d d d
Singh
2 (f (z) + g (z)) = f (z) + g (z).
Functions
dz dz dz
Limits and
d d d
Continuity 3 f (z)g (z) = f (z) g (z) + g (z) f (z).
Continuity
dz dz dz
Derivatives d d
4 cf (z) = c f (z) for any c ∈ C.
dz dz
d d
d f (z) g (z) dz f (z) − f (z) dz g (z)
5 = .
dz g (z) g (z)2
 The chain rule

Mathematics
II
Complex F (z) = g (f (z)) writing w = f (z) then
Analysis

Dr.
Tarkeshwar
d d d
Singh F (z) = g (w ) f (z)
dz dw dz
Functions

Limits and
Continuity
Sometime we write f 0 (z) for d
dz f (z). With this notation in mind
Continuity the chain rule becomes:
Derivatives

F 0 (z) = g 0 (f (z))f 0 (z).

Mathematics d d
II
1 0
z dz (1) − 1 · dz (z) −1
Complex
Analysis 1 f (z) = z. then f (z) = = .
Dr.
z2 z2
Tarkeshwar
Singh

Functions

Limits and
Continuity

Continuity

Derivatives
Mathematics d d
II
1 0
z dz (1) − 1 · dz (z) −1
Complex
Analysis 1 f (z) = z.
then f (z) = = .
Dr.
z2 z2
z−1
Tarkeshwar
Singh
2 f (z) = 2z+1 , z 6= − 12 . Then
Functions d d
Limits and 0 (2z + 1) dz (z − 1) − (z − 1) · dz (2z + 1)
Continuity f (z) =
Continuity
(2z + 1)2
Derivatives
(2z + 1)(1) − (z − 1)(2) 3
f 0 (z) = 2
=
(2z + 1) (2z + 1)2
Note: Differentiability implies continuity but continuity does
not imply differentiabilty.