TMS1802 (Texas Instruments) • So we design a printed-circuit board (PCB)

using Zilog’s Z80 processor.

- designed for usage in calculators
• On the board, we put a Z80 CPU,
- by the end of 1971 advertised for applications
• 2 PIOs (parallel I/O; each chip has 16 I/O
in cash registers, watches and measuring
lines, we need 20),
instruments
• 1 SIO (serial I/O; for communication to the
TMS 1000 (1974) PC),
• 1 CTC (Timer; for periodical actions),
- already included RAM, ROM, and I/O on-
• SRAM (for variables),
chip and can be seen as one of the first
• Flash (for program memory), and
microcontrollers, even though it was called a
• EEPROM (for constants).
microcomputer.

First Controllers to Gain Really Widespread Use

- Intel 8048 - integrated into PC keyboards

- Intel 8051
- 68HCxx series of microcontrollers from
Motorola (euro format, 10 × 16 cm)

Uses for controllers • A reset button and connectors for the SIO and
PIO pins was added, but leave out the power
1. household appliances (microwave, washing
supply circuitry and the serial connector to
machine, coffee machine, . . . )
avoid cluttering the layout.
2. telecommunication (mobile phones)
3. automotive industry (fuel injection, ABS, . .)
4. aerospace industry
• Incidentally, we could also solve the problem
5. industrial automation
with the ATmega16 board we use in the
6. Among others
Microcontroller lab.
• The reduction in size is about a factor 5-6,
and the ATmega16 board has even more
Assume that we want to:
features than the Z80 board (for example an
1. periodically read the temperature (analog analog converter)
value, is digitized by sensor; uses 4-bit • The reason why we do not need much space
interface), for the ATmega16 board is that all those chips
2. control heating according to the temperature on the Z80 board are integrated into the
(turn heater on/off; 1 bit), ATmega16 microcontroller, resulting in a
3. display the current temperature on a simple significant reduction in PCB size.
3-digit numeric display (8+3 bits),
4. allow the user to adjust temperature
thresholds (buttons; 4 bits), and
5. be able to configure/upgrade the system over
a serial interface.

(ATmega16 board superposed on the Z80 board)

Difference between Microcontroller and
Microprocessor

• A microcontroller is a processor with

memory and a whole lot of other components
integrated on one chip. The example also
illustrates why microcontrollers are useful:
The reduction of PCB size saves time, space, (Comparison of AVR 8-bit controllers (AVR, ATmega, ATtiny)
and money.
• The difference between controllers and One thing all these controllers have in
processors is also obvious from their pinouts. common is their AVR processor core, which
Figure 5.3 shows the pinout of the Z80 contains 32 general purpose registers and
processor. You see a typical processor pinout, executes most instructions within one clock
with address pins A0-A15, data pins D0-D7, cycle.
and some control pins like INT, NMI or 2. Choose the right controller for the job.
HALT. In contrast, the ATmega16 has neither - controllers vastly differ in their memory
address nor data pins. Instead, it has 32 configurations and I/O.
general purpose I/O pins PA0- PA7, PB0- - chosen controller should of course cover
PB7. the hardware requirements of the
application, but it is also important to
estimate the application’s speed and
memory requirements and to select a
controller that offers enough
performance.
- an application should take up no more
than 80% of the controller’s memory –
this gives you some buffer for later
additions; allows you to have reserves in
case of unforeseen problems or additional
features.
PC0-PC7, PD0-PD7 Functions - in 32- bit microcontrollers you generally
also include an operating system to
• PD0 and PD1 can be used as the receive and
support the application and its
transmit lines of the built-in serial interface.
development, which increases the
• Apart from the power supply, the only
performance demands even more.
dedicated pins on the ATmega16 are RESET,
- for small 8-bit controllers, however, only
external crystal/oscillator XTAL1 and
the application has to be considered.
XTAL2, and analog voltage reference AREF.
Here, rough estimations can be made for
example based on previous and/or similar
projects.
STEPS IN DESIGNING A MICROCONTROLLER
1. Choosing a Controller Family; controller
family defines the controller’s architecture.
(e.g. 8051, PIC, HC, ARM)
Block Diagram of a Typical Microcontroller • Analog I/O: Apart from a few small
controllers, most microcontrollers have
integrated analog/digital converters, which
differ in the number of channels (2-16) and
their resolution (8-12 bits). The analog
module also generally features an analog
comparator. In some cases, the
microcontroller includes digital/analog
converters.
• Interfaces: Controllers generally have at least
All components are connected via an internal bus and
one serial interface which can be used to
are all integrated on one chip. The modules are
download the program and for
connected to the outside world via I/O pins.
communication with the development PC in
Modules Typically Found in a Microcontroller general. Since serial interfaces can also be
used to communicate with external peripheral
• Processor Core: The CPU of the controller. It
devices, most controllers offer several and
contains the arithmetic logic unit, the control
varied interfaces like SPI and SCI.
unit, and the registers (stack pointer, program
• Integrated bus controllers for the most
counter, accumulator register, register file,...)
common (field)busses. IIC and CAN
• Memory: The memory is sometimes split into
controllers lead the field here. Larger
program memory and data memory. In larger
microcontrollers may also contain PCI, USB,
con-trollers, a DMA controller handles data
or Ethernet interfaces.
transfers between peripheral components and
• Watchdog Timer: Since safety-critical
the memory.
systems form a major application area of
• Interrupt Controller: Interrupts are useful for
microcontrollers, it is important to guard
interrupting the normal program flow in case
against errors in the program and/or the
of (important) external or internal events. In
hardware. The watchdog timer is used to reset
conjunction with sleep modes, they help to
the controller in case of software “crashes”.
conserve power.
• Debugging Unit: Some controllers are
• Timer/Counter: Most controllers have at least
equipped with additional hardware to allow
one and more likely 2-3 Timer/Counters,
remote debug-ging of the chip from the PC.
which can be used to timestamp events,
So there is no need to download special
measure intervals, or count events.
debugging software, which has the distinct
• PWM (pulse width modulation) outputs,
advantage that erroneous application code
which can be used to drive motors or for safe
cannot overwrite the debug-ger.
breaking (antilock brake system, ABS).
Furthermore the PWM output can, in Contrary to CPU, microcontrollers do not contain a
conjunction with an external filter, be used to MMU (Memory Management Unit), have no or a
realize a cheap digital/analog converter. very simplified instruction pipeline, and have no
• Digital I/O: Parallel digital I/O ports are one cache memory, since both costs and the ability to
of the main features of microcontrollers. The calculate execution times (some of the embedded
number of I/O pins varies from 3-4 to over systems employing controllers are real-time systems,
90, depending on the controller family and like X-by-wire systems in automotive control) are
the controller type. important issues in the microcontroller market.
To summarize, a microcontroller is a (stripped- Frequently Used Terms
down) processor which is equipped with memory,
Microprocessor: This is a normal CPU (Central
timers, (parallel) I/O pins and other on-chip
Processing Unit) as you can find in a PC.
peripherals. The driving element behind all this is
Communication with external devices is achieved
cost: Integrating all elements on one chip saves space
via a data bus, hence the chip mainly features data
and leads to both lower manufacturing costs and
and address pins as well as a couple of control pins.
shorter development times.
All peripheral devices (memory, floppy controller,
USB controller, timer, etc.) are connected to the bus.
A microprocessor cannot be operated stand-alone, at
Advantages of Microcontrollers
the very least it requires some memory and an output
1. Saves both time and money, which are key device to be useful.
factors in embedded systems.
Microcontroller: A microcontroller already contains
2. Saves space and leads to both lower
all components which allow it to operate stand-alone,
manufacturing costs and shorter development
and it has been designed in particular for monitoring
times.
and/or control tasks. In consequence, in addition to
3. Easy upgradability, lower power
the processor it includes memory, various interface
consumption, and higher reliability, which
controllers, one or more timers, an interrupt
are also very important aspects in embedded
controller, and last but definitely not least general
systems.
purpose I/O pins which allow it to directly interface
Disadvantage: to its environment. Microcontrollers also include bit
operations which allow you to change one bit within
Using a microcontroller to solve a task in
a byte without touching the other bits.
software that could also be solved with a
hardware solution will not give you the same Mixed-Signal Controller: This is a microcontroller
speed that the hardware solution could which can process both digital and analog signals.
achieve. Hence, applications which require
Embedded System: A major application area for
very short reaction times might still call for a
microcontrollers are embedded systems. In
hardware solution.
embedded systems, the control unit is integrated into
Advantage of microcontroller in applications: the system. As an example, think of a cell phone,
where the controller is included in the device. This is
Most applications, however, and in particular
easily recognizable as an embedded system. On the
those that require some sort of human
other hand, if you use a normal PC in a factory to
interaction (microwave, mobile phone), do
control an assembly line, this also meets many of the
not need such fast reaction times, so for these
definitions of an embedded system. The same PC,
applications microcontrollers are a good
however, equipped with a normal operating system
choice.
and used by the night guard to kill time is certainly
no embedded system.
Real-Time System: Controllers are frequently used
in real-time systems, where the reaction to an event
has to occur within a specified time. This is true for
many applications in aerospace, railroad, or
automotive areas, e.g., for brake-by-wire in cars.
Embedded Processor: This term often occurs in
association with embedded systems, and the
differences to controllers are often very blurred. In
general, the term “embedded processor” is used for
high-end devices (32 bits), whereas “controller” is
traditionally used for low-end devices (4, 8, 16 bits).
Motorola for example files its 32-bit controllers
under the term “32-bit embedded processors”.

Digital Signal Processor (DSP): Signal processors

are used for applications that need to —no surprise
here— process signals. An important area of use are
telecommunications, so your mobile phone will
probably contain a DSP. Such processors are
designed for fast addition and multi-plication, which
are the key operations for signal processing. Since
tasks which call for a signal processor may also
include control functions, many vendors offer hybrid
solutions which com-bine a controller with a DSP on
one chip, like Motorola’s DSP56800.

Embedded System: A special-purpose computer

system built into a larger device. An embedded
system is typically required to meet very different
requirements than a general-purpose personal
computer.
Classification According to Number of Bits that has not all the functional blocks available
on a chip is called an external memory
• 8-bit microcontroller, the point when the
microcontroller. For example, 8031 has no
internal bus is 8-bit then the ALU performs
program memory on the chip is an external
the arithmetic and logic operations. The
memory microcontroller.
examples of 8-bit microcontrollers are Intel
8031/8051, PIC1x and Motorola MC68HC11 Classification According to Instruction Set
families.
• CISC: CISC is a Complex Instruction Set
• 16-bit microcontroller performs greater
Computer. It allows the programmer to use
precision and performance as compared to 8-
one instruction in place of many simpler
bit. For example, 8-bit microcontrollers can
instructions. Shorten execution time by
only use 8 bits, resulting in a final range of
reducing the clock cycles per instruction,
0×00 – 0xFF (0-255) for every cycle. In
gives a better execution than the CISC.
contrast, 16-bit microcontrollers with its 16
• RISC: The RISC is stands for Reduced
bit data width has a range of 0×0000 –
Instruction set Computer, this type of
0xFFFF (0-65535) for every cycle. A longer
instruction sets reduces the design of
timer most extreme worth can likely prove to
microprocessor for industry standards. It
be useful in certain applications and circuits.
allows each instruction to operate on any
It can automatically operate on two 16-bit
register or use any addressing mode and
numbers. Some examples of 16-bit
simultaneous access of program and data.
microcontroller are 16-bit MCUs are
Shorten execution time by reducing the
extended 8051XA, PIC2x, Intel 8096 and
number of instructions per program.
Motorola MC68HC12 families.
• 32-bit microcontroller uses the 32-bit
instructions to perform the arithmetic and
logic operations. These are used in
automatically controlled devices including
implantable medical devices, engine control
systems, office machines, appliances and Classification According to Memory Architecture
other types of embedded systems. Some • Harvard Memory Architecture
examples are Intel/Atmel 251 family, PIC3x. Microcontroller: The point when a
microcontroller unit has a dissimilar memory
address space for the program and data
Classification According to Memory Devices memory, the microcontroller has Harvard
• Embedded memory microcontroller: When memory architecture in the processor.
an embedded system has a microcontroller • Princeton Memory Architecture
unit that has all the functional blocks Microcontroller: The point when a
available on a chip is called an embedded microcontroller has a common memory
microcontroller. For example, 8051 having address for the program memory and data
program & data memory, I/O ports, serial memory, the microcontroller has Princeton
communication, counters and timers and memory architecture in the processor.
interrupts on the chip is an embedded
microcontroller.
• External Memory Microcontroller: When an
embedded system has a microcontroller unit
Families of Microcontrollers

1. Microcontroller using Intel 8051-

Microprocessor
2. Renesas Microcontroller
3. AVR Microcontrollers
4. PIC Microcontroller
5. ARM Microcontroller

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