AMBIENT

TEMPERATURE
PROCESSING
Fabio, Jr de la Victoria Guno
Instructor 1
Department of Food Science and Technology
College of Science and Mathematics
University of Science and Technology of Southern Philippines
 Topics to be covered:

Raw Material Size Mixing and Separation

Preparation Reduction Forming Process
RAW MATERIAL PREPARATION
At the time of harvest or slaughter, most foods are
likely to contain contaminants, to have components
which are inedible or to have variable physical
characteristics

It is therefore necessary to perform one or more of

the unit operations of cleaning, sorting, grading or
peeling to ensure that foods with a uniformly high
quality are prepared for subsequent processing.

It is not possible to produce high quality processed

foods from substandard raw materials
 Cleaning Sorting

RAW MATERIAL Peeling/

PREPARATION Trimming
 CLEANING
the unit operation in which contaminating
materials are removed from the food and
separated to leave the surface of the food in a
suitable condition for further
processing.

Peeling of skinning meat or Vegetable

Fruits and descaling fish Blanching
vegetables

Cleaning should take place at the the early removal of small Effective of reducing food wastage,
earliest opportunity in a food process quantities of food contaminated improving the economics of
both to prevent damage to subsequent by microorganisms prevents the processing and protecting the
processing equipment by stones, bone subsequent loss of the remaining consumer.
or metals, and to prevent time and bulk by microbial growth during
money from being spent on processing storage or delays before
contaminants which are then processing
discarded.
 METALS
Ferrous and non-ferrous metals, bolts, filings

MINERALS

CONTAMINANTS
Soil, engine oil, grease, stones

PLANT
Leaves, twigs, weed seeds, pods and skins

ON RAW FOODS ANIMAL

Hair, bone, excreta, blood, insects, larvae

FOODS CHEMICAL
Fertilizer, pesticides, herbicides

MICROBIAL CELLS
Soft rots, fungal growth, yeasts

MICROBIAL PRODUCTS
Colors, flavors, toxins
CATEGORIES The selection of a cleaning procedure is determined by the nature of the
product to be cleaned and by the types of contaminant to be removed.
FOR CLEANING

Wet Dry
PROCEDURES PROCEDURES
for example soaking, spraying, flotation washing
and ultrasonic cleaning for example separation by air, magnetism or
physical methods

Wet cleaning is more effective than dry Used for products that are smaller, have
methods for removing soil from root crops or greater mechanical strength and possess a
dust and pesticide residues from soft fruits or lower moisture content
vegetables. involve smaller cheaper equipment than wet
It is also dustless and causes less damage to procedures do and produce a concentrated dry
foods than dry methods. effluent which may be disposed of more
cheaply.
Different combinations of detergents and plant cleaning is simpler and chemical and
sterilants at different temperatures allow microbial deterioration of the food is reduced
flexibility in operation. compared to wet cleaning
Removing contaminants
and foreign bodies

Summary of techniques used

in foreign body food inspection
Physical separation of
contaminants from
foods is possible when
the food has a regular
well-defined shape.
 SORTING
is the separation of foods into categories on
the basis of a measurable physical property
Like cleaning, sorting should be employed as
early as possible to ensure a uniform product
for subsequent processing

The four main physical properties used to sort foods

size shape weight Color

 Shape sorting is accomplished either
SHAPE manually or mechanically (for example the
belt-and-roller sorter or the disc sorter) or
SORTING by image processing.
The shape of some foods is
important in determining their
suitability for processing or
their retail value
 Size sorting is particularly important when the food is to be heated
or cooled as the rate of heat transfer is in part determined by the

SIZE size of the individual pieces and variation in size would cause over-
processing or under-processing.

SORTING
Size sorting (termed sieving or Equipment
screening) is the separation of Screens with either fixed
solids into two or more or variable apertures are
fractions on the basis of used for size sorting.
Additionally, foods which
The screen may be
differences in size have a uniform size are
stationary or, more
said to be preferred by
commonly, rotating or
consumers.
vibrating.
 COLOR SORTING
Before the color sorting process, many
Manual sorting by color is still materials are not pure
widely used but is increasingly
expensive in both labor costs, are designed to separate different items by
their colors. They can help divert items whose
operator training and the space colors are not in the proper color ranges or
required for sorting tables. separate desired items from the rest.

There has therefore been

Color sorting machines can be used in
considerable development of different industries as they can achieve
machine vision sorting systems uniform color and shape to ensure the
which are said to have lower quality of products.
operating costs and greater
Color sorting machines can help effectively
accuracy than manual methods detect and remove foreign items,
blemishes, unwanted items, and defective
items.
WEIGHT
Sorting
Traditional manual Aspiration and
sorting mainly relies on flotation sorting use
the master of the differences in density
sorting workers to judge to sort foods and are
Weight sorting is more accurate the size and weight of
than other methods and is similar in principle
the materials according
therefore used for more and operation to
to their own vision and
valuable foods hand feeling, or directly aspiration and
use electronic scales to flotation cleaning.
divide different areas.

The weight sorting machine can filter products with

different weight ranges to different production lines,
saving money and time for manual operation, and is
more accurate.
 Specifications or quality grading systems are a necessary
and valuable tool in the food industry to ensure that both
the raw produce and the final product are of the required

GRADING quality.

A general description of each grade is given, then the five

the assessment of overall quality of a food quality characteristics; freedom from defects, size
using a number of attributes. grading, color, flavor and texture are defined in more
detail.
involves the inspection, assessment and
sorting of various foods regarding quality, Sorting (that is separation on the basis of one
freshness, legal conformity and market characteristic) may therefore be used as part of a
value grading operation but not vice versa

Grading is carried out by operators who are trained

Grading is often used interchangeably with sorting but
strictly means ‘the assessment of overall quality of a to simultaneously assess a number of variables.
food using a number of attributes’ In some cases, the grade of food is determined from
In general, grading is more expensive than sorting the results of laboratory analyses (for example
owing to the higher costs of skilled operators. wheat flour is assessed for protein content, dough
However, many attributes that cannot be examined
automatically can be simultaneously assessed, and
extensibility, color, moisture content and presence
this produces a more uniform high-quality product. of insects).
 Specifications or quality grading systems are a necessary

GRADING and valuable tool in the food industry to ensure that both
the raw produce and the final product are of the required
quality.

the assessment of overall quality of a food A general description of each grade is given, then the five
using a number of attributes. quality characteristics; freedom from defects, size
grading, color, flavor and texture are defined in more
involves the inspection, assessment and detail.
sorting of various foods regarding quality,
freshness, legal conformity and market Sorting (that is separation on the basis of one
value characteristic) may therefore be used as part of a
grading operation but not vice versa
PEELING
to remove unwanted or inedible
TRIMMING
material, and to improve the used for the removal of either
appearance of the final product. inedible parts or parts with
defects, or for cutting the
The main consideration is to raw material to a size that is
minimize costs by removing as little suitable for further
of the underlying food as possible processing.
and reducing energy, labor and
material costs to a minimum. Trimming can be carried out
manually or by rotating
The peeled surface should be clean knives.
and undamaged.
 SIZE REDUCTION

is applied to all food process in which the

food is needed to cut or broken down into
smaller pieces
 SIZE REDUCTION the unit operation in which the average size of solid

benefits in food
pieces of food is reduced by the application of
grinding, compression or impact forces.

processing

increase in the surface-area-to-volume

When combined with screening, a
ratio of the food which increases the A similar range of particle sizes allows
predetermined range of particle sizes is
rate of drying, heating or cooling and more complete mixing of ingredients
produced which is important for the
improves the efficiency and rate of
correct functional or processing
extraction of liquid components
properties of some products
Different methods of size reduction are classified
according to the size range of particles produced

Chopping, cutting,
slicing and dicing
(a) large to medium (stewing Milling to powders or Emulsification and
steak, cheese and sliced fruit for pastes of increasing homogenization
canning)
fineness mayonnaise, milk,
(b) medium to small (bacon, sliced
grated products > spices > flours essential oils, butter, ice
green beans and diced carrot)
> fruit nectars > powdered sugar cream and margarine
small to granular (minced or
shredded meat, flaked fish or nuts > starches > smooth pastes
and shredded
vegetables).
Size
COMPRESSION
FORCES

Reduction
of SOLID
IMPACT FORCES

FOODS SHEARING (OR ATTRI TI ON)

FORCES
In all types of size
reduction there are three
When stress (force) is applied to a food the resulting internal
types of force used to
strains are first absorbed, to cause deformation of the tissues.
reduce the size of
If the strain does not exceed a certain critical level named the
foods:
elastic stress limit (E), the tissues return to their original
shape when the stress is removed, and the stored energy is
released as heat (elastic region (O–E)
As little as 1% of applied
energy may actually be
used for size reduction.
As the size of the piece is
reduced, there are fewer
lines of weakness available,
and the breaking stress
that must be exceeded
increases.
When no lines of weakness
remain, new fissures must
be created to reduce the
particle size further, and
this requires an additional
input of energy.
The energy required to reduce the size of solid foods is
calculated using one of three equations:
where E (J)
the energy required per
mass of feed, KK
Kick’s constant, d1
Kick’s law (m)
the average initial size of pieces,
states that the energy required to reduce the size of and d2 (m)
the average size of
particles is proportional to the ratio of the initial size of ground particles. d1/d2 is known as
a typical dimension (for example the diameter of the the size reduction ratio (RR) and is
pieces) to the final size of that dimension used to evaluate the relative
performance of different types of
equipment.

Rittinger’s law
states that the energy required for size reduction is where KR
Rittinger’s constant.
proportional to the change in surface area of the pieces
of food
where W (J kg1)
the Bond Work Index
(40 000–80 000 J kg1 for hard foods
Bond’s law such as sugar or grain, d1 (m)
diameter
of sieve aperture that allows 80% of
is used to calculate the energy required the mass of the feed to pass and d2 (m)
for size reduction from
diameter of sieve aperture that allows
80% of the mass of the ground
material to pass.
 TAKE NOTE:

Kick’s law gives reasonably good results for coarse grinding in

which there is a relatively small increase in surface area per unit
mass

Rittinger’s law gives better results with fine grinding where there
is a much larger increase in surface area and

Bond’s law is intermediate between these two.

 SLICING AND
FLAKING EQUIPMENT
The growth of the chilled sandwich market has stimulated

SIZE REDUCTION OF development of high speed slicers for both cutting bread
precisely from corner to corner and for slicing fillings.

FIBROUS FOODS DICING EQUIPMENT

For dicing, vegetables, fruits and meats are first sliced and then
cut into strips by rotating blades. The strips are fed to a second

There are four main set of rotating knives which operate at right angles to the first
set and cut the strips into cubes

types of size reduction SHREDDING EQUIPMENT

Typical equipment is a modified hammer mill in which knives are
equipment, classified in used instead of hammers to produce a cutting action. A second
type of shredder, known as thesquirrel cage disintegrator, has
order of decreasing two concentric cylindrical cages inside a casing.
Food is subjected to powerful shearing and cutting forces as it
particle size passes between them.

SHREDDING EQUIPMENT
This uses a combination of compression and shearing forces for
juice extraction from fruits or vegetables, for cooking oil
production and for producing pure´ed and pulped meats.
 SIZE REDUCTION
OF DRY FOODS

These have a slowly rotating, horizontal steel cylinder which is

1 BALL MILLS half filled with steel balls 2.5–15 cm in diameter.

There are a large number of designs of disc mill, each employing

2 DISC MILLS shearing forces for fine grinding or shearing and impact forces
for coarser grinding.

These have a horizontal cylindrical chamber, lined with a

3 HAMMER MILLS toughened steel breaker plate. A high-speed rotor inside the
chamber is fitted with swinging hammers along its length

Roller mills are widely used to mill wheat. Two or more steel
4 ROLLER MILLS rollers revolve towards each other and pull particles of food
through the ‘nip’ (the space between the rollers)
SIZE REDUCTION The terms emulsifiers and homogenizers
are often used interchangeably for
IN LIQUID FOODS equipment used to produce emulsions:

EMULSIFICATION is the formation of a stable emulsion by the intimate mixing

of two or more immiscible liquids, so that one (the dispersed phase) is formed
into very small droplets within the second (the continuous phase).

HOMOGENIZATION is the reduction in size (to 0.5–30 m), and hence the
increase in number, of solid or liquid particles in the dispersed phase by
the application of intense shearing forces.

two types of oil in water (o/w)

liquid–liquid water in oil (w/o)
emulsion
The stability of emulsions
is determined by
The factors
that influence
the type and quantity of
the stability of
emulsifying agent
an emulsion
the size of the globules in the
dispersed phase (STOKE's LAW)
the interfacial forces acting at the
surfaces of the globules
the viscosity of the continuous
phase
the difference between the
densities of the dispersed and
continuous phases
 1. High-speed mixers
High-speed mixers use turbines or propellers, to pre-mix
emulsions of low-viscosity liquids.

2. pressure homogenizers
consist of a high-pressure pump, which is fitted with a homogenising
THE FIVE MAIN valve on the discharge side

TYPES OF 3. colloid mills

HOMOGENISER essentially disc mills with a small clearance (0.05–1.3 mm) between a
stationary disc and a vertical disc rotating at 3000–15 000 rpm
ARE:
4. ultrasonic homogenizers
use high-frequency sound waves (18–30 kHz) to cause alternate cycles of
compression and tension in low-viscosity liquids and cavitation of air bubbles,
to form emulsions with droplet sizes of 1–2 m.

5. hydroshear homogenisers and microfluidisers.

a double-cone shaped chamber which has a tangential
feed pipe at the centre and outlet pipes at the end of each cone.
 Easy Way To Make You
Expert at Cooking
For the time being I am going to stay away from cooking or mixing
anything on my stove - it has some nice

Choose Any Courses Puchase Your Course Great! Start Learn

A group of students at a A group of students at a A group of students at a
university are taught how to university are taught how to university are taught how to
be good be good be good