5 Storage of Cereal Grains

5.1 Introduction
The problem of feeding the increasing world population can be solved by protect-
ing already-produced grain. Storage of cereal grains is therefore critical to human
survival and food security. About 900 million metric tons of grains are in storage
throughout the world at any given time (Jayas et al. 1995). This represents about 40%
of the total annual cereal production. Most of the world storage capacity is located in
the United States (590 million tons). About 58% of this grain storage capacity is on
farms and the other 42% in commercial elevators. Storage is a key step in the com-
plex logistics of moving grain from producers to processors, and grain products from
processors to consumers. The main purpose is to equilibrate supply and demand.
Since the invention of agriculture men have inevitably stored cereal grains.
Prehistoric nomads became sedentary when they learned to plant, harvest, and pre-
serve grains. Historically, there is clear evidence that humans have stored and pre-
served grains since the Neolithic era in the Stone Age (8000 years bc). Archeological
research has revealed that large reed baskets or clay jars embedded in soil were
archetypes of granaries used by Neolithic Egyptians of the Nile Delta. Granaries
during the first dynasty comprised cylindrical earthen silos with a roof opening and
two square apertures at different heights. During the Middle Kingdom (2000 bc) and
New Kingdom (1300 bc) cylindrical chambers with a vaulted roof were common
(Levinson and Levinson 1989).
Most cereal grains have to be stored because they are harvested in specific
seasons of the year and are gradually utilized by the various industry segments.
Generally, imported grains are also stored for significant periods of time because
they are usually acquired in large quantities so as to keep low costs and large inven-
tories. Properly engineered and managed systems for preserving harvested cereal
grains should be aimed towards providing wholesome foods, free of insect and mold
damage, mycotoxins and pesticides, insect fragments, and rodent filth. The ultimate
goal is to manage stored grain wisely with minimal loss while maintaining its nutri-
tional quality.
The Food Agriculture Organization (FAO) has estimated that grain storage losses
in several developing countries, mainly located in tropical and subtropical areas of
the globe, reach 50%. Grain losses are higher in these areas because the climate
favors grain activation and the presence of insects, molds, and rodents. The scarce
economic resources in these countries do not allow investments to build grain eleva-
tors. Therefore, there is a great opportunity to upgrade storage systems in order to
diminish losses and assure food for the most needed. If new and better storage facili-

129
130 Cereal Grains

ties are built, the world can save at least 15% more of the total cereal production
(more than 300 million tons).
The storage of cereals is mainly aimed towards the preservation of grain quality,
but it also involves the standardizing, classifying, and selecting of grains for trading
purposes. The value of the harvested grain depends mainly on the moisture content,
foreign material, and grain physical properties (Chapter 2).
Cereal grains deteriorate due to intrinsic and/or extrinsic causes. The intrin-
sic deterioration is due to respiration, whereas the extrinsic damage is mainly
caused by insect, molds, and rodent infestations. Regardless of the sort of dam-
age, grains lose quality, nutritional, and economic value as raw materials. From a
health viewpoint, the consumption of mold-infested grains could lead to animal or
human mycotoxicosis. The toxins of greatest concern are aflatoxins because they
are potent carcinogens. Other harmful mycotoxins that are getting more attention
both in the food and feed industries are ochratoxins, fumonisins, and zeralenone
(Chapter 6).
The key for proper grain storage is the control of the grain moisture. Theoretically,
control of moisture is easy, but in real terms it is a complicated task because the grain
has to be protected from rainfalls and can absorb moisture from the surrounding air.
In practical terms, the first can be prevented by designing good facilities, whereas
the second is more difficult to control. Grain moisture is controlled by grain rotation,
aeration and, in extreme cases, artificial drying. There are many different designs
of grain storage facilities. The type of design is affected by grain volume, available
funds, average environmental conditions, labor requirements, and location. Cereal
grains can be stored for long periods of time, providing that the grain moisture is
maintained below the critical moisture content, and insects, molds, and pests are
controlled. In fact, viable grains hundreds of years old have been found in caves and
archeological sites.

5.2 Grain Deterioration
Cereals like any other living organism are prone to decay in time. The prolongation
of their storage life and quality requires an understanding of the deterioration pro-
cess and its multiple causal factors. The key to maintain the grain under optimum
conditions is the control of its moisture content. When the grain moisture exceeds the
permissible level, it activates or loses latency due to respiration. Stored cereals have
latency or a practically nonexistent respiration or metabolic rate when maintained
under their critical moisture content. Below the critical moisture, pests have more
problems with reproduction and survival because the moisture is bound, lowering
water activity (less than 0.7). The temperature and air relative humidity are the most
important environmental factors affecting grain deterioration and insect and mold
growth (Figure 5.1). A high grain moisture content, environmental temperature, and
air relative humidity increases both the grain metabolic activity and enhances the
growth and development of insects and molds. For example, Reed (2006) compared
the development of lesser grain borer, flour beetles, and other weevils at two differ-
ent temperatures (30°C–35°C and 10°C) and concluded that these insects developed
in 25–40 days versus 125–175 days, respectively.
Storage of Cereal Grains 131

Sound and Viable

Grains

Storage

High Air Relative Humidity

(> 75%)

High Moisture Grain

(>16% Moisture) Carbon Dioxide,
Water and Heat

Loss of Grain Latency

(Intrinsic Deterioration, High Loss of Viability
Respiration Rate)
Loss of Dry Matter Degraded Components
and Grain Quality (High Enzyme Activity)
Insect Deterioration
(Grain > 15.5% Moisture)
Loss of Viability
Loss of Dry Matter
and Grain Quality
Insect Fragments Mold Deterioration
(Grain > 17.5% Moisture)
Mycotoxins

Deteriorated and Loss of Viability

Dead Grains

Figure 5.1 Progressive deterioration process of stored cereal grains.

5.2.1 Intrinsic Deterioration
The intrinsic grain deterioration is caused by the metabolic activity resulting from
respiration. The grain activates due to its high moisture when the environmental con-
ditions, mainly in terms of temperature, are adequate. The grain generates energy
or heat, carbon dioxide, and water. The activation of the grain due to respiration
produces important enzymes that breakdown lipids, starch, and proteins (Chapter 4),
yielding carbon dioxide as the end-respiration product. In general terms, the intrinsic
grain deterioration favors the extrinsic because most pests require water as one of the
most important substrates. The air relative humidity plays an important role in the
susceptibility of the grain to deterioration. The grain can surpass its critical moisture
content when it is exposed at a high air relative humidity (more than 70%). When the
grain exceeds its critical moisture content (14%), it activates and generates heat that
catalyzes the respiration process. This is the most common way adequately stored
grains lose latency and progressively deteriorate. When the grain exceeds its critical
moisture content and is undergoing intrinsic deterioration, it also contains important
quantities of free water that could be available for insect and mold growth. In other
words, the respiration process that generates heat, CO2, and water attracts insects
and mold infestations. Insects and molds generally damage kernels that contain 1.5%
and 4% more water above the critical moisture (14% for cereal grains).
132 Cereal Grains

Intrinsic deteriorated grains have stored components broken down due to the
catalytic activity of various enzyme systems discussed in Chapter 4. These simpler
and hydrolyzed compounds in most instances lower the functionality and negatively
affect the quality of end products. The wheat processing industry is especially sus-
ceptible to intrinsically deteriorated grains. Damaged wheat kernels and flours yield
sticky doughs that are less machinable and functional, yielding products with consis-
tently lower color values, volume, and organoleptic properties.

5.2.2 Extrinsic Deterioration
Extrinsic deterioration is the most important negative condition in terms of grain
losses. It is mainly caused by insects, followed by molds. Insects can proliferate at
relatively lower grain moisture contents or water activities than molds. Rodents and
birds also play an important role in extrinsic grain deterioration, especially in open
storage facilities. All these biotic agents cause direct and indirect loses. The indirect
damage is due to insect fragments, rodent hair, insect and rodent feces, and bird
droppings that can contaminate a given lot of grain with pathogenic bacteria.

5.3 Grain Moisture and Hysteresis

The grain moisture content is the most important factor to control in grain elevators
because it is the most closely related to respiration rate. Grains tend to equilibrate
with the environmental moisture and are hydroscopic when exposed at high relative
humidities. The best way to manage grain moisture is through the use and interpreta-
tion of isotherm curves. The isotherm curve relates grain moisture and air relative
humidity at a given temperature (generally 20°C or 25°C) because grains absorb or
desorb water according to the surrounding air relative humidity (Bell and Labuza
2000). In addition, natural temperature fluctuations throughout the day can cause air
moisture condensation that enters the grain, affecting its stability. Generally speak-
ing, grain elevators located in tropical areas are the most difficult to manage because
of the high temperatures and air relative humidities (McFarlane et al. 1995). A high
relative humidity also favors the growth of molds that thrive above 65%.
The hydroscopic capacity, equilibrium moisture content, and isotherm behavior
of different cereal grains kept at 70% relative humidity and 25°C is approximately
14% (Figure 5.2). Thus, this is the critical moisture content for all cereal grains
in which the moisture is bound or unavailable for respiration, insects, and molds.
Grains stored at higher relative humidities will tend to gradually absorb air moisture,
break latency, and increase respiration rate. Cereals with 16% moisture will dete-
riorate twice as fast compared with counterparts stored at 15% moisture. Figure 5.2
depicts the typical isotherm curve of cereal grains stored at 25°C. The isotherm
curve moves slightly downward or upward when the grain is exposed to higher or
lower temperatures, respectively. The understanding and adequate use of the iso-
therm curve is of utmost importance in the management of cereal grains. Important
decisions of when to aerate or ventilate stored grains can be made based on isotherm
graphs (Sauer 1992).
Storage of Cereal Grains 133

Isotherm at 25°C

30
y = 0.258 + 47.9x – 82.02x2 + 58.34x3

25
Equilibrium Grain Moisture (%)

20

15

10
Average

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Water Activity (Aw)

Figure 5.2 Typical isotherm curve for cereals stored at 25°C.

5.4 Management of Stored Grains

Harvested grain is seldom immediately consumed by humans or domestic animals.
Therefore, it is preferable to store the grain in weather- and pest-proof storage
structures so that its viability, food energy, nutritional quality, and marketability
at a future date can be assured. Grain elevators are centers where the grain is con-
centrated, and they have the main aim of preserving and, in some instances, even
improving the grain condition or value (Anonymous 1973, 1992, Fan et al. 1976,
Hagstrum and Subramanyan 2006, McFarlane et al. 1995, Parker et al. 1985, Puzzi
1986, Reed 2006, Sinha and Muir 1973, Sauer 1992). Figure 5.3 shows the differ-
ent management steps usually practiced in grain elevators. The most critical seg-
ment is the one related to testing the quality or condition of incoming lots of grains
because it will affect the value of the grain and will determine other important
management decisions such as grain drying, cleaning, blending or commingling,
and end-use.

5.4.1 Sampling
Sampling is a crucial grain handling operation because if it is not performed prop-
erly it can cause important economic loses. There are different instruments or
apparatus used to obtain a representative sample of grain loads. The sampling
method will vary according to the type of delivery system (trucks, trains, barges,
ships), amount of grain, and unloading method. The most common way to deliver
grain to elevators is via trucks or trains, although there are grain elevators suited to
load and unload barges and ships. The most common sampling method for grains
transported in trucks, trains, barges, and ships is the partitioned grain trier made
of aluminum or brass. It consists of a long double brass tube (70 cm to 2 m long)
134 Cereal Grains

Incoming Cereal
Grains

Quality Control Lab.

Reception - Moisture
(Sampling and Weighing) - Dockage
- Test Weight
- 1,000 Kernel Weight
High Moisture Grain Grain Unloading and - Protein (NIRA)
(> 17% Moisture) Conveying - Diastatic Activity
- Mycotoxins
- Color
Artificial Drying Regular Grain
(Batch or Continuous Dryers) (< 16% Moisture)

Grain Cleaning
Shrinkage Dockage
(Air Aspiration, Sifting, Magnets)
(Moisture Loss)

Grain Management. Storage Facilities

- Quality Control: Temperature (Flat, Bins, Silos)
(Heat Spots), Grain Moisture,
Insect Counts, Mycotoxins.
- Cleaning of Silos
Grain Grading and Loading
- Application of Pesticides
and Rodenticides
- Aeration or Ventilation
- Rotation or Turning. Exiting Cereal
- Grain Dust Control. Grains

Figure 5.3 Basic management operations of cereals grains during storage.

divided into compartments for sampling at specific depths. The probe or trier
should be introduced at a 10° angle with the compartments closed and facing up.
Then the handle is twisted to open the doors to sample the grain and finally closed
to enhance the correct sampling at different depths. For depths larger than 2 m,
the ideal sampling method is the deep cup or bin probe that consists of various 1
m long segments.
The number of subsamples will depend on the size and heterogeneity of the grain
lot. For truck or trainloads, the grain is generally subsampled in six different places,
whereas for moving grain it is recommended to obtain subsamples after unload-
ing every 12 tons of grain. Subsamples should be immediately placed inside sealed
plastic bags so as to avoid moisture changes. When the sample size is too large, it is
generally subdivided using a Boerner divider. The ideal size of the subsample is of
approximately 2.5 kg (Parker et al. 1985, Sauer 1992).
The diverter mechanical sampler draws a sample from a grain flow at the end of
the belt or within a spout. It consists of a diverting arm that sweeps across the moving
stream of grain. This sampling method is considered the most accurate because
representative cross sections are withdrawn and composited therefore minimizing
Storage of Cereal Grains 135

human sampling error (Parker et al. 1982). The pelican sampler is widely used to
obtain representative samples from a free-falling stream of grain, particularly from
one that is being spouted into railcars, barges, or vessels.

5.4.2 Grading
There are a number of factors that affect the commercial value of the grain and its
stability throughout storage. Cereal grains are inspected before unloading, during
storage, and the moment they leave the storage facilities, with the aim of determin-
ing quality and commercial value, and to establish management practices during
storage. In the U.S. and other exporting countries, the grain is classed and sub-
classed to determine grade and class (Chapter 2). After sampling, most grain lots
are inspected and graded by licensed inspectors or by experienced employees. This
operation is especially performed for export purposes in order to prevent trade
controversies. The main grading factors are grain moisture, test weight, dockage,
heat damage, and other types of damages (Anonymous 1992). Grading is critically
important for trade purposes and to make other important decisions beforehand,
such as the need of artificial drying, grain pre-cleaning, and commingling with
other lots of grains.
The objective quality control parameters most frequently used are moisture, test
weight, amount of foreign material, broken kernels, damaged kernels, and mycotox-
ins. Wheat is also commonly tested for protein, hardness, and 1000-kernel weight
(Chapter 15). Moisture is generally determined with the electronic moisture meter or
a near infrared apparatus (NIRA). The first determines moisture via electric conduc-
tivity, whereas the second scans whole or ground kernels in the infrared spectrum.
These instruments determine moisture in a matter of seconds without destroying
the sample but need to be frequently calibrated. There are other more sophisticated
electronic testers that can also predict test weight. The main advantage of the NIRA
equipment is that it usually determines both moisture and protein contents in the
same run (Paulsen et al. 2003).
Test weight meters determine the apparent grain density, which is the most widely
used parameter. This test is very simple to perform and relate to the condition of the
grain,and therefore its commercial value. The main problem with the determination
of test weight is that values change according to grain moisture. Generally, grains
with low moisture have higher test weights. The Winchester bushel test meter is the
most widely used. Test weights are especially important in the wheat and maize mill-
ing industries because they correlate with true density, endosperm hardness, milling
yields, and quality of milled products.
Foreign material and shriveled, broken, unfilled, and other damaged kernels are
generally separated from whole and healthy kernels using sieves. The most common
way to perform this task is using the Universal Dockage test meter equipped with
a different set of sieves for each specific type of grain. Heat- or insect-damaged,
moldy, and/or sprouted kernels are visually identified and manually removed and
quantified. The higher the amount of damaged kernels, the lower the grade and com-
mercial grain value (Parker et al. 1982, Sauer 1992).
136 Cereal Grains

One of the main concerns in grain elevators is the acquisition and merchandis-
ing of mycotoxin-contaminated kernels. This is because domestic and export mar-
kets have strong federal regulations regarding the maximum allowable amounts
of these metabolites. In most countries, the maximum aflatoxin permitted level
for direct human and animal use is 20 and 200–300 ppb, respectively. Needless
to say, when grains exceed 20 ppb or 0.02 ppm and contain less than 250 ppb,
they have to be sold as animal feed at a discounted price. Grain elevators rou-
tinely test for mycotoxins, especially aflatoxins. Suspected grains are usually first
observed under ultraviolet light to see if they fluoresce. This practical test does
not determine the type of mold nor the mycotoxin level; however it is used as a
preliminary or screening test to decide if the sample needs to be analyzed further
with a quantitative assay.
The most common assay to determine mycotoxins is based on a quick solvent
extraction (methanol-water, ethanol, chloroform, etc.) of the mycotoxin. The extract is
then filtered and quantified via ELISA (enzyme-linked immunoassay) columns. The
use of minicolumns is the most common because it is fast, repeatable, and reliable,
and requires little expertise to run the assay. The test usually takes 5 minutes, so it
allows processors to make important decisions about the acquisition and economic
value of the grain. Other more time-consuming and complicated tests are thin-layer
chromatography or other chromatographic techniques based on fluorescence or UV
detectors. The main advantage of these tests is the identification of specific types of
mycotoxins.

5.4.3 Weighing
Truck shipments are usually weighed on platform scales in the roadway approaching
the unloading pit. The trucks are weighed both before and after unloading. In other
grain storage facilities, the dumper platform itself is the scale platform. Sometimes
the pit into which grain is dumped is the hopper scale, or else the grain is elevated
into a hopper scale. Boxcar loads of grain are usually weighed on platform scales
incorporated into the railroad tracks at the elevator or by conveying the grain into a
hopper scale. This last method requires more labor but is considered the most accu-
rate (Parker et al. 1985, Sauer 1992).

5.4.4 Unloading
The weighed grains that pass the established quality control guidelines are unloaded
for drying and cleaning, or are simply conveyed to silos. There are special unloading
systems for truck loads, trains, barges, or ships. Trucks are usually unloaded or emp-
tied into receiving underground bins via gravity. Most grain elevators are equipped
with a hydraulic platform that positions the locked truck at an angle so as to speed up
the unloading process and to assure the complete removal of the grain.
A similar system is used to unload trainloads. The train wagon, usually contain-
ing up to 80 tons of grain, is moved to the unloading zone and positioned. The gate or
bottom door is then opened to discharge the grain directly into the underground bin.
Discharged grains are elevated or conveyed using screw conveyors or buckets. The
Storage of Cereal Grains 137

grain contained in ships or barges is usually unloaded with bazookas that deliver the
grain at a high velocity or pressure. The low-capacity grain elevators usually load or
unload with mobile-inclined screw-conveyors (Parker et al. 1982, Sauer 1992).

5.4.5 Grain Cleaning
Grain cleaning is a common operation before grain storage, especially when the
grain is going to be directly channeled for human foods. Cleaning can improve
grade, increase uniformity of grain lots, and reduce the number of damaged grains
and mycotoxin-laden kernels. The grain with a lower foreign material content will be
more stable during storage because the extraneous matter contains high amounts of
insect eggs and mold spores. It is well known in the industry that grains with higher
dockage are more prone to insect infestation (Sauer 1992).
Cleaned kernels will have a better economic value because they will yield higher
amounts of intermediate and finished products. Moreover, kernels free of stones and
metallic impurities will not cause mechanical damage to processing equipment. The
cleaning system of grain elevators usually consists of air aspirators, sifters, and grav-
ity tables equipped with magnetic systems to trap metals. Generally the grain is first
subjected to air aspiration and then to a sieving system or a milling separator. Air
aspiration removes most of the light contaminants such as plant material (pieces of
stalks, cobs, sticks and leaves), as well as glumes and empty kernels that are lighter
than the grain. The principle of the air aspiration system is that these particles are
suspended and removed by a countercurrent air flow. Milling separators are designed
to remove contaminants that are larger and smaller than the grain. The separators
generally consist of two or more sieves positioned one on top of the other on an oscil-
lating or vibrating frame. The sieves are inclined so the feed material flows by grav-
ity. The top sieve, called the first head, allows the passage of the grain being cleaned,
and separates larger particles such as larger kernels, sticks, stones, pieces of cobs,
etc. The second sieve or head has smaller openings that allow the passage of bro-
ken kernels, small seeds, and other small particles. Therefore, the incoming unclean
grain is separated into at least three different streams (large contaminants, cleaned
or classified grain, and small contaminants). Most sifters contain magnets to trap
metals and some have an integrated air aspiration system. Some grain elevators also
use gravity tables to remove stones and damaged kernels. These tables contain only
one inclined sieve positioned at a certain angle, and operate under high vibration.
The incoming grain, usually from sieves or milling separators, flows through this
sieve and is separated according to density. This cleaning system is ideally suited to
remove stones with the same size and form as the kernel. Alternatively, gravity tables
are used to sort out damaged kernels (insect and mold damaged) with lower density.
These cleaning machines have been successfully used to lower aflatoxins in maize.
The complete cleaning of the grain by air aspiration, sieves, and gravity tables
reduces to practically nil the amount of foreign material and assures processors the
best possible grain stability during storage. Other cleaning apparatus seldom used by
grain elevators but frequently used by milling industries include disk separators and
color sorters. These are described in Chapter 7.
138 Cereal Grains

5.4.6 Grain Drying
Some cereal grains, such as paddy rice, are harvested at high moisture contents
and therefore need artificial drying before storage. The value of these grains is usu-
ally lower because of the excess moisture and the energy required for drying. The
amount of weight lost during the drying operation is commonly known as shrink.
For instance 1 ton of paddy rice harvested at 24% moisture that requires drying to
14% moisture has a shrink of 11.6%. The aim of drying is to lower the grain moisture
content to levels adequate for storage (generally 14% for cereals), to maintain grain
viability, and to keep grain physical damage, such as stress cracks, to a minimum.
This is especially important for paddy rice, which is generally harvested at moisture
contents above 22%. Drying temperatures of up to 45°C are generally safe, although
higher temperatures may be used for cereals meant for feed. Drying of paddy rice is
more elaborate than other cereals because of its high susceptibility to stress cracks
or fissures (Bakker-Arkema et al. 1977, Champagne 2004).
There are many different types of dryers and drying conditions. Traditional solar
drying is still widely practiced in developing countries around the globe because it
requires the least expenditure. The most important factor to control in sun drying is
the depth of the grain bed and the frequency of grain movement. The areas used for
drying should have protection against rainfall, rodents, and birds.
Artificial drying is the most common and practical way to lower moisture content
of cereal grains. There are many differences in mechanical design among dryers,
but the most important basis for the classification is the relative direction of the flow
of the grain and air. There are three basic types: cross flow, concurrent flow, and
counter flow. Dryers may consist of one of these types or a combination of the dif-
ferent mechanisms of air flow. There are batch and continuous dryers. Batch dryers
are the simplest. Regardless of the method, the main factors to control are drying air
temperature and relative humidity, airflow or velocity, the depth of the grain, and the
rate of grain dehydration. Air is electrically or gas heated and injected at a flow rate
of approximately 1 m3 per ton. The most common way to dehydrate the grain is by
forced air. In a batch type, relatively dry air is blown through a layer of grain until the
desired moisture content is achieved. The method is simple and well suited for small
storage facilities. The most popular batch drier is the Bin type (Bakker-Arkema et al.
1977, Kunze and Calderwood 1985, Sauer 1992).
In batch dryers the grain is placed inside a large shallow drying bin that has
a perforated base where heated air is forced to move up through the bed of grain
and discharged to the atmosphere. For the air flows and pressures generated by
typical fans the grain depth is generally 15 to 50 cm. The continuous dryers are
the most common ones because they are suitable for large facilities. They usually
operate at higher temperatures than batch dryers in order to decrease dehydration
time. The most popular continuous dryers are the continuous flow bin dryers and
column dryers. In counter-flow dryers, the hot air enters the driest part of the bed
and leaves from the wettest, whereas in concurrent flow dryers the air moves in the
same direction as the grain. The continuous flow bin dryer is usually a bin equipped
with a perforated floor, fan, grain spreader, and an auger that conveys the exiting
grain to cooling and storage. The grain flow is automatically controlled to prevent
Storage of Cereal Grains 139

under- or over-drying. High-temperature grain dryers generally consist of multiple

vertical columns that hold the grain while the heated air is forced through the bed
of grain. The airflow varies from 80 to 100 mt3 per ton per min, with drying tem-
peratures that in some instances reach up to 80°C. In concurrent flow dryers, the
air and the grain flow downward through the column. The hottest air dehydrates the
wettest incoming grain. Most continuous dryers are vertically positioned, although
horizontal equipments exist in the market (Bakker-Arkema et al. 1977, Kunze and
Calderwood 1985, Sauer 1992).

5.5 Storage
There are many types and designs of grain storage facilities. Regardless of the sort
of facility, it should provide a safe place until the grain is sold or processed. The
facilities should protect the grain from weather, insects, molds, rodents, and birds.
The storage facilities should be designed to facilitate grain management and con-
tain cleaning, drying, and aeration equipment. Facilities range from a simple pile of
unprotected grain on the ground, to expensive storage bins or elevators. The latter
storage facilities are commonly known as elevators because the incoming grain is
usually dumped into underground pits, and then elevated with buckets attached to
a belt and discharged into bins. The best designed grain elevators provide facilities
for sorting, cleaning, drying, and fumigation, and the means of transferring grain
to trucks, railcars, barges, and ships (Fan et al. 1976, Hagstrum and Subramanyan
2006, McFarlane et al. 1995, Puzzi 1986, Reed 2006, Sinha and Muir 1973, Sauer
1992).

5.5.1 Types of Storage Facilities

There are many types of storage facilities ranging from simply piling the grain on
the ground to modern facilities where the grain is maintained under controlled gas
atmospheres (Sauer 1992).

5.5.1.1 Piling Grain on the Ground

This is the simplest method and the one that requires the lowest economic inputs in
terms of facilities. It is widely used as short-term or transitional storage, especially
after harvesting. However, since the grain is exposed to the air, it is susceptible to
weather conditions and biotic infestations. The grain is simply unloaded and con-
veyed to the prepared ground, resulting in the typical hill configuration. The slope
and form of the grain hill is critically important to minimize losses due to rain.
The slope of the grain hill should minimize the penetration of the rainwater, and
the ground floor of the pile should also help to absorb water. When the grain pile is
exposed to rainfall, a 5-cm-deep external grain layer forms, protecting the rest of the
grain. The ground systems can be improved by building a circular containment wall,
approximately 1 m tall, with grain bags; by placing ventilation or aeration ducts on
the ground before grain unloading; and by covering the surface or external part of
the stored grain with polyvinyl or other types of plastic covers (Sauer 1992).
140 Cereal Grains

5.5.1.2 Underground Storage
Underground storage is considered one of the oldest practices to store a surplus of
grains. The method protects the grain from unfavorable environmental conditions
and inhibits pests due to the lower oxygen and high carbon dioxide concentration that
diminishes both intrinsic and extrinsic grain deterioration (Sauer 1992).

5.5.1.3 Grain Elevators
Grain elevators are the most popular way to store cereal grains (Figure 5.4). They
are called elevators because the unloaded grain is conveyed or elevated into the top
of the storage bins and discharged by gravity. The grain is loaded from the top and
unloaded to its final destination from the bottom. The elevators’ main function is to
accumulate grain, and release it for shipment by trucks, railroad cars, barges, and
ships. They usually have sophisticated and large-scale equipment for drying, clean-
ing, and ventilation or grain conditioning. There are some terminal elevators with
a storage capacity of half a million tons. There are many different types of grain
elevators. The most widely distributed throughout the world are the flat bins and
silos built from concrete or steel (Fan et al. 1976, Hagstrum and Subramanyan 2006,
McFarlane et al. 1995, Puzzi 1986, Sinha and Muir 1973, Sauer 1992).
Flat or horizontal storage bins are usually built wider and lower than silos to
reduce cost and side pressures. There are round steel bins and also bins built from
concrete and bricks. These bins are designed to store the maximum volume of grain.
They have concrete floors and their roofs tend to follow the slope of the pile of grain.
They usually have fixed loading and unloading mechanical systems. The grain is
usually elevated with screw conveyors (auger) or bucket elevators and discharged in
the central part of the flat bin. Flat bins are generally designed to store from 14,000
to 30,000 tons (Figure 5.4) (Sauer 1992).
Upright silos are round, hexagonal, or even square-shaped concrete or steel bins,
usually constructed in rows so that one straight conveyor can service a whole series
of bins (Figure 5.4). The most common form is round, because it is the most resistant
and designed to take advantage of the interstitial spaces in order to increase storage
capacity. The main characteristic of upright silos is their height (24–43 m). Each silo
has the capacity to store from 50 to 1000 tons of grain. They are often built on two
or more rows of cylindrical bins with diameters ranging from 2 to 10 m. The grain is
usually elevated by a leg consisting of an endless vertical belt equipped with attached
buckets, which conduct the grain to the silos. The inferior part of the silo is usually
conical to aid in grain unloading and facilitate cleaning operations (Sauer 1992).

5.5.1.4 Controlled Atmosphere Storage

Ancient civilizations learned to preserve grains in underground airtight pits where
depletion of oxygen occurred to a level inhospitable to insects and molds. The grad-
ual oxygen depletion occurred from grain and pest respiration. The principle of
controlled atmosphere storage is increasing the concentration of carbon dioxide in
airtight storage facilities so as to reduce or inhibit grain respiration rate and growth
of insects and molds. Recently there has been a marked interest in the use of airtight
facilities, especially in high capacity grain export elevators. Most species of insects
Storage of Cereal Grains 141

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e)

Figure 5.4 (a) Ground piling (courtesy Francisco Wong, University of Sonora). (b) Flat or
horizontal storage (exterior view) and (c) interior view (courtesy Francisco Wong, University
of Sonora). (d) Upright concrete silos. (e) Silos capable of receiving grains from barges and
trains (photograph by Kelly Martin, 2006).
142 Cereal Grains

that infest stored grains will perish when the oxygen concentration is less than 2%.
Fungi can still grow at a lower oxygen concentration (0.2%) but infestations will
occur only if the lot is stored at moisture contents above 16%. In order to achieve air-
tightness, special welded metal silos or flexible bags (butyl rubber or PVC-supported
in metal mesh cages) are usually used.
For successful storage, the silo should be completely filled as quickly as pos-
sible so that the oxygen-free conditions can soon become established and to ensure a
minimum of free air space. Generally, the silo is fitted with pressure release valves
or with a breather bag placed in the head space above the grain. This bag opens only
to the outside air, and by expanding or collapsing can respond to pressure changes.
The oxygen-free conditions can be created by the use of carbon dioxide or nitrogen
gases. Carbon dioxide is more effective than nitrogen for killing insects. The gases
are injected from cylinders or by the addition of dry ice (solid carbon dioxide) to a
silo before sealing. The major potential advantage of using controlled atmosphere
storage is the reduction or nil use of pesticides for controlling insects (Hyde and
Burrell 1982).

5.6 Grain Rotation or Turning

Turning is the process of moving bulk stored grains with conveyors within the stor-
age facilities (from one bin to another). This grain operation is practiced in order
to break hot spots, facilitate insect control, and make the aeration or ventilation
operation more efficient. In addition, the lot of grain homogenizes after grain turn-
ing. The movement of grain alleviates hot spots and allows the grain to equilibrate
with the environmental temperature. If the air relative humidity is appropriate, the
grain can even lose moisture. Insecticides can be effectively applied during rotation,
and if fumigation is necessary, tablets of aluminum phosphide can be distributed
throughout the grain mass. The main disadvantage of grain turning or rotation is that
moving and reloading grain increases kernel damage and the incidence of broken
kernels that are more susceptible to extrinsic deterioration. Kernels usually break
during conveying and unloading, so processors have to check and maintain convey-
ing equipment in good condition (Fan et al. 1976, Hagstrum and Subramanyan 2006,
McFarlane et al. 1995, Sauer 1992).

5.7 Aeration or Ventilation
Aeration is defined as the movement of air through a bed of stored grain. It is the
most generally recognized practice for maintenance of market quality of stored
cereals without turning. Aeration is applicable to all types of storage, but it is espe-
cially pertinent to flat storage where it is difficult to turn or rotate the grain. In fact,
without aeration, longtime storage in flat structures is impractical. The main advan-
tages of aeration are that the quality is maintained without moving the grain; there
is significant reduction of wear and tear on both the grain and handling machin-
ery; and the suitability and effectiveness in applying fumigants. The distribution
of fumigants is more uniform and the dosage required less compared to gravity
methods.
Storage of Cereal Grains 143

Most grain elevators have aeration systems that pull outside air downward through
the grain as needed, exhausting it through the fan. In some areas and environments
there may be some advantages in forcing the air upward through the bed of grain.
Most fans can be changed to either pull or force air. The aim of aeration is primar-
ily to equalize stored grain temperature to prevent moisture migration from warmer
to cooler grain, remove sour and off-odors caused by molding and rancidity, and
cool the grain to prevent or minimize insect and mold growth. When the air relative
humidity is less than 70%, some grain drying occurs.
High moisture and grain temperature will increase respiration rate and intrinsic
deterioration. Moreover, if the grain is not aerated or returned to latency, it could
gradually contaminate the rest of the grain, augment the volume of heat spots, and
boost the activity of molds and insects. Continuous aeration removes heat gener-
ated by mold growth, the main source of heat. It is usually advisable to ventilate
grain with air having relative humidities below 75%, because the aeration with air
containing higher humidity may increase the grain moisture content. Most aeration
systems consist of perforated air ducts placed on the bin floor before the bin is filled.
The ducts are usually positioned in X or Y configurations or simply along parallel
lines. It is critically important to strategically place the aeration ducts so as to avoid
blind spots. The ducts are fed with outside air by axial flow (propeller) or radial flow
(centrifugal) fans placed on the external walls of the bins. The common airflow rate
ranges from 0.06 to 0.11 m3 per ton of grain/minute. At these air flow rates, the time
required to cool the grain is about 80, 120, and 160 hours for the summer, fall, and
winter seasons, respectively.
After the first equilibration, the fan operation in both flat and upright facilities is
intermittent. These rates are generally adequate for reducing insect and mold activ-
ity and for keeping moisture migration and accumulation within acceptable limits.
The air exits the perforated ducts and breaks the micro atmosphere that surrounds
the stored grain, decreasing water condensation and the generation of heat spots.
Aeration is considered the least costly preventative measure and preservation pro-
cedure to prevent grain deterioration (Baur 1992, Bern et al. 2003, Fan et al. 1976,
Hagstrum and Subramanyan 2006, McFarlane et al. 1995, Puzzi 1986, Sinha and
Muir 1973, Sauer 1992).

5.8 Explosion in Grain Storage Facilities

One of the most critical problems of grain elevators is the potential danger of fires
and dust explosions. Every year there are accidents that result in a high number of
victims and cause large economic losses due to partial or total facility destruction.
Lai et al. (1981) reported that in the United States during the years 1958–1975 there
were eight explosions in grain elevators per year, leaving a total of 36 dead and 211
wounded. The year 1977 was especially tragic, because two explosions in Louisiana
and Texas killed 53 people. More recent statistics indicate that during the years
1979–1980, 45 grain explosions occurred. These types of accidents happen world-
wide and have been reported since 1785, when a huge blast took place in Turin, Italy.
The incidence of fires in grain elevators is approximately 45 times greater than the
frequency of explosions.
144 Cereal Grains

Basic and applied research has demonstrated that several elements are necessary
to produce explosions in grain elevators: grain dust with low moisture content in
suspension, ignition source, presence of air, and confined space. The main cause of
grain explosions are the dust or suspended air particles produced during the move-
ment and management of the grain. The ultrafine airborne particles (91 µm, with an
average density of 1.49 g/cm3) are especially problematic because they tend to stay
suspended for longer periods of time and are more prone to trigger the blast. The
ideal conditions for a blast are the existence of suspended dust particles in enclosed
facilities, an oxidizing atmosphere, and a source of ignition that starts the chain reac-
tion. The explosion occurs when the airborne dust particles are present in adequate
concentrations. Finer and drier particles are more susceptible to ignition. Normally,
the explosion takes place in two sequential stages. The first starts when a spark of
an ignition source burns the airborne dust particles. causing an important change
in pressure. The resulting pressure change resuspends sedimented dust particles
located on floors and walls, creating new combustion material that causes a second
and more intense explosion. The heat spots caused by grain respiration and molds
release pyrolic gases (methane) that are highly reactive when exposed to an ignition
source such as sparks.
The main causes for dust explosions are: the use of welding equipment for repair
or maintenance of bins and related equipment; the use of hand lamps; and the gen-
eration of sparks in transformers, electric equipment, and interrupters. The best pre-
ventive measures are grain aeration, grain cleaning or removal of foreign material,
protection of all electric circuits and motors, and the control of static electricity.
Some grain elevators continuously monitor suspended dust particles by light atten-
uation instruments, or use special air filters to reduce airborne particles. In some
instances the grain is treated with additives or emulsified oil to reduce both friction
during handling and the generation of dust particles (Lai et al. 1981, Sauer 1992).

5.9 Chemical and Physical Changes Incurred

During Grain Deterioration
Cereal grains suffer countless numbers of physical and chemical changes during
deterioration that translate into dry matter and quality losses. The losses are mainly
due to insects, molds, and rodents. These quality alterations are the main criteria for
grading grains (Anonymous 1992). The changes in color, appearance, and off-odors
are highly related to grain condition. More specific changes include fat acidity, the
presence of live and dead insects, molds, and mycotoxins. Damaged kernels lose
quality due to important chemical changes in the starch, lipids, proteins, and other
chemical grain components.

5.9.1 Dry Matter Losses

Grains tend to lose weight during deterioration due to respiration and/or the matter
consumed by insects, molds, and rodents. Deteriorated kernels are also more prone
to break during handling, transportation, and distribution. Dry matter losses due to
Storage of Cereal Grains 145

respiration are mainly the result of the breakdown of organic compounds into simpler
moieties, including volatile compounds and carbon dioxide. During the first stages of
deterioration the grain tends to increase its weight due to the absorbed water from the
surrounding air and the water produced from the hydrolysis of organic compounds.
This is followed by a loss of weight due to the loss of organic matter. Insect-infested
grains regularly lose 50% or more of their dry matter weight (Sauer 1992).

5.9.2 Changes in Carbohydrates
The intrinsic grain and the potent mold enzymes breakdown starch into dextrins,
maltose, and other simpler carbohydrates. The most common assays to monitor starch
damage are falling numbers and diastatic activity. These methods indirectly deter-
mine the α-and β-amylase activities by measuring the viscosity of a slurry that has
been previously gelatinized or heat treated. Damaged starch produces less viscous
suspensions compared to starch from sound grains. The most popular and efficient
instruments to determine diastatic activity are the falling number apparatus and the
Brabender and rapid viscoamylographs described in Chapter 15. The starch damage
is of utmost importance because it affects the functionality of wheat, barley, and
maize for bread, malting/fermentation, and wet-milling, respectively. In addition,
damaged kernels have higher amounts of reducing sugars due to starch hydrolysis.
These sugars can lower the nutritional value and color of thermal-processed products
(i.e., bakery goods, breakfast cereals, snacks, etc.) due to Maillard reactions (Sauer
1992).

5.9.3 Changes in Nitrogenous Compounds

The protein fraction is the least prone to changes due to faulty storage. The protein
content determined with the Kjeldahl method either does not change or, if changes
are seen, they are due to carbohydrate losses from respiration. However, damaged
grains have a higher concentration of enzymes, soluble nitrogen, free amino nitro-
gen, and free amino acids, usually quantified via the free amino nitrogen assay. The
protein solubility of the different fractions is also slightly altered. This is especially
important in wheat because deteriorated kernels have lower gluten quality and func-
tionality (Sauer 1992).

5.9.4 Changes in Lipids
The most evident changes during grain deterioration occur in the lipid fraction.
Grains undergoing intrinsic and/or extrinsic deterioration tend to contain a lower
fat content and the fat is seriously damaged (Sauer 1992). There are two major types
of changes in the lipid fraction: production of free fatty acids due to breakdown of
lipids and oxidative rancidity. Cereal grains contain significant quantities of natural
antioxidants (i.e., tocopherols, phenolic compounds, and carotenoids) that protect
or at least delay undesirable oxidative reactions during storage. However, storage
of milled or processed products generally results in a more rapid oxidative rancid-
ity, especially when the products are whole. The triglycerides, phospholipids, and
146 Cereal Grains

related compounds are very susceptible to intrinsic lipases (lipase A1, lipase A2,
phospholipase A1, phospholipase A2) generated in deteriorated grains or produced
by contaminating molds. These enzymes hydrolyze ester bonds yielding free fatty
acids (Sauer 1992).
A high grain moisture content and environmental temperature increase both fungi
growth and activity of most enzymes. The hydrolysis of fats occurs at a faster rate
than carbohydrates or proteins. Therefore, measurements of lipid damage via titrat-
able acidity, pH, or free fatty acids are the most sensitive indexes to determine grain
condition or soundness. These tests correlate with the evaluation of off-odors widely
practiced by federal grain inspectors (Anonymous 1992) (Chapter 2).

Self-Evaluation
1. What is the average grain loss incurred during storage in the United States and
India? Why are these losses quite different? Give at least three reasons why.
2. What are the differences between intrinsic and extrinsic grain deterioration?
3. Why is grain moisture the most critical factor to control in grain elevators?
4. Investigate how an isotherm curve is experimentally constructed in the
laboratory and its use in the practical management of stored cereal grains.
What is the effect of environmental temperature on the isotherm of a given
cereal grain?
5. What are the three most common operations to preserve grains in grain
storage facilities? Briefly describe the principle of each operation.
6. Why is it critically important to thoroughly clean the grain and facilities
prior to storage?
7. Calculate the shrinkage of 120 tons of rough rice that arrives at a grain
elevator at 23% moisture and is dehydrated to 11% moisture.
8. Describe at least three different types of grain storage facilities, indicating
advantages and disadvantages of each.
9. Describe the typical way sound grains with adequate moisture content can
deteriorate throughout prolonged storage.
10. What is a heat spot? How are heat spots monitored in grain elevators? What
is usually done when heat spots are detected?
11. Mention and describe at least three ways to sample grains from trucks, train
loads, and barges/ships.
12. What is the main difference between grain ventilation or aeration and dry-
ing? When are these management practices generally applied?
13. What are the advantages and disadvantages of controlled atmosphere storage?
14. Describe the necessary and optimum conditions for grain explosions or
fires. How can you prevent these catastrophes?
15. Build a table to explain chemical changes that occur in carbohydrates, pro-
teins, and fats of deteriorated grains. In the same table include a column
with the main quality control parameters that you can implement to monitor
changes of the chemical compounds described before.