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Europe
Europe is a continent[t] located entirely in the Northern
Europe
Hemisphere and mostly in the Eastern Hemisphere. It is bordered by
the Arctic Ocean to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the west, the
Mediterranean Sea to the south, and Asia to the east. Europe shares
the landmass of Eurasia with Asia, and of Afro-Eurasia with both
Africa and Asia.[9][10] Europe is commonly considered to be
separated from Asia by the watershed of the Ural Mountains, the
Ural River, the Caspian Sea, the Greater Caucasus, the Black Sea, and
the waterway of the Bosporus Strait.[11]

Europe covers approx. 10,186,000 square kilometres

(3,933,000 sq mi), or 2% of Earth's surface (6.8% of Earth's land
area), making it the second-smallest continent (using the seven-
continent model). Politically, Europe is divided into about fifty
sovereign states, of which Russia is the largest and most populous, Show national borders
spanning 39% of the continent and comprising 15% of its population. Hide national borders
Europe had a total population of about 745 million (about 10% of the Show all
world population) in 2021; the third-largest after Asia and Area c. 10,186,000 square
Africa.[1][2] The European climate is affected by warm Atlantic kilometres (3,933,000 sq mi)
currents, such as the Gulf Stream, which produce a temperate (6th)[a]
climate, tempering winters and summers, on much of the continent. Population 745,173,774 (2021; 3rd)[1][2]
Further from the sea, seasonal differences are more noticeable
Population 72.9/km2 (188/sq mi) (2nd)
producing more continental climates.
density
The culture of Europe consists of a range of national and regional GDP (PPP) $43.53 trillion (2025 est; 2nd)[3]
cultures, which form the central roots of the wider Western GDP $28.22 trillion (2025 est; 3rd)[4]
civilisation, and together commonly reference ancient Greece and (nominal)
ancient Rome, particularly through their Christian successors, as
GDP per $38,270 (2025 est; 3rd)[c][5]
crucial and shared roots.[12][13] Beginning with the fall of the
capita
Western Roman Empire in 476 CE, Christian consolidation of
HDI 0.845[6]
Europe in the wake of the Migration Period marked the European
post-classical Middle Ages. The Italian Renaissance spread in the rest Religions Christianity (76.2%)[7]
of the continent a new humanist interest in art and science which led No religion (18.3%)[7]
to the modern era. Since the Age of Discovery, led by Spain and Islam (4.9%)[7]
Portugal, Europe played a predominant role in global affairs with
Other (0.6%)[7]
multiple explorations and conquests around the world. Between the
16th and 20th centuries, European powers colonised at various times Demonym European
the Americas, almost all of Africa and Oceania, and the majority of Countries Sovereign (44–50)
Asia. De facto (2–5)
Dependencies External (5–6)
The Age of Enlightenment, the French Revolution, and the
Internal (3)
Napoleonic Wars shaped the continent culturally, politically, and
economically from the end of the 17th century until the first half of Languages Most common:
the 19th century. The Industrial Revolution, which began in Great Russian · German · French ·
Britain at the end of the 18th century, gave rise to radical economic, Italian · English · Spanish ·
cultural, and social change in Western Europe and eventually the Polish · Ukrainian · Romanian
wider world. Both world wars began and were fought to a great · Dutch · Swedish · Serbo-
extent in Europe, contributing to a decline in Western European Croatian

dominance in world affairs by the mid-20th century as the Soviet Time zones UTC−1 to UTC+5
Union and the United States took prominence and competed over Largest cities Largest urban areas:[8]
ideological dominance and international influence in Europe and

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globally.[14]The resulting Cold War divided Europe along the Iron Moscow · Istanbul[b] · Paris ·
Curtain, with NATO in the West and the Warsaw Pact in the East. London · Madrid · Essen-
This divide ended with the Revolutions of 1989, the fall of the Berlin Düsseldorf · Saint Petersburg ·
Wall, and the dissolution of the Soviet Union, which allowed Milan · Barcelona · Berlin
European integration to advance significantly. UN M49 code 150 – Europe
001 – World
European integration has been advanced institutionally since 1948
with the founding of the Council of Europe, and significantly through a. ^ Figures include only European portions of
[n]
the realisation of the European Union (EU), which represents today transcontinental countries.
the majority of Europe.[15] The European Union is a supranational b. ^ Includes Asian population. Istanbul is a
political entity that lies between a confederation and a federation and transcontinental city which straddles both Asia and
is based on a system of European treaties.[16] The EU originated in Europe.
Western Europe but has been expanding eastward since the c. ^ "Europe" as defined by the International
dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991. A majority of its members Monetary Fund
have adopted a common currency, the euro, and participate in the
European single market and a customs union. A large bloc of countries, the Schengen Area, have also abolished
internal border and immigration controls. Regular popular elections take place every five years within the EU; they
are considered to be the second-largest democratic elections in the world after India's. The EU economy is the
second-largest in the world by nominal GDP and third-largest by PPP-adjusted GDP.

Etymology

The place name Evros was first used by the ancient Greeks to refer to their
northernmost province, which bears the same name today. The principal
river there – Evros (today's Maritsa) – flows through the fertile valleys of
Thrace,[17] which itself was also called Europe, before the term meant the
continent.[18]

In classical Greek mythology, Europa (Ancient Greek: Εὐρώπη, Eurṓpē)

was a Phoenician princess. One view is that her name derives from the
Ancient Greek elements εὐρύς (eurús) 'wide, broad', and ὤψ (ōps, gen.
ὠπός, ōpós) 'eye, face, countenance', hence their composite Eurṓpē would
mean 'wide-gazing' or 'broad of aspect'.[19][20][21][22] Broad has been an
epithet of Earth herself in the reconstructed Proto-Indo-European religion
and the poetry devoted to it.[19] An alternative view is that of Robert
Reconstruction of an early world map
Beekes, who has argued in favour of a pre-Indo-European origin for the
made by Anaximander of the 6th century
BCE, dividing the known world into three name, explaining that a derivation from eurus would yield a different
large landmasses, one of which was toponym than Europa. Beekes has located toponyms related to that of
named Europe Europa in the territory of ancient Greece, and localities such as that of
Europos in ancient Macedonia.[23]

There have been attempts to connect Eurṓpē to a Semitic term for west, this being either Akkadian erebu meaning
'to go down, set' (said of the sun) or Phoenician 'ereb 'evening, west',[22] which is at the origin of Arabic maghreb
and Hebrew ma'arav. Martin Litchfield West stated that "phonologically, the match between Europa's name and
any form of the Semitic word is very poor",[24] while Beekes considers a connection to Semitic languages
improbable.[23]

Most major world languages use words derived from Eurṓpē or Europa to refer to the continent. Chinese, for
example, uses the word Ōuzhōu (歐洲/欧洲), which is an abbreviation of the transliterated name Ōuluóbā zhōu (歐
羅巴洲) (zhōu means "continent"); a similar Chinese-derived term Ōshū (欧州) is also sometimes used in Japanese
such as in the Japanese name of the European Union, Ōshū Rengō (欧州連合), despite the katakana Yōroppa (ヨー
ロッパ) being more commonly used. In some Turkic languages, the originally Persian name Frangistan ("land of
the Franks") is used casually in referring to much of Europe, besides official names such as Avrupa or Evropa.[25]

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Definition

Contemporary definition
Clickable map of Europe, showing one of the most commonly used continental boundaries[u]
Key: blue: states which straddle the border between Europe and Asia; green: countries not geographically in Europe, but closely
associated with the continent

Arctic Ocean Franz Josef Land (Rus)

Baffin Bay
Greenland (Dk) Svalbard (Nor)

Barents Sea
Greenland Sea

Iceland

Norwegian
Sea
Far. (Dk)
Finland
North
Atlantic Norway
Ocean Sweden Estonia
Russia
Baltic
North SeaLatvia Kazakhstan
IrelandIoM Sea Denmark Lithuania
United Belarus
Celtic KingdomNetherlands
Sea Belg. Germany Poland
Channel Caspian
Is. Lux. Ukraine
Czech. Sea
Slovakia
Bay of France Austria Moldova
Biscay Switz-Liech. Hungary Georgia Azer.
erland Slovenia Romania Armenia
Black
CroatiaSerbia
AndorraMonaco San Sea
Portugal Bosnia
Adr-
Ligurian Mar.iaticMont.Kos.Bulgaria
Spain Sea Sea
Vatican N. Mac. Turkey
Italy Alb.
Gulf of Greece
Cádiz Gib. (UK)
Mediterranean Sea
Strait of Gibraltar
Aegean
Sea Cyprus
Malta

The prevalent definition of Europe as a geographical term has been in use since the mid-19th century. Europe is
taken to be bounded by large bodies of water to the north, west and south; Europe's limits to the east and north-
east are usually taken to be the Ural Mountains, the Ural River, and the Caspian Sea; to the south-east, the
Caucasus Mountains, the Black Sea, and the waterways connecting the Black Sea to the Mediterranean Sea.[26]

Islands are generally grouped with the nearest continental landmass, hence Iceland is considered to be part of
Europe, while the nearby island of Greenland is usually assigned to North America, although politically belonging
to Denmark. Nevertheless, there are some exceptions based on sociopolitical and cultural differences. Cyprus is
closest to Anatolia (or Asia Minor), but is considered part of Europe politically[27] and it is a member state of the
EU. Malta was considered an island of North-western Africa for centuries, but now it is considered to be part of
Europe as well.[28] "Europe", as used specifically in British English, may also refer to Continental Europe
exclusively.[29]

The term "continent" usually implies the physical geography of a large land mass completely or almost completely
surrounded by water at its borders. Prior to the adoption of the current convention that includes mountain divides,
the border between Europe and Asia had been redefined several times since its first conception in classical
antiquity, but always as a series of rivers, seas and straits that were believed to extend an unknown distance east
and north from the Mediterranean Sea without the inclusion of any mountain ranges. Cartographer Herman Moll
suggested in 1715 Europe was bounded by a series of partly-joined waterways directed towards the Turkish straits,

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and the Irtysh River draining into the upper part of the Ob River and the
Arctic Ocean. In contrast, the present eastern boundary of Europe partially
adheres to the Ural and Caucasus Mountains, which is somewhat arbitrary
and inconsistent compared to any clear-cut definition of the term
"continent".

The current division of Eurasia into two continents now reflects East-West
cultural, linguistic and ethnic differences which vary on a spectrum rather
than with a sharp dividing line. The geographic border between Europe and
Asia does not follow any state boundaries and now only follows a few
bodies of water. Turkey is generally considered a transcontinental country
divided entirely by water, while Russia and Kazakhstan are only partly
divided by waterways. France, the Netherlands, Portugal and Spain are also
transcontinental (or more properly, intercontinental, when oceans or large
seas are involved) in that their main land areas are in Europe while pockets
of their territories are located on other continents separated from Europe
by large bodies of water. Spain, for example, has territories south of the
Mediterranean Sea—namely, Ceuta and Melilla—which are parts of Africa
and share a border with Morocco. According to the current convention,
Georgia and Azerbaijan are transcontinental countries where waterways Definitions used for the boundary
have been completely replaced by mountains as the divide between between Asia and Europe in different
continents. periods of history.

History of the concept

Early history
The first recorded usage of Eurṓpē as a geographic term is in the Homeric
Hymn to Delian Apollo, in reference to the western shore of the Aegean
Sea. As a name for a part of the known world, it is first used in the 6th
century BCE by Anaximander and Hecataeus. Anaximander placed the
boundary between Asia and Europe along the Phasis River (the modern
Rioni River on the territory of Georgia) in the Caucasus, a convention still
followed by Herodotus in the 5th century BCE.[30] Herodotus mentioned
that the world had been divided by unknown persons into three parts—
Europe, Asia, and Libya (Africa)—with the Nile and the Phasis forming A medieval T and O map printed by
their boundaries—though he also states that some considered the River Günther Zainer in 1472, showing the
Don, rather than the Phasis, as the boundary between Europe and Asia.[31] three continents as domains of the sons
of Noah – Asia to Sem (Shem), Europe to
Europe's eastern frontier was defined in the 1st century by geographer
Iafeth (Japheth) and Africa to Cham
Strabo at the River Don.[32] The Book of Jubilees described the continents
(Ham)
as the lands given by Noah to his three sons; Europe was defined as
stretching from the Pillars of Hercules at the Strait of Gibraltar,
separating it from Northwest Africa, to the Don, separating it from
Asia.[33]

The convention received by the Middle Ages and surviving into modern
usage is that of the Roman era used by Roman-era authors such as
Posidonius,[34] Strabo,[35] and Ptolemy,[36] who took the Tanais (the
modern Don River) as the boundary.

The Roman Empire did not attach a strong identity to the concept of
continental divisions. However, following the fall of the Western Roman
Empire, the culture that developed in its place, linked to Latin and the Depiction of Europa regina ('Queen Europe')
Catholic church, began to associate itself with the concept of in 1582

"Europe".[37] The term "Europe" is first used for a cultural sphere in the

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Carolingian Renaissance of the 9th century. From that time, the term designated the sphere of influence of the
Western Church, as opposed to both the Eastern Orthodox churches and to the Islamic world.

A cultural definition of Europe as the lands of Latin Christendom coalesced in the 8th century, signifying the new
cultural condominium created through the confluence of Germanic traditions and Christian-Latin culture, defined
partly in contrast with Byzantium and Islam, and limited to northern Iberia, the British Isles, France, Christianised
western Germany, the Alpine regions and northern and central Italy.[38][39] The concept is one of the lasting
legacies of the Carolingian Renaissance: Europa often figures in the letters of Charlemagne's court scholar,
Alcuin.[40] The transition of Europe to being a cultural term as well as a geographic one led to the borders of
Europe being affected by cultural considerations in the East, especially relating to areas under Byzantine, Ottoman,
and Russian influence. Such questions were affected by the positive connotations associated with the term Europe
by its users. Such cultural considerations were not applied to the Americas, despite their conquest and settlement
by European states. Instead, the concept of "Western civilisation" emerged as a way of grouping together Europe
and these colonies.[41]

Modern definitions
The question of defining a precise eastern boundary of Europe arises in
the Early Modern period, as the eastern extension of Muscovy began to
include North Asia. Throughout the Middle Ages and into the 18th
century, the traditional division of the landmass of Eurasia into two
continents, Europe and Asia, followed Ptolemy, with the boundary
following the Turkish Straits, the Black Sea, the Kerch Strait, the Sea of
Azov and the Don (ancient Tanais). But maps produced during the 16th
to 18th centuries tended to differ in how to continue the boundary
beyond the Don bend at Kalach-na-Donu (where it is closest to the
Volga, now joined with it by the Volga–Don Canal), into territory not A New Map of Europe According to the
described in any detail by the ancient geographers. Newest Observations (1721) by Hermann
Moll draws the eastern boundary of Europe
Around 1715, Herman Moll produced a map showing the northern part along the Don River flowing south-west and
of the Ob River and the Irtysh River, a major tributary of the Ob, as the Tobol, Irtysh and Ob rivers flowing north.
components of a series of partly-joined waterways taking the boundary
between Europe and Asia from the Turkish Straits, and the Don River all
the way to the Arctic Ocean. In 1721, he produced a more up to date map
that was easier to read. However, his proposal to adhere to major rivers
as the line of demarcation was never taken up by other geographers who
were beginning to move away from the idea of water boundaries as the
only legitimate divides between Europe and Asia.

Four years later, in 1725, Philip Johan von Strahlenberg was the first to
depart from the classical Don boundary. He drew a new line along the
Volga, following the Volga north until the Samara Bend, along Obshchy
Syrt (the drainage divide between the Volga and Ural Rivers), then north
and east along the latter waterway to its source in the Ural Mountains. 1916 political map of Europe showing most
of Moll's waterways replaced by von
At this point he proposed that mountain ranges could be included as
Strahlenberg's Ural Mountains and
boundaries between continents as alternatives to nearby waterways.
Freshfield's Caucasus crest, land features of
Accordingly, he drew the new boundary north along Ural Mountains a type that normally defines a subcontinent
rather than the nearby and parallel running Ob and Irtysh rivers.[42]
This was endorsed by the Russian Empire and introduced the
convention that would eventually become commonly accepted. However, this did not come without criticism.
Voltaire, writing in 1760 about Peter the Great's efforts to make Russia more European, ignored the whole
boundary question with his claim that neither Russia, Scandinavia, northern Germany, nor Poland were fully part
of Europe.[37] Since then, many modern analytical geographers like Halford Mackinder have declared that they see
little validity in the Ural Mountains as a boundary between continents.[43]

The mapmakers continued to differ on the boundary between the lower Don and Samara well into the 19th century.
The 1745 atlas published by the Russian Academy of Sciences has the boundary follow the Don beyond Kalach as
far as Serafimovich before cutting north towards Arkhangelsk, while other 18th- to 19th-century mapmakers such
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as John Cary followed Strahlenberg's prescription. To the south, the Kuma–Manych Depression was identified
c. 1773 by a German naturalist, Peter Simon Pallas, as a valley that once connected the Black Sea and the Caspian
Sea,[44][45] and subsequently was proposed as a natural boundary between continents.

By the mid-19th century, there were three main conventions, one following the Don, the Volga–Don Canal and the
Volga, the other following the Kuma–Manych Depression to the Caspian and then the Ural River, and the third
abandoning the Don altogether, following the Greater Caucasus watershed to the Caspian. The question was still
treated as a "controversy" in geographical literature of the 1860s, with Douglas Freshfield advocating the Caucasus
crest boundary as the "best possible", citing support from various "modern geographers".[46]

In Russia and the Soviet Union, the boundary along the Kuma–Manych Depression was the most commonly used
as early as 1906.[47] In 1958, the Soviet Geographical Society formally recommended that the boundary between
the Europe and Asia be drawn in textbooks from Baydaratskaya Bay, on the Kara Sea, along the eastern foot of Ural
Mountains, then following the Ural River until the Mugodzhar Hills, and then the Emba River; and Kuma–Manych
Depression,[48] thus placing the Caucasus entirely in Asia and the Urals entirely in Europe.[49] The Flora Europaea
adopted a boundary along the Terek and Kuban rivers, so southwards from the Kuma and the Manych, but still
with the Caucasus entirely in Asia.[50][51] However, most geographers in the Soviet Union favoured the boundary
along the Caucasus crest,[52] and this became the common convention in the later 20th century, although the
Kuma–Manych boundary remained in use in some 20th-century maps.

Some view the separation of Eurasia into Asia and Europe as a residue of Eurocentrism: "In physical, cultural and
historical diversity, China and India are comparable to the entire European landmass, not to a single European
country. [...]."[53]

History

Prehistory
During the 2.5 million years of the Pleistocene, numerous cold phases
called glacials (Quaternary ice age), or significant advances of continental
ice sheets, in Europe and North America, occurred at intervals of
approximately 40,000 to 100,000 years. The long glacial periods were
separated by more temperate and shorter interglacials which lasted about
10,000–15,000 years. The last cold episode of the last glacial period ended
about 10,000 years ago.[55] Earth is currently in an interglacial period of
the Quaternary, called the Holocene.[56]
Last Glacial Maximum refugia, c. 20,000
Homo erectus georgicus, which lived roughly 1.8 million years ago in years ago
Georgia, is the earliest hominin to have been discovered in Europe.[57] Solutrean culture
Other hominin remains, dating back roughly 1 million years, have been Epigravettian culture[54]
discovered in Atapuerca, Spain.[58] Neanderthal man (named after the
Neandertal valley in Germany) appeared in Europe 150,000 years ago
(115,000 years ago it is found already in the territory of present-day
Poland[59]) and disappeared from the fossil record about 40,000 years
ago,[60] with their final refuge being the Iberian Peninsula. The
Neanderthals were supplanted by modern humans (Cro-Magnons), who
seem to have appeared in Europe around 43,000 to 40,000 years ago.[61]
However, there is also evidence that Homo sapiens arrived in Europe
around 54,000 years ago, some 10,000 years earlier than previously
thought.[62] The earliest sites in Europe dated 48,000 years ago are Riparo
Paleolithic cave paintings from Lascaux
Mochi (Italy), Geissenklösterle (Germany) and Isturitz (France).[63][64]
in France (c. 15,000 BCE)
The European Neolithic period—marked by the cultivation of crops and the
raising of livestock, increased numbers of settlements and the widespread
use of pottery—began around 7000 BCE in Greece and the Balkans, probably influenced by earlier farming
practices in Anatolia and the Near East.[65] It spread from the Balkans along the valleys of the Danube and the

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Rhine (Linear Pottery culture), and along the Mediterranean coast (Cardial
culture). Between 4500 and 3000 BCE, these central European neolithic
cultures developed further to the west and the north, transmitting newly
acquired skills in producing copper artifacts. In Western Europe the
Neolithic period was characterised not by large agricultural settlements but
by field monuments, such as causewayed enclosures, burial mounds and
megalithic tombs.[66] The Corded Ware cultural horizon flourished at the Stonehenge in the United Kingdom (Late
Neolithic from 3000 to 2000 BCE)
transition from the Neolithic to the Chalcolithic. During this period giant
megalithic monuments, such as the Megalithic Temples of Malta and
Stonehenge, were constructed throughout Western and Southern Europe.[67][68]

The modern native populations of Europe largely descend from three distinct lineages:[69] Mesolithic hunter-
gatherers, descended from populations associated with the Paleolithic Epigravettian culture;[54] Neolithic Early
European Farmers who migrated from Anatolia during the Neolithic Revolution 9,000 years ago;[70] and Yamnaya
Steppe herders who expanded into Europe from the Pontic–Caspian steppe of Ukraine and southern Russia in the
context of Indo-European migrations 5,000 years ago.[69][71] The European Bronze Age began c. 3200 BCE in
Greece with the Minoan civilisation on Crete, the first advanced civilisation in Europe.[72] The Minoans were
followed by the Myceneans, who collapsed suddenly around 1200 BCE, ushering the European Iron Age.[73] Iron
Age colonisation by the Greeks and Phoenicians gave rise to early Mediterranean cities. Early Iron Age Italy and
Greece from around the 8th century BCE gradually gave rise to historical Classical antiquity, whose beginning is
sometimes dated to 776 BCE, the year of the first Olympic Games.[74]

Classical antiquity
Ancient Greece was the founding culture of Western civilisation. Western
democratic and rationalist culture are often attributed to Ancient
Greece.[75] The Greek city-state, the polis, was the fundamental political
unit of classical Greece.[75] In 508 BCE, Cleisthenes instituted the world's
first democratic system of government in Athens.[76] The Greek political
ideals were rediscovered in the late 18th century by European philosophers
and idealists. Greece also generated many cultural contributions: in
philosophy, humanism and rationalism under Aristotle, Socrates and Plato;
in history with Herodotus and Thucydides; in dramatic and narrative verse,
The Parthenon in Athens (432 BCE)
starting with the epic poems of Homer;[77] in drama with Sophocles and
Euripides; in medicine with Hippocrates and Galen; and in science with
Pythagoras, Euclid, and Archimedes.[78][79][80] In the course of the 5th century BCE, several of the Greek city states
would ultimately check the Achaemenid Persian advance in Europe through the Greco-Persian Wars, considered a
pivotal moment in world history,[81] as the 50 years of peace that followed are known as Golden Age of Athens, the
seminal period of ancient Greece that laid many of the foundations of Western civilisation.

Greece was followed by Rome, which left its mark on law, politics,
language, engineering, architecture, government, and many more key
aspects in western civilisation.[75] By 200 BCE, Rome had conquered Italy
and over the following two centuries it conquered Greece, Hispania (Spain
and Portugal), the North African coast, much of the Middle East, Gaul
(France and Belgium), and Britannia (England and Wales).

Expanding from their base in central Italy beginning in the third century
BCE, the Romans gradually expanded to eventually rule the entire
Mediterranean basin and Western Europe by the turn of the millennium.
The Roman Republic ended in 27 BCE, when Augustus proclaimed the
Roman Empire. The two centuries that followed are known as the pax
romana, a period of unprecedented peace, prosperity and political stability Animation showing the growth and
in most of Europe. [82] The empire continued to expand under emperors division of Ancient Rome
such as Antoninus Pius and Marcus Aurelius, who spent time on the
Empire's northern border fighting Germanic, Pictish and Scottish
tribes.[83][84] Christianity was legalised by Constantine I in 313 CE after three centuries of imperial persecution.

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Constantine also permanently moved the capital of the empire from Rome to the city of Byzantium (modern-day
Istanbul) which was renamed Constantinople in his honour in 330 CE. Christianity became the sole official religion
of the empire in 380 CE, and in 391–392 CE the emperor Theodosius outlawed pagan religions.[85] This is
sometimes considered to mark the end of antiquity; alternatively antiquity is considered to end with the fall of the
Western Roman Empire in 476 CE; the closure of the pagan Platonic Academy of Athens in 529 CE;[86] or the rise
of Islam in the early 7th century CE. During most of its existence, the Byzantine Empire was one of the most
powerful economic, cultural, and military forces in Europe.[87]

Early Middle Ages

During the decline of the Roman Empire, Europe entered a long
period of change arising from what historians call the "Age of
Migrations". There were numerous invasions and migrations
amongst the Ostrogoths, Visigoths, Goths, Vandals, Huns,
Franks, Angles, Saxons, Slavs, Avars, Bulgars, Vikings,
Pechenegs, Cumans, and Magyars.[82] Renaissance thinkers such
as Petrarch would later refer to this as the "Dark Ages".[88]
Europe c. 650
Isolated monastic communities were the only places to safeguard
and compile written knowledge accumulated previously; apart
from this, very few written records survive. Much literature,
philosophy, mathematics, and other thinking from the classical
period disappeared from Western Europe, though they were
preserved in the east, in the Byzantine Empire.[89]

While the Roman empire in the west continued to decline,

Roman traditions and the Roman state remained strong in the
predominantly Greek-speaking Eastern Roman Empire, also
Charlemagne's empire in 814: Francia, Tributaries
known as the Byzantine Empire. During most of its existence, the
Byzantine Empire was the most powerful economic, cultural, and
military force in Europe. Emperor Justinian I presided over Constantinople's first golden age: he established a legal
code that forms the basis of many modern legal systems, funded the construction of the Hagia Sophia and brought
the Christian church under state control.[90]

From the 7th century onwards, as the Byzantines and neighbouring Sasanid Persians were severely weakened due
to the protracted, centuries-lasting and frequent Byzantine–Sasanian wars, the Muslim Arabs began to make
inroads into historically Roman territory, taking the Levant and North Africa and making inroads into Asia Minor.
In the mid-7th century, following the Muslim conquest of Persia, Islam penetrated into the Caucasus region.[91]
Over the next centuries Muslim forces took Cyprus, Malta, Crete, Sicily, and parts of southern Italy.[92] Between 711
and 720, most of the lands of the Visigothic Kingdom of Iberia were brought under Muslim rule—save for small
areas in the northwest (Asturias) and largely Basque regions in the Pyrenees. This territory, under the Arabic name
Al-Andalus, became part of the expanding Umayyad Caliphate. The unsuccessful second siege of Constantinople
(717) weakened the Umayyad dynasty and reduced their prestige. The Umayyads were then defeated by the
Frankish leader Charles Martel at the Battle of Poitiers in 732, which ended their northward advance. In the remote
regions of north-western Iberia and the middle Pyrenees the power of the Muslims in the south was scarcely felt. It
was here that the foundations of the Christian kingdoms of Asturias, Leon, and Galicia were laid and from where
the reconquest of the Iberian Peninsula would start. However, no coordinated attempt would be made to drive the
Moors out. The Christian kingdoms were mainly focused on their own internal power struggles. As a result, the
Reconquista took the greater part of eight hundred years, in which period a long list of Alfonsos, Sanchos, Ordoños,
Ramiros, Fernandos, and Bermudos would be fighting their Christian rivals as much as the Muslim invaders.

During the Dark Ages, the Western Roman Empire fell under the control of various tribes. The Germanic and Slav
tribes established their domains over Western and Eastern Europe, respectively.[93] Eventually the Frankish tribes
were united under Clovis I.[94] Charlemagne, a Frankish king of the Carolingian dynasty who had conquered most
of Western Europe, was anointed "Holy Roman Emperor" by the Pope in 800. This led in 962 to the founding of the
Holy Roman Empire, which eventually became centred in the German principalities of central Europe.[95]

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East Central Europe saw the creation of the first Slavic states and the
adoption of Christianity (c. 1000 CE). The powerful West Slavic state of
Great Moravia spread its territory all the way south to the Balkans, reaching
its largest territorial extent under Svatopluk I and causing a series of armed
conflicts with East Francia. Further south, the first South Slavic states
emerged in the late 7th and 8th century and adopted Christianity: the First
Bulgarian Empire, the Serbian Principality (later Kingdom and Empire),
and the Duchy of Croatia (later Kingdom of Croatia). To the east, Kievan Viking raids and division of the Frankish
Rus' expanded from its capital in Kiev to become the largest state in Europe Empire at the Treaty of Verdun in 843
by the 10th century. In 988, Vladimir the Great adopted Orthodox
Christianity as the religion of state.[96][97] Further east, Volga Bulgaria
became an Islamic state in the 10th century, but was eventually absorbed into Russia several centuries later.[98]

High and Late Middle Ages

The period between the year 1000 and 1250 is known as the High Middle Ages,
followed by the Late Middle Ages until c. 1500.

During the High Middle Ages the population of Europe experienced significant
growth, culminating in the Renaissance of the 12th century. Economic growth,
together with the lack of safety on the mainland trading routes, made possible the
development of major commercial routes along the coast of the Mediterranean and
Baltic Seas. The growing wealth and independence acquired by some coastal cities
gave the Maritime Republics a leading role in the European scene.

The Middle Ages on the mainland were dominated by the two upper echelons of the
social structure: the nobility and the clergy. Feudalism developed in France in the The maritime republics of
Early Middle Ages, and soon spread throughout Europe.[101] A struggle for influence medieval Italy reestablished
between the nobility and the monarchy in England led to the writing of Magna Carta contacts between Europe,
and the establishment of a parliament.[102] The primary source of culture in this Asia and Africa with
extensive trade networks and
period came from the Roman Catholic Church. Through monasteries and cathedral
colonies across the
schools, the Church was responsible for education in much of Europe.[101] Mediterranean, and had an
essential role in the
The Papacy reached the height of its power
Crusades.[99][100]
during the High Middle Ages. An East-West
Schism in 1054 split the former Roman Empire
religiously, with the Eastern Orthodox Church in the Byzantine Empire and
the Roman Catholic Church in the former Western Roman Empire. In 1095
Pope Urban II called for a crusade against Muslims occupying Jerusalem and
the Holy Land.[103] In Europe itself, the Church organised the Inquisition
against heretics. In the Iberian Peninsula, the Reconquista concluded with the
fall of Granada in 1492, ending over seven centuries of Islamic rule in the
south-western peninsula.[104]

In the east, a resurgent Byzantine Empire recaptured Crete and Cyprus from
Tancred of Sicily and Philip II of
the Muslims, and reconquered the Balkans. Constantinople was the largest
France, during the Third Crusade and wealthiest city in Europe from the 9th to the 12th centuries, with a
(1189–1192)
population of approximately 400,000.[105] The Empire was weakened
following the defeat at Manzikert, and was weakened considerably by the sack
of Constantinople in 1204, during the Fourth Crusade.[106][107][108][109][110][111][112][113][114] Although it would
recover Constantinople in 1261, Byzantium fell in 1453 when Constantinople was taken by the Ottoman
Empire.[115][116][117]

In the 11th and 12th centuries, constant incursions by nomadic Turkic tribes, such as the Pechenegs and the
Cuman-Kipchaks, caused a massive migration of Slavic populations to the safer, heavily forested regions of the
north, and temporarily halted the expansion of the Rus' state to the south and east.[118] Like many other parts of
Eurasia, these territories were overrun by the Mongols.[119] The invaders, who became known as Tatars, were
mostly Turkic-speaking peoples under Mongol suzerainty. They established the state of the Golden Horde with
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headquarters in Crimea, which later adopted Islam as a religion, and ruled over
modern-day southern and central Russia for more than three centuries.[120][121]
After the collapse of Mongol dominions, the first Romanian states (principalities)
emerged in the 14th century: Moldavia and Walachia. Previously, these territories
were under the successive control of Pechenegs and Cumans.[122] From the 12th to
the 15th centuries, the Grand Duchy of Moscow grew from a small principality
under Mongol rule to the largest state in Europe, overthrowing the Mongols in
1480, and eventually becoming the Tsardom of Russia. The state was consolidated
under Ivan III the Great and Ivan the Terrible, steadily expanding to the east and
south over the next centuries.

The Great Famine of 1315–1317 was the first crisis that would strike Europe in the
late Middle Ages.[123] The period between 1348 and 1420 witnessed the heaviest
loss. The population of France was reduced by half.[124][125] Medieval Britain was
afflicted by 95 famines,[126] and France suffered the effects of 75 or more in the
same period.[127] Europe was devastated in the mid-14th century by the Black The sacking of Suzdal by Batu
Death, one of the most deadly pandemics in human history which killed an Khan in 1238, during the
estimated 25 million people in Europe alone—a third of the European population at Mongol invasion of Europe
(1220s–1240s)
the time.[128]

The plague had a devastating effect on Europe's social structure; it induced people
to live for the moment as illustrated by Giovanni Boccaccio in The Decameron (1353). It was a serious blow to the
Roman Catholic Church and led to increased persecution of Jews, beggars and lepers.[129] The plague is thought to
have returned every generation with varying virulence and mortalities until the 18th century.[130] During this
period, more than 100 plague epidemics swept across Europe.[131]

Early modern period

The Renaissance was a period of cultural change originating in
Florence, and later spreading to the rest of Europe. The rise of a new
humanism was accompanied by the recovery of forgotten classical
Greek and Arabic knowledge from monastic libraries, often
translated from Arabic into Latin.[132][133][134] The Renaissance
spread across Europe between the 14th and 16th centuries: it saw
the flowering of art, philosophy, music, and the sciences, under the
joint patronage of royalty, the nobility, the Catholic Church and an
emerging merchant class.[135][136][137] Patrons in Italy, including the
Medici family of Florentine bankers and the popes in Rome, funded
prolific quattrocento and cinquecento artists such as Raphael,
The School of Athens (1511) by Raphael:
Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci.[138][139] Contemporaries of the artist, including Leonardo
da Vinci and Michelangelo, are represented in
Political intrigue within the Church in the mid-14th century caused classical guise in this work emblematic of
the Western Schism. During this 40-year period, two popes—one in Renaissance humanism.
Avignon and one in Rome—claimed rulership over the Church.
Although the schism was eventually healed in 1417, the papacy's
spiritual authority had suffered greatly.[140] In the 15th century, Europe started to extend itself beyond its
geographic frontiers. Spain and Portugal, the greatest naval powers of the time, took the lead in exploring the
world.[141][142] Exploration reached the Southern Hemisphere in the Atlantic and the southern tip of Africa.
Christopher Columbus reached the New World in 1492, and Vasco da Gama opened the ocean route to the East,
linking the Atlantic and Indian Oceans in 1498. The Portuguese-born explorer Ferdinand Magellan reached Asia
westward across the Atlantic and the Pacific Oceans in a Spanish expedition, resulting in the first circumnavigation
of the globe, completed by the Spaniard Juan Sebastián Elcano (1519–1522). Soon after, the Spanish and
Portuguese began establishing large global empires in the Americas, Asia, Africa and Oceania.[143] France, the
Netherlands and England soon followed in building large colonial empires with vast holdings in Africa, the
Americas and Asia. In 1588, the Spanish Armada failed to invade England. A year later, England tried
unsuccessfully to invade Spain, allowing Philip II of Spain to maintain his dominant war capacity in Europe. This

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English disaster also allowed the Spanish fleet to retain its capability to wage war for the next decades. However,
two more Spanish armadas failed to invade England (2nd Spanish Armada and 3rd Spanish
Armada).[144][145][146][147]

The Church's power was further weakened by the Reformation,

which began in 1517 when German theologian Martin Luther nailed
his Ninety-five Theses criticising the selling of indulgences to the
church door. He was subsequently excommunicated in the papal
bull Exsurge Domine in 1520 and his followers were condemned in
the 1521 Diet of Worms, which divided German princes between
Protestant and Catholic faiths.[149] Religious fighting and warfare
spread with Protestantism.[150] The plunder of the empires of the
Americas allowed Spain to finance religious persecution in Europe
for over a century.[151] The Thirty Years' War (1618–1648) crippled
the Holy Roman Empire and devastated much of Germany, killing
Habsburg dominions in the centuries following
between 25 and 40 percent of its population.[152] In the aftermath of their partition by Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor.
the Peace of Westphalia, France rose to predominance within The principal military base of Philip II in Europe
Europe.[153] The defeat of the Ottoman Turks at the Battle of Vienna was the Spanish road stretching from the
in 1683 marked the historic end of Ottoman expansion into Netherlands to the Duchy of Milan.[148]
Europe.[154]

In much of Central and Eastern Europe, the 17th century was a period of general decline;[155] the region
experienced more than 150 famines in a 200-year period between 1501 and 1700.[156] From the Union of Krewo
(1385) east-central Europe was dominated by the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The
hegemony of the vast Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth had ended with the devastation brought by the Northern
War of 1655–1660 (Deluge) and subsequent conflicts;[157] the state itself was partitioned and ceased to exist at the
end of the 18th century.[158]

From the 15th to 18th centuries, when the disintegrating khanates of the Golden Horde were conquered by Russia,
Tatars from the Crimean Khanate frequently raided Eastern Slavic lands to capture slaves.[159] Further east, the
Nogai Horde and Kazakh Khanate frequently raided the Slavic-speaking areas of contemporary Russia and Ukraine
for hundreds of years, until the Russian expansion and conquest of most of northern Eurasia (i.e. Eastern Europe,
Central Asia and Siberia).

The Renaissance and the New Monarchs marked the start of an Age of Discovery, a period of exploration, invention
and scientific development.[160] Important figures of the Scientific Revolution during the 16th and 17th centuries
included Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo, and Isaac Newton.[161] According to Peter Barrett, "It is widely accepted that
'modern science' arose in the Europe of the 17th century (towards the end of the Renaissance), introducing a new
understanding of the natural world."[132]

18th and 19th centuries

The Seven Years' War brought to an end the "Old System" of alliances in
Europe. Consequently, when the American Revolutionary War turned into
a global war between 1778 and 1783, Britain found itself opposed by a
strong coalition of European powers, and lacking any substantial ally.[162]

The Age of Enlightenment was a powerful intellectual movement during the

18th century promoting scientific and reason-based thoughts.[163][164][165]
Discontent with the aristocracy and clergy's monopoly on political power in
France resulted in the French Revolution, and the establishment of the The national boundaries within Europe
First Republic as a result of which the monarchy and many of the nobility set by the Congress of Vienna
perished during the initial reign of terror.[166] Napoleon Bonaparte rose to
power in the aftermath of the French Revolution, and established the First
French Empire that, during the Napoleonic Wars, grew to encompass large parts of Europe before collapsing in
1815 with the Battle of Waterloo.[167][168] Napoleonic rule resulted in the further dissemination of the ideals of the
French Revolution, including that of the nation state, as well as the widespread adoption of the French models of
administration, law and education.[169][170][171] The Congress of Vienna, convened after Napoleon's downfall,
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established a new balance of power in Europe centred on the five "great powers": the UK, France, Prussia, Austria,
and Russia.[172] This balance would remain in place until the Revolutions of 1848, during which liberal uprisings
affected all of Europe except for Russia and the UK. These revolutions were eventually put down by conservative
elements and few reforms resulted.[173] The year 1859 saw the unification of Romania, as a nation state, from
smaller principalities. In 1867, the Austro-Hungarian empire was formed; 1871 saw the unifications of both Italy
and Germany as nation-states from smaller principalities.[174]

In parallel, the Eastern Question grew more complex ever since the Ottoman defeat in the Russo-Turkish War
(1768–1774). As the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire seemed imminent, the Great Powers struggled to safeguard
their strategic and commercial interests in the Ottoman domains. The Russian Empire stood to benefit from the
decline, whereas the Habsburg Empire and Britain perceived the preservation of the Ottoman Empire to be in their
best interests. Meanwhile, the Serbian Revolution (1804) and Greek War of Independence (1821) marked the
beginning of the end of Ottoman rule in the Balkans, which ended with the Balkan Wars in 1912–1913.[175] Formal
recognition of the de facto independent principalities of Montenegro, Serbia and Romania ensued at the Congress
of Berlin in 1878.

The Industrial Revolution started in Great Britain in the last part of the
18th century and spread throughout Europe. The invention and
implementation of new technologies resulted in rapid urban growth, mass
employment and the rise of a new working class.[176] Reforms in social and
economic spheres followed, including the first laws on child labour, the
legalisation of trade unions,[177] and the abolition of slavery.[178] In Britain,
the Public Health Act of 1875 was passed, which significantly improved
living conditions in many British cities.[179] Europe's population increased
from about 100 million in 1700 to 400 million by 1900.[180] The last major
famine recorded in Western Europe, the Great Famine of Ireland, caused
Marshall's Temple Works (1840); the
death and mass emigration of millions of Irish people.[181] In the 19th Industrial Revolution started in Great
century, 70 million people left Europe in migrations to various European Britain.
colonies abroad and to the United States.[182] The industrial revolution also
led to large population growth, and the share of the world population living
in Europe reached a peak of slightly above 25% around the year 1913.[183][184]

20th century to the present

Two world wars and an economic depression dominated the first
half of the 20th century. The First World War was fought between
1914 and 1918. It started when Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria
was assassinated by the Yugoslav nationalist[185] Gavrilo
Princip.[186] Most European nations were drawn into the war, which
was fought between the Entente Powers (France, Belgium, Serbia,
Portugal, Russia, the United Kingdom, and later Italy, Greece,
Map of European colonial empires throughout the
Romania, and the United States) and the Central Powers (Austria-
world in 1914
Hungary, Germany, Bulgaria, and the Ottoman Empire). The war
left more than 16 million civilians and military dead.[187] Over
60 million European soldiers were mobilised from 1914 to 1918.[188]

Russia was plunged into the Russian Revolution, which threw down the
Tsarist monarchy and replaced it with the communist Soviet Union,[189]
leading also to the independence of many former Russian governorates,
such as Finland, Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, as new European
countries.[190] Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire collapsed and
broke up into separate nations, and many other nations had their borders
redrawn. The Treaty of Versailles, which officially ended the First World
War in 1919, was harsh towards Germany, upon whom it placed full
Map depicting the military alliances of the
responsibility for the war and imposed heavy sanctions.[191] Excess deaths
First World War in 1914–1918
in Russia over the course of the First World War and the Russian Civil War
(including the postwar famine) amounted to a combined total of 18

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million.[192]
In 1932–1933, under Stalin's leadership, confiscations of grain by the Soviet authorities contributed to
the second Soviet famine which caused millions of deaths;[193] surviving kulaks were persecuted and many sent to
Gulags to do forced labour. Stalin was also responsible for the Great Purge of 1937–38 in which the NKVD executed
681,692 people;[194] millions of people were deported and exiled to remote areas of the Soviet Union.[195]

The social revolutions sweeping through Russia also affected other

European nations following The Great War: in 1919, with the Weimar
Republic in Germany and the First Austrian Republic; in 1922, with
Mussolini's one-party fascist government in the Kingdom of Italy and in
Atatürk's Turkish Republic, adopting the Western alphabet and state
secularism. Economic instability, caused in part by debts incurred in the
First World War and 'loans' to Germany played havoc in Europe in the late
1920s and 1930s. This, and the Wall Street crash of 1929, brought about the
worldwide Great Depression. Helped by the economic crisis, social
Serbian war efforts (1914–1918) cost the instability and the threat of communism, fascist movements developed
country one quarter of its throughout Europe placing Adolf Hitler in power of what became Nazi
population.[196][197][198][199][200] Germany.[201][202]

In 1933, Hitler became the leader of Germany and began to work towards
his goal of building Greater Germany. Germany re-expanded and took back the
Saarland and Rhineland in 1935 and 1936. In 1938, Austria became a part of
Germany following the Anschluss. Following the Munich Agreement signed by
Germany, France, the United Kingdom, and Italy, later in 1938 Germany annexed
the Sudetenland, which was a part of Czechoslovakia inhabited by ethnic Germans.
In early 1939, the remainder of Czechoslovakia was split into the Protectorate of
Bohemia and Moravia, controlled by Germany and the Slovak Republic. At the time,
the United Kingdom and France preferred a policy of appeasement.

With tensions mounting between Germany and Poland over the future of Danzig,
the Germans turned to the Soviets and signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, which
allowed the Soviets to invade the Baltic states and parts of Poland and Romania.
Germany invaded Poland on 1 September 1939, prompting France and the United
Nazi Germany began the Kingdom to declare war on Germany on 3 September, opening the European
devastating Second World War Theatre of the Second World War.[203][204][205] The Soviet invasion of Poland
in Europe by its leader, Adolf started on 17 September and Poland fell soon thereafter. On 24 September, the
Hitler. Here Hitler, on the right, Soviet Union attacked the Baltic countries and, on 30 November, Finland, the latter
with his closest ally, the Italian
of which was followed by the devastating Winter War for the Red Army.[206] The
dictator Benito Mussolini, in
British hoped to land at Narvik and send troops to aid Finland, but their primary
1940.
objective in the landing was to encircle Germany and cut the Germans off from
Scandinavian resources. Around the same time, Germany moved troops into
Denmark. The Phoney War continued.

In May 1940, Germany attacked France through the Low Countries. France capitulated in June 1940. By August,
Germany had begun a bombing offensive against the United Kingdom but failed to convince the Britons to give
up.[207] In 1941, Germany invaded the Soviet Union in Operation Barbarossa.[208] On 7 December 1941 Japan's
attack on Pearl Harbor drew the United States into the conflict as allies of the British Empire, and other allied
forces.[209][210]

After the staggering Battle of Stalingrad in 1943, the German offensive in the Soviet Union turned into a continual
fallback. The Battle of Kursk, which involved the largest tank battle in history, was the last major German offensive
on the Eastern Front. In June 1944, British and American forces invaded France in the D-Day landings, opening a
new front against Germany. Berlin finally fell in 1945, ending the Second World War in Europe. The war was the
largest and most destructive in human history, with 60 million dead across the world.[211] More than 40 million
people in Europe had died as a result of the Second World War,[212] including between 11 and 17 million people
who perished during the Holocaust.[213] The Soviet Union lost around 27 million people (mostly civilians) during
the war, about half of all Second World War casualties.[214] By the end of the Second World War, Europe had more
than 40 million refugees.[215][216][217] Several post-war expulsions in Central and Eastern Europe displaced a total
of about 20 million people.[218]
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The First World War, and especially the Second World War, diminished the
eminence of Western Europe in world affairs. After the Second World War
the map of Europe was redrawn at the Yalta Conference and divided into
two blocs, the Western countries and the communist Eastern bloc,
separated by what was later called by Winston Churchill an "Iron Curtain".
The United States and Western Europe established the NATO alliance and,
later, the Soviet Union and Central Europe established the Warsaw
Pact.[219] Particular hot spots after the Second World War were Berlin and
Trieste, whereby the Free Territory of Trieste, founded in 1947 with the UN,
was dissolved in 1954 and 1975, respectively. The Berlin blockade in 1948
and 1949 and the construction of the Berlin Wall in 1961 were one of the The "Big Three" at the Yalta Conference
great international crises of the Cold War.[220][221][222] in 1945; seated (from the left): Winston
Churchill, Franklin D. Roosevelt and
The two new superpowers, the United States and the Soviet Union, became Joseph Stalin
locked in a fifty-year-long Cold War, centred on nuclear proliferation. At
the same time decolonisation, which had already started after the First
World War, gradually resulted in the independence of most of the European colonies in Asia and Africa.[14]

In the 1980s the reforms of Mikhail Gorbachev and the Solidarity

movement in Poland weakened the previously rigid communist system. The
opening of the Iron Curtain at the Pan-European Picnic then set in motion
a peaceful chain reaction, at the end of which the Eastern bloc, the Warsaw
Pact and other communist states collapsed, and the Cold War
ended.[224][225][226] Germany was reunited, after the symbolic fall of the
Berlin Wall in 1989 and the maps of Central and Eastern Europe were
redrawn once more.[227] This made old previously interrupted cultural and
economic relationships possible, and previously isolated cities such as
Flag of Europe, adopted by the Council
Berlin, Prague, Vienna, Budapest and Trieste were now again in the centre of Europe in 1955 as the flag for the
of Europe.[201][228][229][230] whole of Europe[223]

European integration also grew after the Second World War. In 1949 the
Council of Europe was founded, following a speech by Sir Winston Churchill, with the idea of unifying Europe[15] to
achieve common goals. It includes all European states except for Belarus, Russia,[231] and Vatican City. The Treaty
of Rome in 1957 established the European Economic Community between six Western European states with the
goal of a unified economic policy and common market.[232] In 1967 the EEC, European Coal and Steel Community,
and Euratom formed the European Community, which in 1993 became the European Union. The EU established a
parliament, a court and a central bank, and introduced the euro as a unified currency.[233] Between 2004 and 2013,
more Central European countries began joining, expanding the EU to 28 European countries and once more
making Europe a major economical and political centre of power.[234] However, the United Kingdom withdrew
from the EU on 31 January 2020, as a result of a June 2016 referendum on EU membership.[235] The Russo-
Ukrainian War, which has been ongoing since 2014, steeply escalated when Russia launched a full-scale invasion of
Ukraine on 24 February 2022, marking the largest humanitarian and refugee crisis in Europe since the Second
World War[236] and the Yugoslav Wars.[237]

Geography
Europe makes up the western fifth of the Eurasian landmass.[26] It has a higher ratio of coast to landmass than any
other continent or subcontinent.[238] Its maritime borders consist of the Arctic Ocean to the north, the Atlantic
Ocean to the west and the Mediterranean, Black and Caspian Seas to the south.[239] Land relief in Europe shows
great variation within relatively small areas. The southern regions are more mountainous, while moving north the
terrain descends from the high Alps, Pyrenees and Carpathians, through hilly uplands, into broad, low northern
plains, which are vast in the east. This extended lowland is known as the Great European Plain and at its heart lies
the North German Plain. An arc of uplands also exists along the north-western seaboard, which begins in the
western parts of the islands of Britain and Ireland, and then continues along the mountainous, fjord-cut spine of
Norway.

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This description is simplified. Subregions such as the Iberian Peninsula and

the Italian Peninsula contain their own complex features, as does mainland
Central Europe itself, where the relief contains many plateaus, river valleys
and basins that complicate the general trend. Sub-regions like Iceland,
Britain and Ireland are special cases. The former is a land unto itself in the
northern ocean that is counted as part of Europe, while the latter are
upland areas that were once joined to the mainland until rising sea levels
cut them off.

The largest European lakes are located in the north of the continent. The
Volga and Danube are the two longest rivers of Europe. Europe's largest
waterfall (by flow rate) are the Rhine Falls on the Rhine. General topographic map of Europe
showing physical, political and population
characteristics, as per 2024
Climate
Europe lies mainly in the temperate climate zone of the northern
hemisphere, where the prevailing wind direction is from the west. The
climate is milder in comparison to other areas of the same latitude around
the globe due to the influence of the Gulf Stream, an ocean current which
carries warm water from the Gulf of Mexico across the Atlantic Ocean to
Europe.[240] The Gulf Stream is nicknamed "Europe's central heating",
because it makes Europe's climate warmer and wetter than it would
otherwise be. The Gulf Stream not only carries warm water to Europe's
Biomes of Europe and surrounding
coast but also warms up the prevailing westerly winds that blow across the regions:
continent from the Atlantic Ocean. tundra alpine tundra taiga
montane forest
Therefore, the average temperature throughout the year of Aveiro is 16 °C temperate broadleaf forest
(61 °F), while it is only 13 °C (55 °F) in New York City which is almost on mediterranean forest temperate steppe
the same latitude, bordering the same ocean. Berlin, Germany; Calgary, dry steppe
Canada; and Irkutsk, in far south-eastern Russia, lie on around the same
latitude; January temperatures in Berlin average around 8 °C (14 °F) higher
than those in Calgary and they are almost 22 °C (40 °F) higher than average temperatures in Irkutsk.[240]

The large water masses of the Mediterranean Sea, which equalise the temperatures on an annual and daily average,
are also of particular importance. The water of the Mediterranean extends from the Sahara desert to the Alpine arc
in its northernmost part of the Adriatic Sea near Trieste.[241]

In general, Europe is not just colder towards the north compared to the south, but it also gets colder from the west
towards the east. The climate is more oceanic in the west and less so in the east. This can be illustrated by the
following table of average temperatures at locations roughly following the 64th, 60th, 55th, 50th, 45th and 40th
latitudes. None of them is located at high altitude; most of them are close to the sea.

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Köppen-Geiger climate classification map for Europe[242]

Temperatures in °C
Coldest Hottest Annual
Location Latitude Longitude
month month average

Reykjavík 64 N 22 W 0.1 11.2 4.7

Umeå 64 N 20 E −6.2 16.0 3.9

Oulu 65 N 25.5 E −9.6 16.5 2.7

Arkhangelsk 64.5 N 40.5 E −12.7 16.3 1.3

Lerwick 60 N 1W 3.5 12.4 7.4

Stockholm 59.5 N 19 E −1.7 18.4 7.4

Helsinki 60 N 25 E −4.7 17.8 5.9

Saint Petersburg 60 N 30 E −5.8 18.8 5.8

Edinburgh 55.5 N 3W 4.2 15.3 9.3

Copenhagen 55.5 N 12 E 1.4 18.1 9.1

Klaipėda 55.5 N 21 E −1.3 17.9 8.0

Moscow 55.5 N 30 E −6.5 19.2 5.8

Isles of Scilly 50 N 6W 7.9 16.9 11.8

Brussels 50.5 N 4E 3.3 18.4 10.5

Kraków 50 N 20 E −2.0 19.2 8.7

Kyiv 50.5 N 30 E −3.5 20.5 8.4

Bordeaux 45 N 0 6.6 21.4 13.8

Venice 45.5 N 12 E 3.3 23.0 13.0

Belgrade 45 N 20 E 1.4 23.0 12.5

Astrakhan 46 N 48 E −3.7 25.6 10.5

Coimbra 40 N 8W 9.9 21.9 16.0

Valencia 39.5 N 0 11.9 26.1 18.3

Naples 40.5 N 14 E 8.7 24.9 15.9

Istanbul 41 N 29 E 5.5 23.4 13.9

[243]It is notable how the average temperatures for the coldest month, as well as the annual average temperatures,
drop from the west to the east. For instance, Edinburgh is warmer than Belgrade during the coldest month of the
year, although Belgrade is around 10° of latitude farther south.
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Climate change
Climate change has resulted in an increase in
temperature of 2.3 °C (4.14 °F) (2022) in Europe
compared to pre-industrial levels. Europe is the fastest
warming continent in the world.[245] Europe's climate is
getting warmer due to anthropogenic activity. According
to international climate experts, global temperature rise
should not exceed 2 °C to prevent the most dangerous
consequences of climate change; without reduction in
greenhouse gas emissions, this could happen before
2050.[246][247] Climate change has implications for all
regions of Europe, with the extent and nature of effects
varying across the continent. Effects on European
countries include warmer weather and increasing
frequency and intensity of extreme weather such as heat
waves, bringing health risks and effects on ecosystems.
European countries are major contributors to global
greenhouse gas emissions, although the European Union
and governments of several countries have outlined
plans to implement climate change mitigation and an
energy transition in the 21st century, the European
Green Deal being one of these.
Increase of average yearly temperature (2000–2017) above the
20th century average in selected cities in Europe [244]
Geology
The geological history of Europe traces back to the
formation of the Baltic Shield (Fennoscandia) and the Sarmatian
craton, both around 2.25 billion years ago, followed by the Volgo–
Uralia shield, the three together leading to the East European craton
(≈ Baltica) which became a part of the supercontinent Columbia.
Around 1.1 billion years ago, Baltica and Arctica (as part of the
Laurentia block) became joined to Rodinia, later resplitting around
550 million years ago to reform as Baltica. Around 440 million years
ago Euramerica was formed from Baltica and Laurentia; a further
joining with Gondwana then leading to the formation of Pangea.
Around 190 million years ago, Gondwana and Laurasia split apart
due to the widening of the Atlantic Ocean. Finally and very soon
afterwards, Laurasia itself split up again, into Laurentia (North
America) and the Eurasian continent. The land connection between
the two persisted for a considerable time, via Greenland, leading to
interchange of animal species. From around 50 million years ago, Surficial geology of Europe
rising and falling sea levels have determined the actual shape of
Europe and its connections with continents such as Asia. Europe's
present shape dates to the late Tertiary period about five million years ago.[248]

The geology of Europe is hugely varied and complex and gives rise to the wide variety of landscapes found across
the continent, from the Scottish Highlands to the rolling plains of Hungary.[249] Europe's most significant feature is
the dichotomy between highland and mountainous Southern Europe and a vast, partially underwater, northern
plain ranging from Ireland in the west to the Ural Mountains in the east. These two halves are separated by the
mountain chains of the Pyrenees and Alps/Carpathians. The northern plains are delimited in the west by the
Scandinavian Mountains and the mountainous parts of the British Isles. Major shallow water bodies submerging
parts of the northern plains are the Celtic Sea, the North Sea, the Baltic Sea complex and Barents Sea.

The northern plain contains the old geological continent of Baltica and so may be regarded geologically as the
"main continent", while peripheral highlands and mountainous regions in the south and west constitute fragments
from various other geological continents. Most of the older geology of western Europe existed as part of the ancient
microcontinent Avalonia.

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Flora
Having lived side by side with agricultural peoples for millennia,
Europe's animals and plants have been profoundly affected by the
presence and activities of humans. With the exception of
Fennoscandia and northern Russia, few areas of untouched
wilderness are currently found in Europe, except for various
national parks.

The main natural vegetation cover in Europe is mixed forest. The

conditions for growth are very favourable. In the north, the Gulf
Stream and North Atlantic Drift warm the continent. Southern
Europe has a warm but mild climate. There are frequent summer
Land use map of Europe with arable farmland droughts in this region. Mountain ridges also affect the conditions.
(yellow), forest (dark green), pasture (light green) Some of these, such as the Alps and the Pyrenees, are oriented east–
and tundra, or bogs, in the north (dark yellow) west and allow the wind to carry large masses of water from the
ocean in the interior. Others are oriented south–north
(Scandinavian Mountains, Dinarides, Carpathians, Apennines) and
because the rain falls primarily on the side of mountains that is oriented towards the sea, forests grow well on this
side, while on the other side, the conditions are much less favourable. Few corners of mainland Europe have not
been grazed by livestock at some point in time, and the cutting down of the preagricultural forest habitat caused
disruption to the original plant and animal ecosystems.

Possibly 80 to 90 percent of Europe was once covered by forest.[250]

It stretched from the Mediterranean Sea to the Arctic Ocean.
Although over half of Europe's original forests disappeared through
the centuries of deforestation, Europe still has over one quarter of its
land area as forest, such as the broadleaf and mixed forests, taiga of
Scandinavia and Russia, mixed rainforests of the Caucasus and the
Cork oak forests in the western Mediterranean. During recent times,
deforestation has been slowed and many trees have been planted.
However, in many cases monoculture plantations of conifers have
replaced the original mixed natural forest, because these grow
quicker. The plantations now cover vast areas of land, but offer
poorer habitats for many European forest dwelling species which
require a mixture of tree species and diverse forest structure. The Floristic regions of Europe and neighbouring
amount of natural forest in Western Europe is just 2–3% or less, areas, according to Wolfgang Frey and Rainer
Lösch
while in its Western Russia its 5–10%. The European country with
the smallest percentage of forested area is Iceland (1%), while the
most forested country is Finland (77%).[251]

In temperate Europe, mixed forest with both broadleaf and coniferous trees dominate. The most important species
in central and western Europe are beech and oak. In the north, the taiga is a mixed spruce–pine–birch forest;
further north within Russia and extreme northern Scandinavia, the taiga gives way to tundra as the Arctic is
approached. In the Mediterranean, many olive trees have been planted, which are very well adapted to its arid
climate; Mediterranean Cypress is also widely planted in southern Europe. The semi-arid Mediterranean region
hosts much scrub forest. A narrow east–west tongue of Eurasian grassland (the steppe) extends westwards from
Ukraine and southern Russia and ends in Hungary and traverses into taiga to the north.

Fauna
Glaciation during the most recent ice age and the presence of humans affected the distribution of European fauna.
As for the animals, in many parts of Europe most large animals and top predator species have been hunted to
extinction. The woolly mammoth was extinct before the end of the Neolithic period. Today wolves (carnivores) and
bears (omnivores) are endangered. Once they were found in most parts of Europe. However, deforestation and
hunting caused these animals to withdraw further and further. By the Middle Ages the bears' habitats were limited
to more or less inaccessible mountains with sufficient forest cover. Today, the brown bear lives primarily in the
Balkan peninsula, Scandinavia and Russia; a small number also persist in other countries across Europe (Austria,
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Pyrenees etc.), but in these areas brown bear populations are

fragmented and marginalised because of the destruction of their
habitat. In addition, polar bears may be found on Svalbard, a
Norwegian archipelago far north of Scandinavia. The wolf, the
second-largest predator in Europe after the brown bear, can be
found primarily in Central and Eastern Europe and in the Balkans,
with a handful of packs in pockets of Western Europe (Scandinavia,
Spain, etc.).

Other carnivores include the

European wildcat, red fox
Biogeographic regions of Europe and bordering and arctic fox, the golden
regions
jackal, different species of
martens, the European
hedgehog, different species of reptiles (like snakes such as vipers and grass
snakes) and amphibians, as well as different birds (owls, hawks and other
birds of prey).

Important European herbivores are snails, larvae, fish, different birds and
Once roaming the great temperate
mammals, like rodents, deer and roe deer, boars and living in the
forests of Eurasia, European bison now
mountains, marmots, steinbocks, chamois among others. A number of
live in nature preserves in Białowieża
insects, such as the small tortoiseshell butterfly, add to the biodiversity.[254] Forest, on the border between Poland
and Belarus.[252][253]
Sea creatures are also an important part of European flora and fauna. The
sea flora is mainly phytoplankton. Important animals that live in European
seas are zooplankton, molluscs, echinoderms, different crustaceans, squids and octopuses, fish, dolphins and
whales.

Biodiversity is protected in Europe through the Council of Europe's Bern Convention, which has also been signed
by the European Community as well as non-European states.

Politics
The political map of Europe is substantially derived from the re-
organisation of Europe following the Napoleonic Wars in 1815. The
prevalent form of government in Europe is parliamentary
democracy, in most cases in the form of republic; in 1815, the
prevalent form of government was still the monarchy. Europe's
remaining eleven monarchies[255] are constitutional.

European integration is the process of political, legal, economic

(and in some cases social and cultural) integration of European
states as it has been pursued by the powers sponsoring the Council
of Europe since the end of the Second World War. The European An Euler diagram showing the relationships
Union has been the focus of economic integration on the continent between various multinational European
organisations and agreements
since its foundation in 1993. More recently, the Eurasian Economic
Union has been established as a counterpart comprising former
Soviet states.

27 European states are members of the politico-economic European Union, 26 of the border-free Schengen Area
and 20 of the monetary union Eurozone. Among the smaller European organisations are the Nordic Council, the
Benelux, the Baltic Assembly, and the Visegrád Group.

The least democratic countries in Europe are Belarus, Russia, and Turkey in 2024 according to the V-Dem
Democracy indices.[256]

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List of states and territories

This list includes all internationally recognised sovereign countries falling even partially under any common
geographical or political definitions of Europe.

* = Member state of the EU[257]

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Population
Area
Arms Flag Name Population density Capital Name(s) in official language(s)
(km2)
(per km2)

Albania 28,748 2,876,591 98.5 Tirana Shqipëria

Andorra la
Andorra 468 77,281 179.8 Andorra
Vella

Armenia[j] 29,743 2,924,816 101.5 Yerevan Հայաստան (Hayastan)

Austria* 83,858 8,823,054 104 Vienna Österreich

Azerbaijan[k] 86,600 9,911,646 113 Baku Azərbaycan

Belarus 207,560 9,504,700 45.8 Minsk Беларусь (Belaruś)

Belgium* 30,528 11,358,357 372.06 Brussels België/Belgique/Belgien

Bosnia and Bosna i Hercegovina/Боснa и

51,129 3,531,159 68.97 Sarajevo
Herzegovina Херцеговина

Bulgaria* 110,910 7,101,859 64.9 Sofia България (Bǎlgariya)

Croatia* 56,594 3,871,833 68.4 Zagreb Hrvatska

Cyprus*[d] 9,251 1,170,125 123.4 Nicosia Κύπρος (Kýpros)/Kıbrıs

Czech
78,866 10,610,947 134 Prague Česko
Republic*

Denmark* 43,094 5,748,796 133.9 Copenhagen Danmark

Estonia* 45,226 1,328,439 30.5 Tallinn Eesti

Finland* 338,455 5,509,717 16 Helsinki Suomi/Finland

France*[g] 547,030 67,348,000 116 Paris France

Georgia[l] 69,700 3,718,200 53.5 Tbilisi საქართველო (Sakartvelo)

Germany* 357,168 82,800,000 232 Berlin Deutschland

Greece* 131,957 10,297,760 82 Athens Ελλάδα (Elláda)

Hungary* 93,030 9,797,561 105.3 Budapest Magyarország

Iceland 103,000 350,710 3.2 Reykjavík Ísland

Ireland* 70,280 4,761,865 67.7 Dublin Éire/Ireland

Italy* 301,338 58,968,501 195.7 Rome Italia

Kazakhstan[i] 148,000 20,075,271 7 Astana Қазақстан (Qazaqstan)

Latvia* 64,589 1,862,700 29 Riga Latvija

Liechtenstein 160 38,111 227 Vaduz Liechtenstein

Lithuania* 65,300 2,800,667 45.8 Vilnius Lietuva

Luxembourg
Luxembourg* 2,586 602,005 233.7 Lëtzebuerg/Luxemburg/Luxembourg
City

Malta* 316 445,426 1,410 Valletta Malta

Moldova[a] 33,846 3,434,547 101.5 Chișinău Moldova

Monaco 2.020 38,400 18,713 Monaco Monaco

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Population
Area
Arms Flag Name Population density Capital Name(s) in official language(s)
(km2)
(per km2)

Montenegro 13,812 642,550 45.0 Podgorica Crna Gora/Црна Гора

Netherlands*[h] 41,543 17,271,990 414.9 Amsterdam Nederland

North Северна Македонија (Severna

25,713 2,103,721 80.1 Skopje
Macedonia Makedonija)

Norway 385,203 5,295,619 15.8 Oslo Norge/Noreg/Norga

Poland* 312,685 38,422,346 123.5 Warsaw Polska

Portugal*[e] 92,212 10,379,537 115 Lisbon Portugal

Romania* 238,397 18,999,642 84.4 Bucharest România

Russia[b] 3,969,100 144,526,636 8.4 Moscow Россия (Rossiya)

San Marino 61.2 33,285 520 San Marino San Marino

Serbia[f] 88,361 7,040,272 91.1 Belgrade Srbija/Србија

Slovakia* 49,035 5,435,343 111.0 Bratislava Slovensko

Slovenia* 20,273 2,066,880 101.8 Ljubljana Slovenija

Spain* 505,990 49,153,849 97 Madrid España

Sweden* 450,295 10,151,588 22.5 Stockholm Sverige

Switzerland 41,285 8,401,120 202 Bern Schweiz/Suisse/Svizzera/Svizra

Turkey[m] 23,764 84,680,273 106.7 Ankara Türkiye

Ukraine[s] 603,628 42,418,235 73.8 Kyiv Україна (Ukraina)

United
244,376 68,265,209 281 London United Kingdom
Kingdom[258]

Vatican City 0.44 1,000 2,272 Vatican City Città del Vaticano/Civitas Vaticana

Total 50 10,180,000[n] 743,000,000[n] 73

Within the above-mentioned states are several de facto independent countries with limited to no international
recognition. None of them are members of the UN:

Area Population density

Symbol Flag Name Population Capital
(km2) (per km2)

Abkhazia[p] 8,660 243,206 28 Sokhumi

Kosovo[o] 10,908 1,920,079 159 Pristina

Northern Cyprus[d] 3,355 313,626 93 Nicosia (northern part)

South Ossetia[p] 3,900 53,532 13.7 Tskhinvali

Transnistria[a] 4,163 475,665 114 Tiraspol

Several dependencies and similar territories with broad autonomy are also found within or close to Europe. This
includes Åland (an autonomous county of Finland), two autonomous territories of the Kingdom of Denmark (other
than Denmark proper), three Crown Dependencies and two British Overseas Territories. Svalbard is also included
due to its unique status within Norway, although it is not autonomous. Not included are the three countries of the
United Kingdom with devolved powers and the two Autonomous Regions of Portugal, which despite having a

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unique degree of autonomy, are not largely self-governing in matters other than international affairs. Areas with
little more than a unique tax status, such as the Canary Islands and Heligoland, are also not included for this
reason.

* = Part of the EU

Population
Sovereign Area
Symbol Flag Name Population density Capital
state (km2)
(per km2)
Akrotiri and Dhekelia UK 255 7,700 30.2 Episkopi Cantonment

Åland* Finland 1,580 29,489 18.36 Mariehamn

Bailiwick of Guernsey[c] UK 78 65,849 844.0 St. Peter Port

Bailiwick of Jersey[c] UK 118.2 100,080 819 Saint Helier

Faroe Islands Denmark 1,399 50,778 35.2 Tórshavn

Gibraltar UK 6.7 32,194 4,328 Gibraltar

Greenland Denmark[r] 2,166,086 55,877 0.028 Nuuk

Isle of Man[c] UK 572 83,314 148 Douglas

Svalbard Norway 61,022 2,667 0.044 Longyearbyen

Economy
As a continent, the economy of Europe is currently the largest on
Earth and it is the richest region as measured by assets under
management with over $32.7 trillion compared to North America's
$27.1 trillion in 2008.[259] In 2009 Europe remained the wealthiest
region. Its $37.1 trillion in assets under management represented
one-third of the world's wealth. It was one of several regions where
wealth surpassed its precrisis year-end peak.[260] As with other
continents, Europe has a large wealth gap among its countries. The
richer states tend to be in the Northwest and West in general,
followed by Central Europe, while most economies of Eastern and
Southeastern Europe are still reemerging from the collapse of the
Soviet Union and the breakup of Yugoslavia. GDP (PPP) per capita of European countries

>$60,000 $50,000 – $60,000

The model of the Blue Banana was designed as an economic
$40,000 – $50,000 $30,000 – $40,000
geographic representation of the respective economic power of the
$20,000 – $30,000 $10,000 – $20,000
regions, which was further developed into the Golden Banana or
Blue Star. The trade between East and West, as well as towards Asia,
which had been disrupted for a long time by the two world wars,
new borders and the Cold War, increased sharply after 1989. In
addition, there is new impetus from the Chinese Belt and Road Initiative across the Suez Canal towards Africa and
Asia.[261]

The European Union, a political entity composed of 27 European states, comprises the largest single economic area
in the world. Nineteen EU countries share the euro as a common currency. Four European countries rank in the top
ten of the world's largest national economies in GDP (PPP). This includes (ranks according to the IMF): Russia (4),
Germany (6), France (9) and the United Kingdom (10).

Some European countries are much richer than others. The richest in terms of nominal GDP is Monaco with its
US$185,829 per capita (2018) and the poorest is Ukraine with its US$3,659 per capita (2019).[262]

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As a whole, Europe's GDP per capita is US$21,767 according to a 2016 International Monetary Fund
assessment.[263]

GDP (nominal, Peak Year)

Rank Country Peak Year
millions of USD

European Union[264] 19,991,160 2025

1 Germany 4,744,804 2025

2 United Kingdom 3,839,180 2025

3 France 3,211,292 2025

4 Italy 2,422,855 2025

5 Russia 2,295,527 2022

6 Spain 1,799,511 2025

7 Turkey 1,437,406 2025

8 Netherlands 1,272,011 2025

9 Poland 979,960 2025

10 Switzerland 947,125 2025

GDP (PPP, Peak Year)

Rank Country Peak Year
millions of USD

European Union[264] 29,176,749 2025

1 Russia 7,191,718 2025

2 Germany 6,161,002 2025

3 France 4,503,783 2025

4 United Kingdom 4,447,841 2025

5 Turkey[265] 3,767,230 2023

6 Italy 3,719,110 2025

7 Spain 2,811,948 2025

8 Poland 2,017,513 2025

9 Netherlands 1,526,239 2025

10 Romania 926,759 2025

Economic history

Industrial growth (1760–1945)

Capitalism has been dominant in the Western world since the end of feudalism.[266] From Britain, it gradually
spread throughout Europe.[267] The Industrial Revolution started in Europe, specifically the United Kingdom in the
late 18th century,[268] and the 19th century saw Western Europe industrialise. Economies were disrupted by the
First World War, but by the beginning of the Second World War, they had recovered and were having to compete
with the growing economic strength of the United States. The Second World War, again, damaged much of
Europe's industries.

Cold War (1945–1991)

After the Second World War the economy of the UK was in a state of ruin,[269] and continued to suffer relative
economic decline in the following decades.[270] Italy was also in a poor economic condition but regained a high
level of growth by the 1950s. West Germany recovered quickly and had doubled production from pre-war levels by
the 1950s.[271] France also staged a remarkable comeback enjoying rapid growth and modernisation; later on
Spain, under the leadership of Franco, also recovered and the nation recorded huge unprecedented economic

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growth beginning in the 1960s in what is called the Spanish miracle.[272]

The majority of Central and Eastern European states came under the
control of the Soviet Union and thus were members of the Council for
Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECON).[273]

The states which retained a free-market system were given a large amount
of aid by the United States under the Marshall Plan.[274] The western states
moved to link their economies together, providing the basis for the EU and
increasing cross border trade. This helped them to enjoy rapidly improving
economies, while those states in COMECON were struggling in a large part
Fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989
due to the cost of the Cold War. Until 1990, the European Community was
expanded from 6 founding members to 12. The emphasis placed on
resurrecting the West German economy led to it overtaking the UK as
Europe's largest economy.

Reunification (1991–present)

With the fall of communism in

Central and Eastern Europe in
1991, the post-socialist states
underwent shock therapy measures
to liberalise their economies and
implement free market reforms.

After East and West Germany were

reunited in 1990, the economy of Eurozone (blue colour)
One of Kosovo's main economical
West Germany struggled as it had
sources is mining, because it has large
to support and largely rebuild the
reserves of lead, zinc, silver, nickel,
infrastructure of East Germany, while the latter experienced sudden mass
cobalt, copper, iron and bauxite.[275]
Miners at the Trepča Mines in Mitrovica, unemployment and plummeting of industrial production.
Kosovo in 2011.
By the millennium change, the EU dominated the economy of Europe,
comprising the five largest European economies of the time: Germany, the
United Kingdom, France, Italy, and Spain. In 1999, 12 of the 15 members of the EU joined the Eurozone, replacing
their national currencies by the euro.

Figures released by Eurostat in 2009 confirmed that the Eurozone had gone into recession in 2008.[276] It affected
much of the region.[277] In 2010, fears of a sovereign debt crisis[278] developed concerning some countries in
Europe, especially Greece, Ireland, Spain and Portugal.[279] As a result, measures were taken, especially for Greece,
by the leading countries of the Eurozone.[280] The EU-27 unemployment rate was 10.3% in 2012. For those aged
15–24 it was 22.4%.[281]

Demographics
The population of Europe was about 742 million in 2023 according to UN
estimates.[1][2] This is slightly more than one ninth of the world's
population.[v] The population density of Europe (the number of people per
area) is the second highest of any continent, behind Asia. The population of
Europe is currently slowly decreasing, by about 0.2% per year,[283] because
there are fewer births than deaths. This natural decrease in population is
reduced by the fact that more people migrate to Europe from other
continents than vice versa.

Southern Europe and Western Europe are the regions with the highest
average number of elderly people in the world. In 2021, the percentage of Population growth in and around Europe
people over 65 years old was 21% in Western Europe and Southern Europe, in 2021[282]

compared to 19% in all of Europe and 10% in the world.[284] Projections

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suggest that by 2050 Europe will reach 30%.[285]

This is caused by the fact that the population has been having
children below replacement level since the 1970s. The United Nations predicts that Europe will decline in
population between 2022 and 2050 by −7 per cent, without changing immigration movements.[286]

According to a population projection of the UN Population Division, Europe's population may fall to between 680
and 720 million people by 2050, which would be 7% of the world population at that time.[287] Within this context,
significant disparities exist between regions in relation to fertility rates. The average number of children per female
of child-bearing age is 1.52, far below the replacement rate.[288] The UN predicts a steady population decline in
Central and Eastern Europe as a result of emigration and low birth rates.[289]

Ethnic groups
Pan and Pfeil (2004) count 87 distinct "peoples of Europe", of which 33 form the majority population in at least one
sovereign state, while the remaining 54 constitute ethnic minorities.[290]

Migration
Europe is home to the highest number of migrants of all global regions at nearly 87 million people in 2020,
according to the International Organisation for Migration.[291] In 2005, the EU had an overall net gain from
immigration of 1.8 million people. This accounted for almost 85% of Europe's total population growth.[292] In 2021,
827,000 persons were given citizenship of an EU member state, an increase of about 14% compared with 2020.[293]
2.3 million immigrants from non-EU countries entered the EU in 2021.[293]

Early modern emigration from Europe began with Spanish and Portuguese settlers in the 16th century,[294][295]
and French and English settlers in the 17th century.[296] But numbers remained relatively small until waves of mass
emigration in the 19th century, when millions of poor families left Europe.[297]

Today, large populations of European descent are found on every continent. European ancestry predominates in
North America and to a lesser degree in South America (particularly in Uruguay, Argentina, Chile and Brazil, while
most of the other Latin American countries also have a considerable population of European origins). Australia and
New Zealand have large European-derived populations. Africa has no countries with European-derived majorities
(or with the exception of Cape Verde and probably São Tomé and Príncipe, depending on context), but there are
significant minorities, such as the White South Africans in South Africa. In Asia, European-derived populations,
specifically Russians, predominate in North Asia and some parts of Northern Kazakhstan.[298] Also in Asia,
Europeans, especially the Spanish are an influential minority population in the Philippines.[299][300]

Languages
Europe has about 225 indigenous languages,[301] mostly falling within three
Indo-European language groups: the Romance languages, derived from the
Latin of the Roman Empire; the Germanic languages, whose ancestor language
came from southern Scandinavia; and the Slavic languages.[248] Slavic
languages are mostly spoken in Southern, Central and Eastern Europe.
Romance languages are spoken primarily in Western and Southern Europe, as
well as in Switzerland in Central Europe and Romania and Moldova in Eastern
Europe. Germanic languages are spoken in Western, Northern and Central
Europe as well as in Gibraltar and Malta in Southern Europe.[248] Languages in
adjacent areas show significant overlaps (such as in English, for example). Distribution of major languages of
Europe
Other Indo-European languages outside the three main groups include the
Baltic group (Latvian and Lithuanian), the Celtic group (Irish, Scottish Gaelic,
Manx, Welsh, Cornish and Breton[248]), Greek, Armenian and Albanian.

A distinct non-Indo-European family of Uralic languages (Estonian, Finnish, Hungarian, Erzya, Komi, Mari,
Moksha and Udmurt) is spoken mainly in Estonia, Finland, Hungary and parts of Russia. Turkic languages include
Azerbaijani, Kazakh and Turkish, in addition to smaller languages in Eastern and Southeast Europe (Balkan
Gagauz Turkish, Bashkir, Chuvash, Crimean Tatar, Karachay-Balkar, Kumyk, Nogai and Tatar). Kartvelian
languages (Georgian, Mingrelian and Svan) are spoken primarily in Georgia. Two other language families reside in

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the North Caucasus (termed Northeast Caucasian, most notably including Chechen, Avar and Lezgin; and
Northwest Caucasian, most notably including Adyghe). Maltese is the only Semitic language that is official within
the EU, while Basque is the only European language isolate.

Multilingualism and the protection of regional and minority languages are recognised political goals in Europe
today. The Council of Europe Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities and the Council of
Europe's European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages set up a legal framework for language rights in
Europe.

Religion
The largest religion in Europe
is Christianity, with 76.2% of
Europeans considering
themselves Christians,[302][303]
including Catholic, Eastern
Orthodox and various
Protestant denominations.
Among Protestants, the most
popular are Lutheranism,
Anglicanism and the Reformed
faith. Smaller Protestant
Religion in Europe according to the Global Religious Landscape survey by the Pew Forum, 2016[7]
denominations include
Anabaptists as well as Christianity (76.2%)
denominations centred in the No religion (18.3%)
United States such as Islam (4.9%)
Pentecostalism, Methodism, Buddhism (0.2%)
and Evangelicalism. Although
Hinduism (0.2%)
Christianity originated in the
Folk religion (0.1%)
Middle East, its centre of mass
shifted to Europe when it Other religions (0.1%)
became the official religion of
the Roman Empire in the late 4th century. Christianity played a prominent role in the development of the
European culture and identity.[304][305][306] Today, just over 25% of the world's Christians live in Europe.[307]

Islam is the second most popular religion in Europe. Over 25 million, or roughly 5% of the population, adhere to
it.[308] In Albania and Bosnia and Herzegovina, two countries in the Balkan peninsula in Southeastern Europe,
Islam instead of Christianity is the majority religion. This is also the case in Turkey and in certain parts of Russia,
as well as in Azerbaijan and Kazakhstan, all of which are at the border to Asia.[308] Many countries in Europe are
home to a sizeable Muslim minority, and immigration to Europe has increased the number of Muslim people in
Europe in recent years.

The Jewish population in Europe was about 1.4 million people in 2020 (about 0.2% of the population).[309] There
is a long history of Jewish life in Europe, beginning in antiquity. During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the
Russian Empire had the majority of the world's Jews living within its borders.[310] In 1897, according to Russian
census of 1897, the total Jewish population of Russia was 5.1 million people, which was 4.13% of total population.
Of this total, the vast majority lived within the Pale of Settlement.[311] In 1933, there were about 9.5 million Jewish
people in Europe, representing 1.7% of the population,[312] but most were killed, and most of the rest displaced,
during the Holocaust.[313][309] In the 21st century, France has the largest Jewish population in Europe, followed by
the United Kingdom, Germany and Russia.[7]

Other religions practiced in Europe include Hinduism and Buddhism, which are minority religions, except in
Russia's Republic of Kalmykia, where Tibetan Buddhism is the majority religion.

A large and increasing number of people in Europe are irreligious, atheist and agnostic. They are estimated to make
up about 18.3% of Europe's population currently.[7]

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Major cities and urban areas

The three largest urban areas of Europe are Moscow, London and Paris. All have over 10 million residents,[314] and
as such have been described as megacities.[315] While Istanbul has the highest total city population, it lies partly in
Asia. 64.9% of the residents live on the European side and 35.1% on the Asian side. The next largest cities in order
of population are Madrid, Saint Petersburg, Milan, Barcelona, Berlin, and Rome each having over three million
residents.[314]

When considering the commuter belts or metropolitan areas within Europe (for which comparable data is
available), Moscow covers the largest population, followed in order by Istanbul, London, Paris, Madrid, Milan,
Ruhr Area, Saint Petersburg, Rhein-Süd, Barcelona and Berlin.[316]

European megacities

Moscow London Paris

Istanbul[b]

Culture
"Europe" as a cultural concept is substantially derived from the
shared heritage of ancient Greece and the Roman Empire and
its cultures. The boundaries of Europe were historically
understood as those of Christendom (or more specifically Latin
Christendom), as established or defended throughout the
medieval and early modern history of Europe, especially against
Islam, as in the Reconquista and the Ottoman wars in
Europe.[317]

This shared cultural heritage is combined by overlapping

indigenous national cultures and folklores, roughly divided into
Slavic, Latin (Romance) and Germanic, but with several
components not part of either of these groups (notably Greek,
Basque and Celtic). Historically, special examples with
overlapping cultures are Strasbourg with Latin (Romance) and
Germanic, or Trieste with Latin, Slavic and Germanic roots.
Cultural contacts and mixtures shape a large part of the regional
cultures of Europe. Europe is often described as "maximum Map purportedly displaying the European continent
cultural diversity with minimal geographical distances". split along cultural and state borders as proposed by
the German organisation Ständiger Ausschuss für
Different cultural events are organised in Europe, with the aim geographische Namen (StAGN)
of bringing different cultures closer together and raising
awareness of their importance, such as the European Capital of
Culture, the European Region of Gastronomy, the European Youth Capital and the European Capital of Sport.

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Sport
Sport in Europe tends to be highly organised with many sports having professional leagues. The origins of many of
the world's most popular sports today lie in the codification of many traditional games, especially in the United
Kingdom. However, a paradoxical feature of European sport is the extent to which local, regional and national
variations continue to exist, and even in some instances to predominate.[318]

Social dimension
In Europe many people are unable to access basic social conditions, which makes it harder for them to thrive and
flourish. Access to basic necessities can be compromised, for example 10% of Europeans spend at least 40% of
household income on housing. 75 million Europeans feel socially isolated. From the 1980s income inequality has
been rising and wage shares have been falling. In 2016, the richest 20% of households earned over five times more
than the poorest 20%. Many workers experience stagnant real wages and precarious work is common even for
essential workers.[319]

See also

Europe portal

Early modern Europe

Eurodistrict
European Games
European Union as a potential superpower
Euroregion
Financial and social rankings of sovereign states in Europe
Flags of Europe
Healthcare in Europe
List of sovereign states in Europe by GDP (nominal)
List of European television stations
List of names of European cities in different languages
List of villages in Europe
Lists of cities in Europe
Modernity
OSCE countries statistics
Pan-European identity
Rail transport in Europe
Transport in Europe

Notes

A. Transnistria, internationally recognised as being a legal part of the Republic of Moldova, although de facto
control is exercised by its internationally unrecognised government which declared independence from Moldova
in 1990
B. Russia is a transcontinental country spanning Eastern Europe and North Asia. The vast majority of its
population (80%) lives within its European part.[320] However, only the population figure includes the entire
state.
C. Guernsey, the Isle of Man, and Jersey are Crown Dependencies of the United Kingdom. Other Channel Islands
legislated by the Bailiwick of Guernsey include Alderney and Sark.
D. Cyprus can be considered part of Europe or West Asia; it has strong historical and sociopolitical connections
with Europe. The population and area figures refer to the entire state, including the de facto independent part
Northern Cyprus which is not recognised as a sovereign nation by the vast majority of sovereign nations, nor
the UN.
E. Figures for Portugal include the Azores and Madeira archipelagos, both in the North Atlantic.
F. Area figure for Serbia includes Kosovo, a province that unilaterally declared its independence from Serbia on
17 February 2008, and whose sovereign status is unclear. Population and density figures are from the first
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results of 2011 census and are given without the disputed territory of Kosovo.
G. Figures for France include only metropolitan France: some politically integral parts of France are geographically
located outside Europe.
H. Netherlands population for November 2014. Population and area details include European portion only:
Netherlands and three entities outside Europe (Aruba, Curaçao, and Sint Maarten, in the Caribbean) constitute
the Kingdom of the Netherlands. Amsterdam is the official capital, while The Hague is the administrative seat.
I. Kazakhstan is physiographically considered a transcontinental country, mostly in Central Asia (UN region),
partly in Eastern Europe, with European territory west of the Ural Mountains and Ural River. However, only the
population figure refers to the entire country.
J. Armenia can be considered part of Eastern Europe or West Asia; it has strong historical and sociopolitical
connections with Europe. The population and area figures include the entire state, respectively.
K. Azerbaijan is physiographically considered a transcontinental country, mostly in Western Asia. A small portion of
its territory is located north of Greater Caucasus, considered part of Eastern Europe.[321] However the
population and area figures are for the entire state. This includes the exclave of the Nakhchivan Autonomous
Republic and the region Nagorno-Karabakh.
L. Georgia can be considered part of Eastern Europe or West Asia;[321] it has strong historical and sociopolitical
connections with Europe.[322] The population and area figures include Georgian estimates for Abkhazia and
South Ossetia, two regions that have declared and de facto achieved independence. International recognition,
however, is limited.
M. Turkey is physiographically considered a transcontinental country, mostly in West Asia (the Middle East).
Turkey has a small part of its territory (3%) in Southeast Europe called East Thrace.[323] However, only the
population figure includes the entire state.
N. The total figures for area and population include only European portions of transcontinental countries. The
precision of these figures is compromised by the ambiguous geographical extent of Europe and the lack of
references for European portions of transcontinental countries.
O. Kosovo unilaterally declared its independence from Serbia on 17 February 2008. Its sovereign status is unclear.
Its population is July 2009 CIA estimate.
P. Abkhazia and South Ossetia, both of which can be considered part of Eastern Europe or West Asia[321]
unilaterally declared their independence from Georgia on 25 August 1990 and 28 November 1991, respectively.
Their status as sovereign nations is not recognised by a vast majority of sovereign nations, nor the UN.
Population figures stated as of 2003 census and 2000 estimates, respectively.
Q. Nagorno-Karabakh, which can be considered part of Eastern Europe or West Asia, unilaterally declared its
independence from Azerbaijan on 6 January 1992. Its status as a sovereign nation is not recognised by any
sovereign nation, nor the UN. Population figures stated as of 2003 census and 2000 estimates, respectively.
R. Greenland, an autonomous constituent country within the Danish Realm, is geographically a part of the
continent of North America, but has been politically and culturally associated with Europe.
S. The Donetsk People's Republic and Luhansk People's Republic are internationally recognised as being a legal
part of Ukraine, although de facto control is exercised by governments which declared independence from
Ukraine in 2014.
T. Europe is normally considered its own continent in the English-speaking world, which uses the seven continent
model.[324][325] Other models consider Europe as part of a Eurasian or Afro-Eurasian continent. See Continent
§ Number for more information.
U. The map shows one of the most commonly accepted delineations of the geographical boundaries of Europe, as
used by National Geographic and Encyclopædia Britannica. Whether countries are considered in Europe or
Asia can vary in sources, for example in the classification of the CIA World Factbook or that of the BBC. Certain
countries in Europe, such as France, have territories lying geographically outside Europe, but which are
nevertheless considered integral parts of that country.
V. This number includes Siberia, (about 38 million people) but excludes European Turkey (about 12 million).

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Europe (http://ucblibraries.summon.serialssolutions.com/#!/search?ho=t&l=en&q=Europe) web resources
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Europe: Human Geography (https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/europe-human-geography/) at
the National Geographic Society
European Reading Room (https://www.loc.gov/rr/european/) from the United States Library of Congress

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"Europe" (https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Europe). Encyclopædia

Britannica. Vol. 9 (11th ed.). 1911. pp. 907–953.
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Historical maps

Borders in Europe 3000BC to the present (http://geacron.com/home-en/?&sid=GeaCron747702) Geacron

Historical atlas
Online history of Europe in 21 maps (http://www.euratlas.net/history/europe/index.html)

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Europe&oldid=1291053282"

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