COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION IN DEVELOPMENT PROJECTS AT TICKYLINE

VILLAGE IN TZANEEN

BY

MALATJI KHUTSO PEACE

STUDENT NO: 16012380

A mini-dissertation submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the

degree

of

MASTER OF PUBLIC MANAGEMENT

OR TAMBO INSTITUTE OF GOVERNANCE AND POLICY STUDIES

SCHOOL OF MANAGEMENT SCIENCES

UNIVERSITY OF VENDA

Supervisor: Prof N Nkuna

Co-Supervisor: Dr E Mahole

2019
Table of Contents Page

Abstract i

Declaration iii

Acknowledgements iv

Dedications v

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND 1

1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Background 2
1.3 Problem Statement 3
1.4 Aim 5
1.5 Objectives of the Study 5

1.5.1 Research Questions 5

1.6 Significance of the study 5

1.7 Limitations of the study 5
1.8 Delimitation of the study 6
1.9 Definition of operational terms 6
1.10 The Study layout 8
1.11 Conclusion 9

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW 10

2.1 Introduction 10

2.2 Theoretical Framework 10

2.2.1 Centre-Periphery Theory 11

2.2.2 Modernization Theory 12

[Link] The traditional society: 12

[Link] The preconditions for take-off: 13

[Link] Take-off: 13

[Link] The drive to maturity: 13

[Link] The age of high mass consumption: 13

2.2.3 Dependency Theory 14

2.3 People- Centred Approach 15

2.3.1 Advantages of the People Centre Approach 16

[Link] People’s Empowerment 16

[Link] Capacity Building of the people at the centre of development 16

[Link] People Self- reliance 17

[Link] Sustainability of the projects 17

2.4 Development Process 18

2.5 Community Participation 19

2.6 The Participatory Approach 20

2.7 Characteristics of Participation 21

2.7.1 Decision making 21

2.7.2 Planning 21

2.7.3 Implementation 21

2.7.4 Empowerment 22

2.7.5 Mobilization 22
2.7.6 Evaluation 23

2.7.7 Effectiveness 23

2.7.8 Skills and knowledge 23

2.8 Types of Participation 24

2.9 Importance of Community Participation 26

2.10 Community Participation as an Invited Participation 27

2.11 The Importance of Development in Rural Communities 30

2.12 Challenges of Community Participation 32

2.13 Rural Development Approaches 33

2.14 The roles of the state and non-state actors in community development 36

2.15 Statutory Framework in South Africa 38

2.15.1 Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996 38

2.15.2 The White Paper on Local Government (1998) 39

2.15.3 Local Government: Municipal Structures Act, 117 of 1998 40

2.15.4 Local Government: Municipal Systems Act, 32 of 2000 41

2.15.5 Reconstruction and Development Program (RDP 1994) 42

2.15.6 Promotion of Access to Information Act, 2 of 2000 42

2.15.7 Local Government: Municipal Finance Management Act, 56 of 2003 43

2.15.8 National Development Plan (2013) 43

2.15.9 National Policy Framework on Public Participation (2005) 43

2.15.10 The White Paper on the Transformation of 44

Public Service Delivery (1997)

2.15.11 Traditional Leadership and Governance Framework Act 41, of 2003 44

2.16. Conclusion 45

CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 46

3.1 Introduction 46

3.2 Nature of the study 46

3.3 Research design and focus 47

3.4 Area of the study 48

3.5 Study Population 48

3.6 Sampling 48

3.6.1 The sampling method used 49

3.6.2 Introducing the sample 49

3.7 Research instrument 49

3.8 Data analysis 50

3.9 Ethical Considerations 50

3.10 Conclusion 51

CHAPTER FOUR

DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION 52

4.1 Introduction 52

4.2 Presentation and discussion of the findings 52

4.2.1 Biographical data 53

4.2.2 Quantitative research Analysis 54

4.3 Qualitative research Analysis 59

4.4 Conclusion 69

CHAPTER FIVE

RESEARCH FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 70

5.1 Introduction and findings discussion 70

5.2 Major Findings 70

5.3 Overview of the Study 71

5.4 Conclusion 72

5.3 Recommendations 72

LIST OF REFERENCES 74

APPENDICES 85

Appendix 1: Informed consent form 85

Appendix 2: Questionnaire and interview guide tool 86

Abstract

Community participation is a concept which is meant to ensure that community

members are an integral part of processes that determine their destination in relation
to their development needs. It is a means of empowering people by developing their
skills and abilities to enable them to negotiate and make appropriate decisions for their
development. Community participation, however, is not without its challenges. In most
development projects initiated by local municipalities and other government
departments, community participation appears to be an afterthought. In this regard,
the study aimed to investigate challenges of community participation in Tickyline. The
research methods used for this study were both qualitative and quantitative and data
was collected from twenty-two (22) research participants using open-ended interviews
and questionnaires. Data was analysed using thematic method and Statistical
Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) software.

Findings

The study revealed that majority of the participants do not participate in development
projects because some meetings are arranged during odd times, particularly during
the initial phases of the projects. The study further revealed that these challenges of
participation are influenced by officials who take decisions on behalf of communities
as they regard the participants as less capable of taking independent decisions
regarding their own projects.

It was found that community projects are literally imposed to the communities and
therefore, participation and community involvement is very minimal which
consequently collapses the projects.

Recommendations

Consequent to the findings, it is recommended that community leaders should make

community meetings open to all community members. There should be regular
community gatherings to discuss issues affecting the community; and there should be
inclusion of community members in every phase of projects by municipal and
government members to ensure maximum participation in relation to development
projects. The officials should regard the participants as important stakeholders in the
development of the projects in the area. Community members should be literally made

i
sole beneficiaries of development projects from the inception to the hand-over phase.
By so doing, they will be able to sustain both themselves and the development projects
within their area.

Key words: Development, Community participation, Development projects

ii
DECLARATION

I, Malatji Khutso Peace hereby declare that this mini dissertation titled “Community
Participation in Development projects at Tickyline Village in Tzaneen”, for the degree
Master in Public Management (MPM) at the University of Venda hereby submitted by
me, has not previously been submitted for a degree at this or any other institution, and
that this is my own work in design and execution and that all reference material
contained therein have been duly acknowledged.

Malatji Khutso Peace ……………………………………

Student Number: 16012380 Date

iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

It is with the greatest pleasure that I express my sincerest gratitude to the Almighty
God for endowing me with the wisdom, knowledge and understanding that enabled
me to finish this monumental task.

A special word of thanks goes to Prof N Nkuna, my supervisor and Dr E Mahole, my

co-supervisor. They supported me since I started with the research study.

My deepest gratitude goes to the following people who have shown their unwavering
support and guidance during the darkest days of my research study, when confusion
has reigned supreme.

Molaba Morena, my friend, who stood by me when the chips were down, his
continuous guidance and support has made it possible for me to finish my research
study. His unrelenting support is invaluable and priceless.

Tumi Mashiane, my friend and mentor, has always given me undivided support and
guidance, His incessant curiosity to know my progress has made it possible for me to
work very hard and finish this research study.

My family, their continuous support and encouragement is unrivalled. My participants,

I wish to express my sincere gratitude for their help and support during this arduous
task.

iv
DEDICATION

This study is dedicated to my son Omolemo, and my parents, Mrs Tumisang and Mr
Bom Malatji for their love, inspiration and encouragement.

v
CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND

1.1 Introduction
Development of rural areas remains a struggle in developing countries (Molaba, 2016).
This is well as the case with Tickyline village in Tzaneen, which is situated in the
Limpopo Province. In Greater Tzaneen, the Integrated Development Plan (IDP) of
2017-2018 stipulates that majority of the residents in the area do not progress much
in terms of education and that on its own, limits their knowledge regarding
development (Greater Tzaneen Local Municipality, 2017). This is evident as it can be
observed that within the area, schools are dilapidated, no access to health services
and facilities within the reach, no proper sanitation and the roads are not up to
standard.

Development policies in many developed and developing countries seek to improve

the living standard of the poor in rural areas (Botes & Rensburg, 2000). For lives to be
improved, they saw a need to introduce development projects. These development
projects are one of the key ingredients to poverty reduction. Most of development
projects cannot succeed without involving members of the community where these
projects need to be implemented. Therefore, development policies potentially saw the
need to stress the encouragement of communities to participate in their development
agenda. The rationale for this is that communities, especially those in rural setting,
cannot prosper fully without full engagement of its members (Kufuor & Koomson,
2014: 1619).

The idea of involving community members throughout the process of development

projects within their areas has proved to show remarkable results (Molaba, 2016).
Phologane (2014) highlights that active and dedicated participation of the key
stakeholders in the design and implementation of projects, especially those at the
grass-roots level, contributes significantly to the sustainability of developmental
activities, through increased ownership and more effective use of grass roots level
inputs. Evaratt and Gwagwa (2005) further maintain that in most cases, it is in rural

1
areas where development projects need to be implemented because that is where
development is ideally needed.

For these projects to succeed, the community needs to be involved in every aspect
and detail concerning the development projects within their area. Community
participation in rural development involves an act of sharing all aspects that are
common to all participants as stakeholders of the development process (Clearly,
2008).

1.2 Background
The study focuses on Tickyline village just outside the town of Tzaneen. It is a rural
village in the Limpopo Province which falls within the Mopani District Municipal area in
the Greater Tzaneen municipality. Tickyline falls under municipal Ward 30 located in
the Bakgaga Tribal area, under Chief Maake in terms of the municipal demarcation.

Mopani District Municipality came into being after the 2000 Local Government
Elections. It consists of five Local municipalities, namely: Greater Giyani, Greater
Letaba, Greater Tzaneen, Ba-Phalaborwa and Maruleng. Mopani District Municipality
is situated in the North-eastern part of the Limpopo Province, 70 km and 50km from
Polokwane (main City of the Limpopo Province), along provincial roads R81 and R71
respectively. It is located, on global view, between the Longitudes: 29 52´E to 31
52´E and Latitudes: 23 0´S to 24 38´S, with 31 E as the central meridian. It is located
in the Degree square 2431 Topographical sheets. In this regard. Tickyline is found
along R36 to Lydenburg, just 35km north-east from Tzaneen town.

According to Census of 2011, Mopani District Municipality has a population of 1 092

507 and out of that population, the Greater Tzaneen Municipality, within which
Tickyline resides; has a population of 390 095 and out of the population of Greater
Tzaneen, Tickyline has population of 33 675 (Greater Tzaneen Integrated
Development Plan, 2017/18). What the census has provided here are the figures of
six years back and it is inevitable that since then, the given population has grown.

According to the Greater Tzaneen Integrated Development Plan (IDP) of 2017, only
17% percent of the community is educated, 57% is uneducated, 16% is at (tertiary,
high and primary) school level and 10% comprises elderly people. From this

2
background, it can be deduced that the knowledge and understanding of development
amongst the residents of the researched village is dismally low and those with
knowledge seem less affected as they somehow progressed in life.

In terms of structural lay-out, Tickyline is one of the underdeveloped villages within

Greater Tzaneen Municipality (Greater Tzaneen Integrated Development Plan,
2017/18). Within the village, the only social facilities that seem to be functioning apart
from the schools, are liquor outlets (tarvens). At these liquor outlets, it is where one
would find most people of that village as there is nothing much for them to do. There
is not a specific age group that can distinctively be said to be dominant at the liquor
outlets. This means that the young, youth, young adults and adults are found in liquor
outlets in the area. Basically, it is their hang out spot as they do not have any other
places to just to pass time, except going to town (Tzaneen), which is a luxury they
cannot afford.

There is a high level of teenage pregnancy, school drop-out, unemployment, health

related issues and crime. The proliferation of teenage pregnancy and health related
issues might be because there are no health care facilities within the village (Greater
Tzaneen Integrated Development Plan, 2017/18). This proliferation of the mentioned
issues can be attributed to people not having much to do with ample time at their
disposal.

1.3 Problem Statement

Section 42 of The Local Government Systems Act 32 of 2000 states the significance
of community participation and involvement in matters affecting communities, which
includes encouraging and creating conditions for them to fully participate in their own
affairs. Section 42 of the same Act further urges people to participate in development
projects which are designated within their areas, and by involving themselves in these
projects, it potentially allows them to have ownership of what is and needs to be done
for the projects to be successful (DPLG, 2000). Moreover, the White-Paper on Local
Government 1998 emphasises that due to lack of access to services, economic
opportunities, mobility, safety, absence of pollution and congestion, proximity to social
and recreational facilities, it is imperative that communities take part in designing and

3
participating in projects that are meant to better their lives (Department of Public
Service and Administration, 1998).

Usadolo and Caldwel (2016) assert that people's participation in development projects
in rural areas bring effective social change rather than impose an external culture on
a society and community participation. The design, implementation and hand over of
a project greatly enhances the likelihood of project success due to improved goodness
of fit and increased sustainability. Molaba (2016) states that people's participation
within the community in their development projects, increases the efficiency of
development activities by involving local resources and skills.

Their involvement capacitates and develops the abilities of local people to manage
and to negotiate development activities (Molaba, 2016). Moreover, participation can
often help to improve the status of women by providing the opportunity for them to play
a part in development work. However, the residents of Tickyline seem less interested
in participating in projects that are meant to improve their lives. Seemingly, there might
be push factors that can be harbouring their disinterest in partaking to development
projects within their area.

According to Mansuri and Rao, (2012), illiteracy, political exclusion, transparency,

dissemination of information and the rate of unemployment, as people cannot afford
means of transport to the designated jobs within projects in most rural areas of South
Africa, play a pivotal part in the deceleration of development process amongst these
areas. Molaba (2016) further states that development of rural communities in South
Africa is a national challenge since most of the unemployed and illiterate people in the
country are found in these communities. This is the case with people of Tickyline
village as most projects within their village never reach the implementation phase, let
alone the handover stage. To this effect, the study sought to investigate failure of
development projects in Tickyline village looking at it from an angle of community
participation. In this regard, the researcher finds the following aim and objectives
relevant.

4
1.4 Aim
To investigate community participation in community development projects at
Tickyline village in Tzaneen to determine strategies that can encourage the
involvement of communities.

1.5 Objectives of the study

The objectives of this study are as follows:
 To examine the level of community participation in community development
projects
 To determine the challenges of community participation
 To determine strategies to encourage community participation in development
projects

1.5.1 Research Questions

Research questions to be pursued in this study are as follows:
 What is the level of community participation in development projects?
 What are the challenges of community participation?
 Which strategies can be used to encourage community participation in
development projects?

1.6 Significance of the Study

The study might help Tickyline community and relevant role players to participate in
development projects. It might also enable them to realize the significance of
community participation and understand the barriers to community participation, its
advantages, necessary structures and improvements needed to ensure sustainable
development. This might ultimately increase community participation in the
development projects within their community.

1.7 Limitations of the study

The major limitation of the study was time as this type of research requires more time.
Lack of funds was also a limiting factor as the study required a lot of travelling to
achieve the desired objectives. Language was also a problem as the questionnaires

5
were in English and as it has already been highlighted, most people within the
community are uneducated.

The researcher had to extend the time estimated to complete data collection and used
more than the estimated budget to achieve the desired objectives of his study. Since
there were no funds allocated for the researcher to secure services of a professional
translator the researcher (who happens to be multi-lingual), explained and translated
the questionnaires and interview question using the languages that the participants
would understand.

1.8 Delimitation of the study

The study focused on community participation in development projects at Tickyline in

Tzaneen, which is under Greater Tzaneen Municipality. Participants of the study were
male and female residents of the researched area,aged between 18- 55 years.

1.9 Definition of operational terms

Community: Tshikwatamba (2004:257) defines community as a cluster of people

living together and sharing common cultures and values. Also, van Deventer and
Kruger (2009: 256) aver that community may refer to a cultural or ethnic or language
group or may refer to group of persons having the same or similar interest. The
qualities and characteristics of the given definition by different authors befits what the
community of Tickyline is made of.

Development: Todaro and Smith (2006:17) define development as a

multidimensional process involving major changes in social structures, popular
attitudes, and national institutions, as well the acceleration of economic growth, the
reduction of inequality, and the eradication of poverty. Gegeo (1998:289) defines
development as a process of growth springing from within, which involves a growing
individual and collective self-reliance, and focuses not only on material and economic
needs, but also on emotional, ethical, and political empowerment. With how
development is being described, Tickyline and its residents do need what is being
described as development by the scholars above. For Tickyline and its residents to be
considered a developing or developed village, they need to possess most if not all the
attributes mentioned in the definitions.

6
Participation: Participation is an active process by which beneficiaries influence the
directions and execution of a development project with a view to enhancing their well-
being in terms of income, personal growth, self- reliance or other values as they
cherish (Mansuri & Rao, 2012). Westergaard (1986) defines participation as collective
efforts to increase and exercise control over resources and institutions on the part of
groups and movements of those hitherto excluded from control. This definition points
toward a mechanism for ensuring community participation.

Based on how participation is being described, the researched fall out of the
description of participation. This can mainly be because of them showing little or less
interest in participation. In this regard, without the qualities that qualifies and affirms
one to be a participant, they are far from being regarded as participants since they do
not display and exercise those qualities.

Community Participation: Theron (2005:120) views community participation

as a process to give communities an opportunity to determine their own destination.
Furthermore, Theron (2005) says that it is the provision of grassroots level with
abilities, which could enable them to negotiate development delivery systems and be
able to take informed decisions, in terms of their development needs and priorities.
According to Theron and Mchunu (2014), community participation refers to the
creation of opportunities that allow space for members of a community to actively input
and influence processes in the development endeavour, and to draw equitable
benefits from the proceeds of the development endeavour. According to what is being
said about community participation, the researched are nowhere near to be identified
as a community that participate in community projects which are meant to uplift their
living condition.

Development Project: According to Wideman (2000: 3), a project is a novel

undertaking to create a new product or service, the delivery of which signal completion
and begins when resources are dedicated to its specific goal. It is the people
themselves who must define their needs, not their development agencies (Mendes,
2008).
Given how development project is being described, the researched area and the
residents do not fit within the above-mentioned description of development project.
7
1.10 The study layout

The study is be structured into five chapters which are illustrated as follows:

Chapter 1: Introduction and the Background of the Study

 The chapter outlines the introduction and the background of the study and the
problem statement. It also explains the objectives of the study and critical
research questions. The significance of the study, limitations and delimitations
of the study are also highlighted. Also, definition of operational concepts is
included.

Chapter 2: Literature Review

 The chapter covers the literature reviewed. It includes all theoretical
background and the contribution of various theories, strategies and criticism
that constitute the idea of participation.

Chapter 3: Research Methodology

 The chapter covers the research process undertaken, design and
methodology. This chapter includes the samples, location of the study, data
collection methods and data analysis.

Chapter 4: Data Presentation, Analysis and Interpretation

 The chapter presents empirical findings and analysis of the study based on the
data collected during the field. The presentation of both qualitative and
quantitative data is done using thematic analysis

Chapter 5: Research Findings, Conclusion and Recommendations

 The chapter concludes the research by providing findings and
recommendations. This chapter outlines major findings on the challenges, level
of community participation and the strategies used for community participation
in community development.

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1.11 Conclusion

This chapter outlined and explained the overview of the study. Introduction and
background of the study were discussed, followed by the problem statement where
reasons for conducting this study were highlighted. The aim and the desired objectives
were also highlighted together with the research questions that guided the study. The
relevance of the study was also highlighted followed by definition of terms and how
the study was structured. In the study, the community participation in community
development projects at Tickyline village in Tzaneen was investigated. Therefore,
given the overview of the study in this chapter, the chapter that follows focuses on the
different theories, elements contributing to the research topic and the South Africa
Statutory Framework.

9
CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

In this chapter, relevant literature and different theories that relate to the researched
topic are reviewed. This chapter assembles knowledge on a topic regarding what is
known or what has been done about the area and where knowledge gaps exist
(Cooper, 2010). Such a literature review helps to provide a framework for establishing
the importance of the study as well as a benchmark for comparing the results with
other findings (Marshall & Rossman, 2011). Therefore, in this chapter, different
theories that relate to development are discussed, followed by elaboration of elements
that impede communities from participating in development projects. The chapter will
conclude by presenting the statutory provision of community participation within the
South African context and related to Tickyline as study area on point.

2.2 Theoretical Framework

The theories that follow were used to guide the study as it has been highlighted earlier
in the chapter. The first theory that was discussed is the centre-periphery theory. The
researcher found this theory significant on the basis that within the researched
location, the residents are most likely to refrain from participating in development
projects as they are supposed to be at the centre of development, but they are left with
less skills to sustain themselves. Thus, they are most likely to be left at the periphery
of development and that would mean development was for them and not about them.

The second theory which guided this study is the modernization theory. This theory
focuses mainly in development through the transition from a traditional society to a
modern one. In this regard, this would mean that the residents of Tickyline must be
prepared to move with time as things change as far as development is concerned.
However, this type of theory can either bring success in terms of development in
Tickyline or it can bring conflicts amongst the residents. Based on the different age
groups and the high level of illiteracy in Tickyline, the residents might have a problem
in reaching common goals as far as development is concerned.

10
The last theory that guided this study is the dependency theory. This theory puts its
emphasis on what usually happens once development projects are handed over to the
sole beneficiaries. In most cases, this means that the rich get richer and the poor
remain poorer. In this regard, Tickyline would be a developed area, but the residents
of this area might not have the desired skills to sustain what would have been
developed within their area. This would mean that the people that the residents of
Tickyline depended on during the implementation of development projects might not
be there or available to help them with the necessary skills of sustaining those projects.
Succinctly, the project holders would have gotten what they wanted (money) and gave
the researched development with less skills to keep the development projects afloat.

2.2.1 Centre-periphery theory

The concept centre-periphery theory has registered some success at the global level,
thus, it has been mostly used in the context of third-wordlist thinking. Blaho (2012)
purports that the idea of the two terms, centre and periphery, allows reflecting on
interactions between places in the world: links of reciprocal dependency where
inequalities are the rule, but which are not working one-way. However, Sachs (2005)
argues that the relationships between two types of parts of the world economy flows,
and these relationships are asymmetrical. The centre is central precisely because it
benefits from this inequality and, in turn, the periphery is characterised by a deficit
which maintains its dominated position. Additionally, Jorgen (2003) states that the
theory shows development contradiction and/or structural differentiation between
spatial settlement of the centre which is also termed as the “metropolis” and the less
developed countries - the “periphery”.

This theory emphasizes the exploitation of the south from the north. Bonye et al.
(2013), give an example of Ghana’s relations with the United States of America (USA)
and Britain in which structural differences produce unequal development which
exemplifies this development paradigm in terms of the relationship between the north
and the south. To support the given example, Gren (2003) highlights that many studies
and community development practitioners are concerned about centre-periphery
paradigm as it assesses whether there is convergence or divergence in development
between the centre and the periphery and the factors associated with the ‘success’ of
core regions or the atypical success-stories in peripheral areas.

11
There are critiques about this theory. According to Shortfall and Shucksmith (2001),
the theory discourages competitions among spatial regions and allows the state to
take total control of the distribution of resources for development. Also, the relative
economic advantages of the centre serve as the pull factors, thereby encouraging
migration from the periphery to the core. This phenomenon certainly comes with its
attendant problems (Shortfall & Shucksmith, 2001).

2.2.2 Modernisation theory

Modernization theory is based on the broad belief that society moves from traditional
to modern, through a series of stages (Smith, 2003). According Coetzee (2001:27),
modernisation was seen and acknowledged as the process through which the newly
decolonised traditional countries in Africa, Asia and South America would go through
to become modern. This was supposed to be achieved through the transfer of the
advanced political, social, cultural and economic accomplishments of western
societies to become modern.

Modernization theory emphasizes that modern societies are more productive, children
are better educated, and the needy receive more welfare (Davids et al., 2009). Bader
(2001) highlights that modern societies have the particular feature of social structural
differentiation, that is, a clear definition of functions and political roles from national
institutions. However, Nederveer Pieterse (2001) argues that although structural
differentiation has increased the functional capacity of modern organizations, it has
also created the problem of integration, and of coordinating the activities of the various
new institutions. The theory is a phase theory, hence it is dependent on Rostow’s
phase of development and the phases are:

[Link] The traditional society:

The economic system is stationary and dominated by agriculture with traditional

cultivating forms. Productivity by man- hour is relatively lower, as compared to the
following growth stages. In this regard, the society characterizes hierarchal structure
and there is low vertical as well as societal mobility. Therefore, a historical instance of
this kind of society was founded in Newton’s time (Mallick, 2005).

12
[Link] The preconditions for take -off

During this stage, the rates are escalating and they initiate dynamic developments.
This kind of economic development is a result of the industrial revolution.
Subsequently, transformation which includes development of agriculture and
workforces of the primary sector becomes redundant. A prerequisite for this phase is
revolution, which in England lasted for a century (Bader, 2001).

[Link] Take-off

One major characteristic of this phase is major economic growth and this phase is self-
driven and sustained, it does not have exogenous input (Escobar, 1999). With
communities able to owning up their development projects, it is to some extent
inevitable that project/s will be a success based on the fact that the most people within
the community will be equipped with the desired skills for that or those projects.

[Link] The drive to maturity

This phase it is characterized by continual investments. Economic and technical

progress dominates this phase. Consequently, Bader (2001) highlights that new forms
of industries like neo-technical emerge and because of transformation, social and
economic prosperity, especially the latter, increases.

[Link] The age of high mass consumption

Nedervreen Pieterse (2001) maintains that most parts of societies live in prosperity,
following all the four stages and people living in these societies will now have an
abundance and multiplicity of choices.

There are critics around modernization theory and one critique is that its assumption
is that the evolution of societies emanates from a common starting point of
underdevelopment and transform along a reductionist continuum of economic and
social change from traditional to modern society (Cohen & Kennedy, 2000).
Nevertheless, Smith (2003) highlights that economic development emphasized by this
theory remains perpetual, thus continues in most government initiated community
development projects at the expense of other aspects of community life such as
cultural, psychological and spiritual development, a holistic approach to development.

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2.2.3 Dependency theory

Dependency theory as a social science theory emerged as a reaction to modernization

and diffusion theories and it was originally developed in Latin America, with its analysis
informed by Marxist and critical world system theories according to which the problems
of the third world reflected the general dynamics of capitalist development (Vis Wiki,
2009). Contrary to modernization theories, dependency theorists’ argument was that
problems of underdevelopment in poor countries was determined by external factors
and the way former colonies were integrated into the western economy (Imoh,
2013:22).

Vis Wiki (2009) highlighted that problems of underdevelopment are political, rather
than the result of the lack of information. Therefore, superior economic and political
power of the West enabled them to make decisions that enabled them to maintain
underdevelopment and dependency in developing countries. Thus, the central
contention of this theory is that poor states are impoverished and rich ones enriched
based on the notion that resources flow from a “periphery” of poor and underdeveloped
states to a “core” of wealthy states enriching the latter at the expense of the former
(Vis Wiki, 2009).

Marxism aspired dependency theory from which it derived the thesis that development
emerges from conflicts, notably those stemming from changes in the material
conditions of life (Imoh, 2013:23). Subsequent to this, imperialism is driven by
Euro/American bourgeoisie capitalism at the core of Third world under-development.
This depicts socialist revolution as an essential component since development in the
Third World requires the profound alteration of the economic, social and political
relationships. In the long run, there will be an overthrow of the market and the
mobilization of domestic populations in a nationally oriented effort towards the creation
of a socialist context for development (Emeh, 2013: 118).

Like Modernization theory, there are critics around dependency theory. Some of the
critiques highlighted by Vis Wiki (2009) are that this type of theory leads tohigher rates
of corruption in state-owned companies and lack of sustainability as government
support may be unsustainable for very long, particularly in poorer countries which may
largely rely on foreign aid for the implementation of development programs. Also, the

14
Euro-centrism of Dependency theory is influenced by Marx’s description of the phases
of social change wherein most advanced phases corresponded to European
experiences, and Africa was outside the historical processes of change (Ajei, 2007).

2.3 People- Centred Approach

The three classical development theories of center-periphery, modernization and

dependency have equally failed to explain and justify the continued underdevelopment
of the third world nations, epitomized by the proliferation qualities of poverty and
inequalities (Theron, 2009:105). This led to the emergence of the people-centered
approach.

This approach focuses more on people being at the center of development on micro-
level than on macro-level theorizing. Sibanda (2011) highlighted that people-centered
development should be a process whereby members of the society increase their
personal and institutional capacities to mobilize and manage resources so to produce
sustainable and justly distributed improvements in their quality of life consistent with
their own aspirations. Furthermore, Davids et al. (2009:21) posit that as opposed to
what theories of development have been saying in the past about development,
humans should be placed at the center, contrary to the “trickle-down‟ approach in
other development initiatives.

Theron (2009:104) argues that in the people-centered approach, there should be four
fundamental questions asked regarding development process and they are: From
what? By whom? From whom? In what way? To paraphrase Kotze’s assertion, which
is cited in Theron (2009:105), humanist thinking on development implies more than
economic growth and includes transformation of institutional, socio-cultural and
political systems and structures, consequently addressing development in a holistic
way. The 2000 World Development Report entitled The role of UNDP in the 1990’s;
explains that development needs to have an objective as its pinnacle, which will
inwardly capacitate human beings and enable them to manage their own lives and
their environment.

15
2.3.1 Advantages of the People Centered Approach
The following are the advantages of People Centered Approach:

[Link] People’s empowerment

Development is perceived as a process that focuses on the delivery of goods to a
passive citizenry. Contrary to that; development is driven by active participation and
growing empowerment (Theron & Mchunu, 2016:17-20). Additionally, Davids et al.
(2009:21) further highlight that the RDP explains development as a process whose
main focus is not only about the delivery of goods to a passive citizenry, but also about
the involvement and growing empowerment. As it can equivalently be compared to the
concept of conscientisation by Freire, the primary objective of empowerment is to
develop individuals’ critical understanding of their circumstances and social reality
(Davids et al., 2009: 21). Most importantly, once the community’s self- awareness of
their social reality has been established, it is then that they can be elevate to a platform
whereby they can be able make decisions that will improve their livelihood.

[Link] Capacity building of the people at the center of development

Capacity building in the context of community development can be referred the
process of enabling institutions to be more effective and efficient in the process of
identifying, implementing, monitoring and evaluating of developmental projects and
the overall ability of the individual or group to perform their responsibilities (Tshabalala,
2006). Therefore, when a community is continuously able to fulfill their needs, people
will then learn to realize their objectives more easily. According to Davids et al. (2009),
capacity building as a mechanism can enable local people to determine their own
values and priorities and act on their own decisions, as in the concept of
conscientisation, the maximum potential of individuals can be realized after they have
been made aware; then, depending on their capabilities, they can then exercise what
they have learnt during empowerment to determine if they can achieve their goals and
objectives. Therefore, with capacity building being well implemented; the community
will utilize their experiences by infusing them with capacity building and empowerment
and apply them in related projects in the future.

16
[Link] People’s self-reliance
In the past, most community development projects relied heavily on the outsourced
resources for interventions which consequently resulted to the collapse of projects,
hence the emphasis in development had to change from production and objects to
people and their enhancement to collectively participate in development projects that
are meant to improve their standard of living by People-centered approach (Davids et
al., 2009: 21). Reliance on outsourced resources has increasingly resulted in most
interventions being unsustainable. A people-centered approach stimulates and
enhances self-reliance in communities. Therefore, self- reliance in this context can be
viewed as the ability for individuals or communities to generate resources for their own
initiatives without over reliance from donor help. If the community members start
appreciating their strengths and explore the use of cheap and locally available
resources, there is a greater chance for sustainability of projects (Tshabalala, 2006).

[Link] Sustainability of the projects

In most rural areas, development projects are not sustained as they are not accepted
whole by community, but by few people within the targeted communities. According to
Theron and Mchunu (2016:17-20), for any development to be sustainable, it must be
accepted by majority if not the whole community, and to achieve and maintain the
sustainability of the project, a sense of ownership by community members needs to
be engendered. Furthermore, ownership can only be achieved through active
participation of the target community. Andersson et al. (2001:24) states that successful
development is entirely not determined by the quantity or quality of the product but
also on the process of introduction. It can generally be agreed that participation without
power “is an empty and frustrating process for the powerless” (Sibanda, 2011). Thus,
once the community is empowered, the community members can take ownership as
the development project belongs to them.

Sustainability of any project is crucial since the development process is not a once-off
thing but continuous. If the community is denied ownership of development project
meant for them, there can be dire results such as vandalism, corruption and
sometimes premature termination of projects which are supposed to benefit the
community (Swilling & Annecke, 2012).

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2.4 Development Process

The development process is cyclic and its success is to some extent dependent on
participation. It is of importance that participation should take place at every stage of
the development initiative for the interventions to be effective. However, there are
aspects that need to be considered during this process. Firstly, there is a need to
understand that development does not entail and affect tangible assets only, but also
the psycho-social and economic entities of the people that need to be developed (Oni,
2005: 27). Therefore, it is crucial to organize a community as it will be easy to mobilize
it regarding issues that affect them in their daily lives, which makes it essential for them
to undergo development. Once the organization and mobilization of the community
has been established, it is easy for them to indicate and identify their problems at hand.
Furthermore, Oni (2005: 27) explains that through mobilizing and raising awareness,
intervention to sustainable development is identified, thereafter, community visioning
and planning takes place, which is a process through which the community identifies
its future vision. The visioning process establishes a desired end state for the
community and a vision for the future towards which they strive (Botes & Rensburg,
2000: 49).

Secondly, Scoones (2009) posits that after the community has effortlessly identified
their needs and formulated their desired objectives, it is then that the process can
transgress to the implementation stage. Additionally, Scoones (2009) asserts that
whilst still in the process of implementation, monitoring and evaluation are very
essential; as they assist in providing indications of whether corrections need to be
made in the action plan and evaluation helps in collecting and analyzing the
information provided and the work of the targeted organization at a single point in time.
Monitoring and evaluation are vital in community development because the community
can identify whether they are taking the necessary steps towards fulfillment of their
goals and objectives.

Development process can only be a success when the targeted community for
development works collectively as they will be able to identify their problems and
formulate strategies to be used in the implantation stage that can help in addressing

18
and satisfying the desired objectives. Thus, they get to the completion and hand over
stage where and this would mean that the development process has been achieved.

2.5 Community Participation

Community development projects and community participation are two intertwined

concepts, which if well facilitated, ensure successful achievement and sustenance of
development projects (Wilson [Link], 2014). Contemporary development theories
emphasize the significance of participation on the basis that it potentially negates
effective and participatory governance for sustainable change, and of supporting the
coping and livelihood strategies of the poor” (Khan, 2003: 295). To this effect, its
importance is widely acknowledged, perceptions and expectations regarding the
purpose, nature, scope and implementation of public participation has seen marked
differences inevitably affecting its impact on public policy and development
programmes (Cooke & Kothari, 2001; Hickey & Mohan, 2004).

According to Kotzé and Kotzé (2016) community development aims at invoking

collective interests and aspirations for both individual and group benefits; therefore,
community participation is the driving force of community development. However, the
pursuit of community participation, whether as a demand of citizenship or a strategy
of governments or organizations, has a peculiar intrinsic value if community members
are to own and sustain development. Moreover, participation has different
connotations to different people, but imperatively, it has to do with involving people
who will ultimately be part of the decisions made by them in contributing in making,
implementing and monitoring those decisions (Theron & Mchunu, 2014).
However, Davids et al, (2009) ‘s concern is that many studies of participation focus
mostly on indicators of participation rather than exploring the more important analysis
of impact. Thus, they further make a useful distinction between three sets of indicators
in measuring the value of participation and these indicators are ‘process indicators’
(measuring extent and quality); ‘developmental indicators’ (measuring impact on self-
development and community capacity in challenging imbalances and inequalities);
and ‘impact indicators’ (measuring impact on policy or change) (Nekwaya, 2007).
Mendes (2008) further attests that these indicators will significantly and potentially
capture material changes such as infrastructure, services, employment opportunities

19
and such relational changes as changes in the distribution of opportunities, influence,
resources, and decision-making.

2.6 The participatory approach

The participatory approach is derived from the sustainable human development school
of thought, which is an alternative attempt that seeks to address the dependency issue
by potentially encouraging decentralization, endogenous and multi-sectoral
approaches to planning and decision making. Its fundamental focus is on people, as
it seeks to instill their liberation and self- reliance (Yoon, 2004). Yoon (2004) further
states that this model is otherwise known as the multiplicity model which stresses that
development should be situation specific as its prime goal is to improve the quality of
life, conserve and enhance the people’s values, beliefs and cultures to ensure social
justice, freedom and sustainable development. Desai (2009:116) highlighted that
every society has a history that is distinct, alongside with a distinct socio-cultural and
economic conditions, therefore, no universal model is applicable, but a multiplicity of
strategies will have to be used based on each society’s initial conditions.

Mulu (2011) calls for a maximum usage of indigenous resources and local social
systems to infuse social change and development at the local level by ensuring that
the basic needs, interests, preferences and values of the people are protected. The
participatory communication approach incites information generated within the
community as opposed to that externally generated. Furthermore, Mulu (2011)
purports that information is given less prominence than the processes used in sharing
and using information.
It would simply mean that the role of the change agent in this model is facilitative and
supportive to enable the people themselves to consider, decide and act on
development messages (Desai, 2009:117). By being transparent about the less visible
incentives, which to some extent will inhibit or promote adoption, programme planners
and message designers are better able to select vocabulary which the people will
understand. In this regard, there will be immense possibilities of integrating the
innovation into the individual’s own view of problems and needs. Thus, this will also
allow planners to detect the weaknesses in the campaign objectives, strategies and
messages.
20
With research showing how involvement of social groups, age groups, clubs,
churches, mosques, women groups, professional groups, non- governmental
organizations and community based organizations has brought greater participation in
the innovations to be adopted, it is evident that development projects that are
community owned and driven, are most likely to be a success and be sustained, unlike
projects which are driven and owned by external people (Manyozo, 2006: 84).

2.7 Characteristics of Participation

Under this aspect, characteristics that clearly outline the nature of participation will be
discussed.

2.7.1 Decision making

In community development projects, it is important that community members are

included in the decision making process regarding actions that affect their lives,
irrespective of one’s social status. This inwardly gives them a sense of ownership to
the project as they will have a broad understanding of projects they are embarking on
(Cornwall & Coehlo, 2007).

2.7.2 Planning

Community engagement creates new opportunities for creative thinking and creative
planning and development. In most cases, participation is understood as giving the
voiceless a voice in local decision-making and planning, whereas the neediest and
deprived, who may be the majority of the community, are not even consulted, let alone
given part in the process (David et al., 2011).

2.7.3 Implementation

The importance of community involvement at the implementation stage is to develop

a sense of ownership of the implemented activity for long-term sustainability.
Community engagement and participation in the implementation stage of a project can
also minimize costs and provide training and employment. To some extent, it can also
be used as a means of exploiting the free labour of beneficiaries. Thus, participation

21
is nothing more than “an ideologically-acceptable packaging for a theory of economic
efficiency for the poorest” (Phologane, 2014).

2.7.4 Empowerment

Empowerment is an inner driven process in which individuals actively measure their

own challenges and put out plans to address them, and ultimately accept responsibility
for the result thereof. Furthermore, it increases the capabilities of the poor and holds
accountable the institutions that provide them. In this context, the community get
empowered when they are frequently mobilized and given the opportunity to freely
participate in all communal activities embarked on to improve their lot (Oni, 2005:27).
Empowerment can be regarded as a key for good quality of life which increases human
dignity, good governance, pro-poor growth, project effectiveness and improved
service delivery (Theron & Mchunu, 2016: 17-20). Participation in development
projects is a strong form of empowerment. It enhances capacity building of the
community for them to be able to make sound decisions and undertake meaningful
input for natural benefits. It does not necessarily entail the equal sharing of power
(Mendes, 2008).

2.7.5 Mobilization

Mobilization is the process of bringing together or empowering members of the

community from various sectors to raise awareness on and demand for a particular
development programme which entails self-mobilization, self-reliance and
empowerment of the development process (Phologane, 2014). These series of
interventions are designed to enhance the extent of community involvement regarding
decisions that affect its own development. Essentially, through mobilization,
community participation will be promoted, thus; the community will therefore be in
control and enabled to decide on actions affecting them. According to Oni (2015: 27),
full participation of all members of a target community is essential to both poverty
reduction and community development and strengthening.

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2.7.6 Evaluation

The significance of recognizing participation in evaluation is rarely carried out because

of the unavailability of direct methods, which ultimately compels the community to
invariably evaluate projects indirectly through using patterns of the facilities provided
(Bonye et al., 2014). To measure whether a community is empowered or becoming
empowered depends on the availability of elements of empowerment such as political,
social, and economic criteria among others (Scoones, 2009). World Bank (2002) has
identified four key elements of empowerment as follows: access to information,
inclusion and participation, accountability and local organizational capacity
development. The infusion of participation, development and these features has
shown remarkable success of development projects in most developing countries.

2.7.7 Effectiveness

According to Kendie and Guri (2006: 339), participation helps in targeting the
resources more effectively and efficiently. Subsequently, efficiency, effectiveness and
equity in total process of development will be promoted (Bonye et al., 2014). It is
therefore pivotal to understand and encourage community involvement as it stimulates
harmonious decision making that leads to better decisions being made, which will be
more appropriate and more sustainable because they are owned by the people
themselves (Kendie & Guri, 2006: 340). Participation can reduce the risk of project
failure and the costs.

2.7.8 Skills and knowledge

By participating, the community gains skills and knowledge and thus sustain the
project. Community participation teaches communities how to solve conflicts and
allows for different perspectives to be heard, enhances rural people’s learning
potential and their ability to access and handle information (Kotzé & Kotzé, 2016). It
also entails improving thinking skills.

In theory and practice, people should be at the centre of the development. Seekings
(2014) supports this by arguing that, ‘we must not speak for or about others who are
able to speak in their own name”. To this effect, the local people should be allowed to

23
contribute their knowledge, practice and innovations in the process of project
sustainability for sustainable development.

In community development, community members are the main role players in the
process of development as projects will specifically be for them; hence they need to
do things for themselves. Botes and Rensberg (2000: 47) purports that participation
needs the voluntary and democratic involvement of people as it will essentially yield
contribution to development efforts, sharing equitably in the benefits derived there from
and decision making in respect of achieving the desired objectives, formulating
policies and planning and implanting economic and social development programs.

Mendes (2008) highlighted two main vehicles for implementing the notion of
participation; (1) community development programs that aim at preparing the rural
population to collaborate with government development plans and (2) the
establishment of formal organizations (cooperatives, farmers’ association, etc.) that
will provide structures which the rural people could be in contact with, and voice in,
development programs.

2.8 Types of Participation

Literature of development has demonstrated a vast variety and forms of participation.

Chhetri (2013) highlighted eight influential and comprehensive levels of participation
and these levels are manipulative, therapy, informing, consultation, placation,
partnership, delegated power and citizen control. Chhetri (2013) identified and
explained the following three varieties of participation:
- Horizontal variety of participation, this type of participation basically focuses
on political behaviour and it therefore relates to types of activities where people
get to in efforts to influence policy decisions.
- Vertical variety of participation it focuses on the community forming a
particular partnership and relationship with elites or officials, which will be of
mutual beneficial. Examples include patron-client networks and political
machines. In both these cases, the public is not as concerned with influencing
the government as it is with developing the particular relationship and receiving
benefits from it.

24
 - Participation in administrative processes (which may overlap with either
horizontal or vertical participation) focuses on forming a group of activities
which will shape and influence administrative decisions of a particular exchange
between patron and client; however, it usually is inclusive than either of the
other two varieties. For example, it may include decisions by farmers whether
to adopt a new technology, rural dwellers meeting together to plan communal
efforts to put up a market or taking part in civic education programmes
(Manyozo, 2006).

Additionally, there are eight levels suggested by the United Nations Capital
Development Fund (1996) and they are: manipulation, information, consultation,
consensus building, decision making, risk-sharing, partnership and self-management.
In the same vein, Meldon et al. (2004) explains the seven different forms of
participation in detail and they are: passive participation, participation for information,
consultative participation, and participation for material benefits, functional
participation, interactive participation and self-mobilisation.
- Passive participation: People reluctantly or willingly listen to what the
outsiders are informing or addressing without showing any sort of reaction or
interaction. It is unilateral. It basically imposes information and decisions which
have already been taken by the external stakeholders to the community.
- Participation for information provider: Researchers conduct a survey based
on a particular project within the community by posing questionnaires to the
community in order to extract information from them and this shuts down
opportunities for community members to influence the proceeding as the
findings are neither shared nor checked for accuracy.
- Participation for material benefits: this includes people participating in hope
to get something in return e.g. labour in return for food, cash or other material
incentives. This kind of participation occurs mostly in farms where farmers
provide the fields but are not involved in experimentation or in the process of
learning.
- Functional Participation: People form groups to participate so that the desired
objectives related to the project are met. This kind of involvement takes place
in the later stages of the projects when major decisions have been made and

25
 such are dependent on external initiators and facilitators but may become self-
dependent.
- Interactive Participation, Joint analysis to joint actions. People within the
community form a joint analysis that ultimately leads to formation of action plans
and the formation of new local institutions or the strengthening of existing ones.
It often involves inter-disciplinary methodologies that strive to find multiple
perspectives and make use of systematic and structured learning processes.
Therefore, these groups will take control over local decisions and people will
have a stake in maintaining structure or practices.
- Self- Mobilisation: with people being empowered, they independently take
decisions without any influence of external institutions. They are now at liberty
of retaining control over how resources are to be used and they also maintain
contact with external institutions for resources and technical advice. However,
attaining such self-initiated mobilization and collective advice does not
ascertain that there will not be any challenges in the existing distribution of
wealth and power.

2.9 Importance of Community Participation

Involving community in rural development programs and empowering them yields their
potential of enhancing their livelihood and foster development (Kakumba & Nsingo,
2008: 107). Consequently, community participation capacitates the main beneficiary
of development programs or projects by assisting them in breaking away from a
dependency mentality (Phologane, 2014). Njunwa (2010) explains that the
International Organization and Local NGOs embraces the fact that community
development is an important instrument in development process/project.

According to Theron and Davids (2014), through participation, resources which are
available for development projects will be utilized more efficiently and fewer costs will
be incurred if people themselves are responsible for their development project,
therefore; it makes community participation an essential aspect within the spectrum of
sustainable development. David et al. (2011) bas their reasoning on their case study
in South Africa, assert that participation of the beneficiaries is important because use
of locally available information, unknown to outsiders, reduces the costs of

26
intervention. Involving the community can be regarded as either an integral
component of empowerment or as both a cause and an effect of empowerment, as
empowerment potentially stimulates their capacity of thinking, which ultimately enable
them to unleash their strength to participate within, share in control of and influence
events and institutions affecting their lives (Njunwa, 2010). It also assists in achieving
greater citizen’s satisfaction with their communities and development at large and
ensures sustainable development and continuity of the development processes.

Community participation to some extent inwardly forms a sense of ownership of the

development process to the community itself. Development processes become an
integral part of the community and assist them in believing that they own their
development process (Theron & Mchunu, 2014). The top down approach to
development process does not create a sense of ownership of development to the
community. Therefore, empowered community will effectively ensure sustainable
development and continuity of the development processes. Additionally, Theron and
Mchunu (2014) explains that a community that is well informed about community work,
involved in decision-making process (planning stage) and in implementation stage,
surely guarantees maximum participation and sustainable development projects.
Involving people in all stages of development will extensively create mutual
partnership between the government/donors and communities which will ultimately,
result in sustainable development.

2.10 Community Participation as Invited Participation

Most, if not all community driven development projects implemented, are often
implemented in delimited units known as community. Therefore, it is significant to the
metaphor of space to fundamentally understand the complexity of community
participation and its linkage to empowerment. The possibilities of comprehending this
complexity can be made possible by exploring the issues of power and difference
within participatory structures, and practices and conceptualizing participation as a
geographical phenomenon will uncover issues of power effects that infiltrate these
spaces (Kufuor & Koomson, 2014).

27
Literature on participation has perceived community as sites for public engagement
where people are given opportunities to gather and cogitate about issues affecting
them to enable them to make decisions regarding those issues (Hickey & Mohan,
2004). In this sense, community can be regarded as a bounded entity, metaphoric to
a physical space’ although not the same as space conceived in terms of distance.
Kufour and Koomson (2014) maintain that space is depicted as one which is colonized,
reproduced and transformed by human societies. Furthermore, Sayer writes that the
existence of space is through its constituents and embodies the social relations that
infiltrate that space. Efforts to create space for the community to be involved in their
local affairs can be seen as an inclusion of participation among different individuals
within a community (Cornwell, 2002).

For a community to take part in collective action to solve some known problems, it
requires the reconfiguration of the space between citizens and the state to delineate
and construct new institutions. Mode of emergence of participatory spaces used by
Cornwell (2002) to differentiate between participation in invited and popular spaces
seem to have had desirable impact on debates on participatory governance. External
resources bearing agents often bring invited spaces into existence. Therefore, it can
be said that these invited spaces serve as arenas in which people are invited to
participate. There are forms of invited spaces that are inclusive of community
participation which require an invitation to all shades of people within a defined locality
to take part within the space provided. Community members invited to the new spaces
are assumed to be capable and willing to participate. The emphasis is that the
community should maximize the usage of the existing social capital to arrange and
engage in the development of the community (Cornwell, 2002).

The assumption that these spaces are neutral and apolitical is often associated with
community participation and this in simple terms, allows an open, all inclusive,
equitable deliberation and negotiation among different actors regardless of one’s
social positioning and access to resources (Kesby, 2006). The logic of community
participation as an invited space fails to fully identify the forms and functions of power
operating in different sections of the community and its association with marginal and
excluded groups. Cooke and Kothari (2001) highlight that the inactive participation of

28
marginal actors is brought upon by the operation of micro powers within the invited
space.

There are questions about the invited space as a concept which serves a site that
allows possibilities for sound social transformation while it fails to engage with issues
of power and politics (Cooke & Kothari, 2001). According to Kersby (2006), the results
of participation are often affected by concealed or vague local structures of economic
and social power which are the consequences of unqualified invitations. The status
quo and reinforcement of power of the elites privilege certain voices while excluding
others, and this is subsequent to the failure of defining participatory space in terms
illuminating the underside of daily aspects power relations and to clearly unpack power
and difference in relation to the concept of power within the invited space.

Kesby (2006) opines that in the participatory arena, participatory approaches are
entangled from power exercise, hence it is important to comprehend how power
operates within the arena and how it operates is reflected within the space by how
community participation is organized and occupied. The power issue is at the top of
community participation and development initiatives seeking to empower people must
consider addressing the unbalanced existence of power relations that shape the
possibilities for participation (Mulu, 2011). Within the boundaries of invited space, the
concept power serves as a complex product since it does not question at hand the
literature on power and participation and the links and the highlights of some identified
gaps.

In development interventions, there are factors contributing to shaping community

participation, regardless of the effects of power (Kufuor & Koomson, 2014). There are
three factors in collective activity that explain individual’s differential and they are:
wealth, gender and age. In community development activities, there is a strong
connection between these factors and active participation (Cooke & Kothari, 2001).
One other factor that has been left out when giving factors contributing to shaping
community participation is educational level of the beneficiaries. According to Cornwell
(2008), there is unclear explanation on the direct relationship between wealth and
participation. Moreover, there is unequal distribution of power in the fraternity of
gender discourse extending to a maximum participation by women as opposed to men,
29
particularly in relation to community driven projects. Age is one of the factors
patterning participation in community interventions. Older people often occupy
leadership positions while the younger people participate in collective activities.
At the centre of participation, there is a language that is often used which is
“empowerment”. According to Desai (2009), within local power relations, capabilities
of the poor to manoeuvre around this spectrum can be facilitated through participation,
hence bringing those in positions of responsibility to account. Empowerment and the
wide scope of action within mainstream development are generated by community
participation. Therefore, the invited arenas of participation become an ideal space that
provides the actors, who populate it with voice, skills and the resources to engage,
and deliberate within these spaces. With experience acquired within the invited
spaces, it ultimately transforms participants into active citizens who can claim their
rights (Kabeer, 2002). Similarly, skills learnt can seep into other spaces, helping to
reconfigure such arenas of participation (Mohanty, 2004) in (Kufuor & Koomson,
2014).

Through capacity building in the areas of financial literacy, rights-based issues and
governance, most poverty reduction projects they can combat poverty (Kersby, 2006).
Through skills training as a strategy, effective participation can be achieved and that
will also help by improving the livelihoods of the poor. Many community development
agents are oblivious of the significant contribution that proper skill training and capacity
building programs, an integration of both social and economic aspects, can be
achieved. According to Kufuor and Koomson (2014), tightening the skills of project
beneficiaries can reduce their vulnerability and help them to cope with new economic
and social conditions in a rapidly changing environment. Therefore, skills development
can certainly constitute a powerful tool for poverty reduction.

2.11 The importance of Development in Rural communities

As it has been discussed, development does not focus only on tangible assets, but
also on human kind and their basic needs which allow them to have increased choices,
sustainance attitude, and to improve the function of institutions and enhance quality of
life. McClenaghan (2000: 1) in Phologane (2014) points out that community
development is generally a learned process that empowers individuals and inclusively

30
engages them as citizens in collective activities aimed at socioeconomic development.
Furthermore, McClenaghan (2000: 1) continues to highlight that development is not
just the provision of material goods such as housing, sewerage, water and electricity,
and sports facilities, but importantly, entails the empowerment of people, that is,
enhancing the capacity of people to take control of their own lives. Development
reduces and eventually eliminates poverty, ignorance and diseases and expands the
well-being and opportunity for all.

It can be said that development, to some extent, is responsible to eradicate the

elements of poverty in communities that are impoverished and for its success; it has
to be a participative, integrative and continuous process which acknowledges the
linkages between all activities of development process (Oni, 2015). Integration of
development and community has helped in formulating multiple objectives that assist
in solving local problems (e.g., unemployment and poverty), addressing inequalities of
wealth and power, promoting democracy, and building a sense of community (Botes
& Rensburg, 2000: 50).

Also, community development can be a process whereby efforts of the community

members can be utilized to enhance their economic, social and cultural conditions of
communities; to amalgamate communities to be part of life of the nation, which
ultimately will enable them to contribute fully to national progress (Green, 2007).
Moreover, Everatt and Gwagwa (2005) purport that an organized community
stimulates the potentiality of communities to improve their conditions of life, and the
capacity for them to integrate and attain a sense of self-direction, which ultimately
leads to development.

Everatt and Gwagwa (2005) explain that the prime purpose of community
development is to restore life in its wholeness by creating a sense of self-reliant and
self-respecting for the villagers so that they can be acquainted with cultural traditions
of their own country and be competent to utilize modern resources effectively for the
fullest development of their physical, social, economic and intellectual conditions.
Moreover, community development as a philosophical agent of change aims at
continuing modernization by creating an ongoing process in which change and conflict
are real (Oni, 2015). Imoh (2013: 27) avers that community development aims at
31
elevating the standard of living of people by encouraging them to actively participate
in various development–oriented activities.

Significantly, rural development as a tool validates the contracting global poverty,

disease, human slavery and inequality. It does not only create a new level of self-
sufficient and satisfaction for members of a society who may have never experienced
such development, but because of globalization and the new associated challenges in
the developing world, rural development is more necessary and pressing than ever
before (GAPS, 2007).

2.12 Challenges of Community Participation

Traditional forms of community engagement no longer work. In Cavaye (2001), it is

explained that experience has shown that when it comes to organizing for community
development, people are tiring of committees, public meetings and other “traditional”
forms of participation, which often appear to be used by default. People are seeking
more informal, temporary and social ways of participating in their community.
However, (Green, 2007) explains that with changes that development brings within
communities, it is important to understand traditional values of each community that is
about to undergo change through the passage of development (Desai, 2009: 117).

Therefore, the significance of consultation and transparency to community members

by government officials fuels the mode of participation regarding development projects
(Desai, 2009: 117). Furthermore, Desai (2009: 118) highlights that if this is not done,
it will at the end make communities to lose interest in participating as they will be more
frustrated of not being consulted. Thus, it will make them feel less important since they
were not consulted and engaged in the inception of the project.
Involving community members throughout the process of the development projects,
potentially maximises their will to participate and making projects a success and
sustainable. However, Hickey and Mohan (2004) purport that most government
officials choose to use a ‘top-down’ approach and this has been proved by many
researchers to ultimately hinder the desired objectives of most projects. Community
members need to feel that they are in charge of what is bound to better change their

32
lives than being dictated to on what needs to be done to better their lives in the context
of community development issues (Mbambo & Tshishonga, 2008).
Power also impedes community participation as most development projects take place
in rural areas, where chiefs and community leaders need to be consulted and engaged
with regarding development projects taking place within their vicinity (Manyozo, 2006).
However, Sibanda (2011) further explains that research has recently shown that there
is a division amongst community members due to power struggles between traditional
and political leaders. Subsequently, most community members are in dilemma as
some felt that they owed their allegiance to tradition leaders, while others view them
as old, conservative and resistant to change (Davids et al., 2007). Conversely, political
leaders are perceived as aggressive, powerful and unable to bring about the required
changes to improve people’s quality of life (Davids et al., 2007).
Poor support from government officials generally kills the morale of community
participation. Cavaya (2001) explains that lack of collaboration among various
government departments potentially limits the required support in income-generating
projects. In most rural areas, development projects members are in dire need of
assistance in accessing funds, capacity building and project management which will
significantly increase the projects’ chances of success. Moreover, Kimane and Kombo
(2011) highlight that most local government officials responsible for facilitating
economic development projects in their municipalities lack proper knowledge and skills
to make most development projects a success, let alone sustainable. Additionally, the
disconnectedness between the assigned government officials for development project
and the realm lives of the targeted community members also has an impact on
community participation (Theron & Mchunu, 2014).

2.13 Rural Development Approaches

Rural areas are mostly found at the centre of the periphery and their development is
most complex, therefore, it is almost impossible to develop them as planned
(Madzivhandela & Maloka, 2014). Subsequently, Ijere (1990) came with approaches
which can to some extent help in developing rural areas. These approaches are as
follows:

33
  Growth Pole Centre Model:

This model is also known as "Growth Point Model". The model involves the
development of a few strategic towns, communities and industries likely to activate
other sectors. The model focuses attention on the development of few towns leading
to the neglect of the rural areas.

 The "Big Push" Policy:

This approach is similar to the growth pole centre model except that it is more
concentrated. It takes a few sub-sectors and expends most of the resources on them
in the hope that in the long run, their multiplier effect will salvage the whole economy.
The flaw in this model is that "in the long run" is not a specific period.

 The Selective Approach:

This model/approach involves the selection of certain sectors for development based
on economic, political, social or religious grounds, which may not necessarily be
related or inter-connected.

 The Protectionist Approach:

In this approach, the government carries out the development process on behalf of the
people believing that it knows everything and that the people are not yet ripe to
participate in the management of their own affairs.

 The Top-down Approach:

It is also called the Top-bottom approach. It is a strategy based on passing down to

the poor certain policies and directives from the governing bureaucracy. This type of
rural development approach requires force to maintain and sustain it (Madzivhndila &
Maloka, 2012).

34
  The Decentralized Territorial Approach:

This approach centres on the dispersal of benefits to the rural area. It has minimum
linkage with the city and acts as service and market centres in settlements of various
sizes. The defect in this approach is the undue fear of towns being exploitative and
parasitic, and the consideration that size alone could determine the performance of a
settlement.
 The "Laissez-faire" Policy:

In this model, the authorities use the role of thumb, past experience, hind-sight and
the free market mechanism to manage the economy with the hope that the invisible
hand of God would ensure optimum happiness for everybody.

 The Key Settlement Strategy:

This model is closely related to growth pole centre model except that its focus is on
settlement. It assumes a focal point for a given rural area, and the concentration of all
rural development resources in such a settlement. This in turn will serve other regions
through its network of roads and communication. This model requires a long time to
mature, and therefore, it is more expensive.

 The Adaptive Approach:

It is a combination of selective approach and Laissez-faire policy and any other

approach. It gives the people the opportunity to decide on their own lives, sometimes,
under the guidance of the government.

 The "Bottom-Up" Approach:

It is also called Bottom-top approach or Rurism strategy. This is where people from
the grass-root of development are being consulted regarding their needs in terms of
development within their area. It simply means they are the ones who say what they
need, instead of decisions taken on their behalf regarding what they need. This
approach implies that development starts with the people. It is a new political

35
development strategy. Rurism is a coherent national and social-value system in which
human and material resources are mobilized and allocated from the lower echelon of
the economic and social strata to the top. It is free from any foreign ideology and
infection (Scoones, 2009; 12). It promotes self-reliance, self-consciousness into
balanced development of human and materials resources. It is the idea approach.
However, it is costly and rather slow. With full maximum participation of the
community, objectives of the desired project can be reached.

2.14 The roles of the state and non-state actors in community development

According to Csaki (2001:572), role-players in rural development projects are

attempting to, in relation to the implementation of strategies, improve the monitoring
of regional and global progress in rural development. These role players play a vital
part in developing rural communities. Potentially, their role is to ensure that the rural
areas are developed according to the needs of the community members. With the
assistance of each other, these role players can ensure a successful development
project. Those role players are as follows:

 Government
Governments are expected to play a major role in enhancing the development of rural
communities. There are three spheres of government, namely: the national
government, provincial government and local government (Madzivhndila &
Maloka, 2012).

 National Government
This sphere of government can simply be termed as the law matter. IDASA (2004),
states that laws and policies are passed by national government for the better
operation and uniformity for the two lower spheres of government. Through provincial
government and local municipalities, people at areas in which development is needed
can have access to platforms to communicate their needs.

 Provincial Government
According to IDASA (2004: 3), this sphere of government has the primary
responsibility for social services delivery. In other words, the provincial government

36
plan development activities and implement them in their communities. This inwardly
recognizes the need for development in the underdeveloped areas which can also
assist in achieving the desired development goals. It is also important to take note that
development should be for the people and by the people. To this effect, provincial
governments need to have time to time meetings with communities that need to be
developed to combat developmental challenges in communities.

 South African Local Government

Municipalities in their mandate are role players of creating employment and economic
growth in their areas and they are aimed at reducing poverty amongst their local
residents (Oldfield & Parnel, 1998). This new role entails giving priority to the basic
needs and promoting social and economic development. According to IDASA
(2004:3), municipality (local government) is responsible for a variety of municipal
functions and some may be shared with provincial government, for instance, municipal
planning, budgeting relations and municipal public transport amongst others.
The Local Government Municipal Systems Act 32, 2000 sets up municipalities IDPs
as points of managing and evaluating performances, budgeting and allocating
resources, and changing organizations. Also, it makes community participation
compulsory in the content of IDP as well as in the process by which they are drafted.

 Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs)

NGOs play an important role in ensuring that rural areas develop. They do that by
developing programs that transform communities from a deprived to a human dignity
state. Their intent is to emphasize self-reliance and popular participation in their
activities (Olujide, 2006: 120). According to IDASA (2004: 3), NGOs are independent
bodies which in many cases have unbiased interest in the operation of government.
Most often, NGOs at whatever level and discipline do impact the lives of communities
positively.

 Community

The local community plays an important role in development programs and projects.
When the community participates in development projects taking place in their own

37
area, it assists them in identifying key issues of concern that need to be considered
which helps towards making the development project a success (Mnsuri & Rao, 2012).

2.15 Statutory framework in South Africa

There are numerous legislations and policies in South Africa which inform the concept
public participation. The Integrated Development Plan is informed by numerous pieces
of policy, legislation and guidelines developed at national level. In this rubric,
legislative frameworks guiding and supporting participation of community in Integrated
Development Planning processes are discussed.
Statutory framework include the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa 1996; the
White Paper on Local Government (1998); South African Local Government Municipal
Structures Act 117 of 1998; South African Local Government Municipal Systems Act
32 of 2000; Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP); Promotion of
Access to Information Act 2 of 2000; South African Local Government Municipal
Finance Management Act 56 of 2003; the White Paper on Local Government; National
Development Plan; National Policy Framework for Public Participation of 2005; White
Paper on the Transformation of Public Service Delivery of 1997; and Traditional
Leadership and Governance Framework Act 41 of 2003.

2.15.1 Constitution of the Republic of South Africa (1996)

The Constitution of the Republic of South Africa (1996) promotes the idea of
developmental local government. Local government is particularly in charge of all the
development process in municipalities, including municipal planning. Section 152(1)
(e) indicates that one of the objects of local government is to potentially encourage the
involvement of communities and community organisations in matters of local
government. Section 195 (e) states that people need to be attended and responded
to, and the public must be incited to participate in policy making.
Section 160(4) highlights that through regular elections; councillors are elected both
in wards and on party lists to represent the residents of the municipality. Participatory
democracy is enshrined in the Constitution and it further indicates that no by-law may
be passed unless it has been published for public comment.
Therefore, local municipalities are by law, required to elect ward councillors, ward
committees, community development workers and other stakeholders which will

38
enable the communities to participate in the municipal IDP and projects that need to
be implemented within designated areas (Section 73 of the South African Municipal
Structures ACT, 1998). This will essentially enable community members to be involved
when decisions are taken.

2.15.2 The White Paper on Local Government (1998)

In the White Paper on Local Government (1998: 20), it is stipulated that the prime role
of local sphere of the government should be to build local democracy. It also indicates
that local government must allow citizens as individuals or interest groups to
continuously have input in local politics. In this regard, the White Paper introduced the
concept of “developmental local government”, which will assist in allocating the central
responsibility of municipalities to work together with local communities to find
sustainable mechanisms that will meet the needs of the community and ultimately
improve the quality of life of the community members.
Therefore, local municipalities must see to it that local people, business and
community groups are continuously involved in every development projects that take
place within their area. Furthermore, local municipalities need to ensure that public
participation is promoted in the management of the municipality. This can be done by
creating avenues and opportunities for the public to participate in local policy making
structures.
In the White Paper on Local Government (1998), it is suggested that local
municipalities must develop mechanisms that ensure citizens’ participation in policy
initiation and formulation, and the monitoring and evaluation of decision making and
implementation (DPLG, 1998: 25). Furthermore, White Paper introduces the notion of
integrated development planning which is described as strategic frameworks to assist
local Municipalities to fulfil developmental mandates and engage with stakeholder
groups and local communities.
There are inter-related aspects which are identified in the White Paper on Local
Government which are aimed at democratizing development by facilitating and
encouraging the maximum possible participation of citizens. These approaches are
designed to achieve the following:

39
  Participatory budgeting initiatives that link community’s priorities to capital
programmes
 Focus group participatory action research that is conducted in partnership
with Non- Governmental Organisations and Community Based- Organisation
to generate detailed information about a vast range of specific needs and
values. White Paper on Local Government (Department of Provincial and
Local Government, 1998: 35).
Within the White Paper on Local Government, there are principles which are outlined
to guide the Integrated Development Plan (IDP) and a formulation of broad guidelines
that treat IDP as a medium term strategy for planning, which will ultimately encourage
a multi- sectoral approach to development. Therefore, local municipalities are required
to develop IDP and aligned budget over a period of 3 to 5 years. This will inwardly
monitor the progress of developmental projects that are assigned to local
communities; it will also assist in evaluating the level of participation of community
members to those development projects (Department of Public Services
Administration, 1998).

2.15.3 Local Government Municipal Structures Act 117 of 1998

According to Section 19(2) of Local Government Municipal Structure Act 117 of 1998,
a municipal council must annually review:
 The needs of the community;
 Its priorities to meet those needs;
 Its processes for involving the community; and
 Its organisational and delivery mechanisms for meeting the needs of the
community.
Local municipalities’ council needs to be assigned to review the IDP targets and
prioritise consultation annually, which needs to involve community members and other
stake holders (Madzivhandila & Maloka, 2014). Also, local municipalities are required
to involve community members in developing mechanisms on how to implement the
drafted IDP. This inwardly yields the potential of community members’ comprehension
on what is expected to happen within their areas, and by engaging, they will maximize
their participation in development projects within their areas. Section 19 highlights that

40
all municipalities are required to develop systems that enhance effective community
participation in Local Government. Furthermore, it stipulates that there should be an
establishment of ward committees as this will strengthen public participation at Local
Government level. According to the Department of Local Government (DPLG, 2004),
the purpose of a ward committee is to promote participatory democracy by assisting
communities and community organisations in the municipal processes such as
municipal budget, integrated development planning and review process, municipal
performance management system, by- laws and provision of municipal services.

Moreover, in subsection 3 of Local Government Municipal Structure Act 117 of 1998,

local municipalities should develop mechanisms that reinforce consultation with
community members in performing its functions and exercising its powers. Section 72
(3) of the Local Government Municipal Structures Act 117 of 1998 further stipulates
the enhancement of participatory democracy in local government by ward committee.
(DPLG, 1998).

2.15.4 Local Government Municipal systems 32 of 2000

Section 16(1)(a) of the South African Local Government Municipal Systems 32 of 2000
states that a municipality is required to develop a culture of municipal governance that
complements formal representative government with a system of participatory
democracy. To this effect, local municipalities should encourage and create conditions
for the local community to participate in the affairs of the municipality.
Chapter 5 of the Local Government Municipal Systems 32 of 2000 specifically requires
that community members of local municipalities should participate in the preparation,
implementation and review of the Integrated Development Plan (IDP). In terms of
Section 17(2) of the Local Government Municipal Systems Act 32 of 2000, community
members with special needs such as the disabled, women and the youth should be
taken into account to allow them to participate meaningfully in the IDP process.
Section 42 of the Local Government Municipal Systems Act 32 of 2000 further states
that local municipalities, through appropriate mechanisms, processes and procedures
should involve its local community in the development, implementation and review of
the municipality’s performance management system, which particularly should allow

41
the community to participate in the setting of appropriate key performance indicators
and performance targets of the municipality.

Local municipalities are required to develop a participatory measure which includes

the notification of its local community members in time about meetings, through
appropriate communication measures. Local municipalities should therefore develop
or design a platform for comments, consultation sessions and report back sessions
and public hearings to enhance participation processes (DPLG, 2000).

2.15.5 Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP)

The Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP) is an integrated, coherent

socio-economic policy framework. The key objective of RDP is to meet basic needs
and improve people’s socio-economic situation. It is a strategy developed to utilize
bottom-up approach which is significantly owned and driven by communities and
representative organisations (African National Congress, 1994).
Local municipalities are therefore encouraged to develop a culture of local government
administration whereby local authorities are required to be properly structured to
ensure maximum participation by civil society and communities in decision-making
and developmental initiatives of local authorities.

2.15.6 Promotion of Access to Information Act 2 of 2000

The Promotion of Access to Information Act 2 of 2000 fosters and promotes a culture
of transparency, accountability and access to information by the people. Therefore,
local municipalities need to promote transparency to the citizens and accounting to the
services rendered to community members. The Promotion of Access to Information
Act 2 of 2000 is aimed at promoting participation and it gives people the right to have
access to any information from the municipality (SAICA, 2000).

2.15.7 Local Government Municipal Finance Management Act 56 of 2003

The Municipal Finance Management Act 56 of 2003 (DPLG) outlines ways in which
the community can be informed of the financial situation of a municipality. However,
the Municipal Budget and Reporting Regulation of 2009 provides for the formalisation

42
of norms and standards to improve the credibility, sustainability, transparency,
accuracy and reliability of the municipal budget. The emphasis is that the
municipalities should ensure that its budget is open for all community members. It is
not supposed to be only for the municipal council or office bearers (DPLG, 2003).

2.15.8 National Development Plan (2013)

The National Development Plan (NDP) leads to vision 2030. Its major objective is to
eliminate poverty and reduce inequality through citizens being active in their own
development, strengthening democracy and holding their government accountable. It
is therefore essential for local municipalities to involve community members from the
onset of any development planning to its implementation phase. Moreover, it
emphasizes the involvement of community members in development projects which
are meant to better their lives (NPC, 2013).

2.15.9 National Policy Framework on Public Participation 2005

The National Policy Framework on Public Participation of 2005 (DPSA) is a policy

framework for public participation in South Africa. This policy framework is designed
to build on the commitment of the democratic government to deepen democracy,
which is embedded in the Constitution and above all in the concept of local government
as comprising the municipality and the community.
Therefore, local municipalities need to be committed to a form of participation which
is genuinely empowering, and not a token of consultation or manipulation. Participation
in local municipalities involves a range of activities including creating democratic
representative structures (ward committees), assisting structures to plan at a
community level (community-based planning) to implement and monitor plans utilizing
a wide range of working groups, supporting community based services, and; these
local structures should be supported by local municipalities through a cadre of
community development workers.

43
2.15.10 The White Paper on the Transformation of Public Service Delivery of
1997

The White Paper on the Transformation of Public Service Delivery of 1997 (DPSA)
stipulates that citizens need to be consulted about the level and quality of the public
service they receive and, wherever possible, community members are required to be
consulted about the services that are offered. Therefore, local municipalities are then
expected to consult community members about the available services in the
municipality so that the community members can be afforded the opportunity to make
their own choices.

2.15.11 Traditional Leadership and Governance Framework Act 41 of 2003

The Traditional Leadership and Governance Framework Act 41 of 2003 (DPSA)

stipulates that traditional leaders are required be part of democratic leadership and
governance structures at the local government sphere. In this co-operative relationship
with municipalities, traditional leaders facilitate public participation in policy and service
delivery decisions that affect communities.

The Constitution of the Republic of South Africa Act 1996 stipulates that local
government oversees the development process and municipal planning in
municipalities. The White Paper on Local Government (DPSA, 1998) introduced the
concept of ‘developmental local government’ by allocating the central municipalities to
work together with local communities to find and establish sustainable ways to meet
their need and improving the quality of their lives.

Therefore, the Local Government Municipal Structures Act 117 of 1998 (DPLG)
requires all the municipalities to develop systems that enhance effective community
participation in local government. Participatory measures should include notifying
members of local communities in time about meetings through appropriate
communication measures. Local municipalities are required to ensure that their
budgets are open for all community members. Traditional leaders are also required to
facilitate public participation, especially in policy and service delivery decisions that
affect rural communities.

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2.16 Conclusion

This chapter presented different perspectives in relation to community participation

and development projects. In an attempt to obtain more information about community
participation, various theories and strategies were considered to guide the study.
Moreover, this chapter mentioned and discussed elements that can contribute in
sustaining development projects. Furthermore, the chapter highlighted and discussed
the frameworks and policies that govern South Africa in terms of the researched topic.
The nature of this study was rooted in the desire to evaluate community participation
in rural development projects; the understanding of the concept of community
participation; the extent to which the community was participating in projects; and
highlighting possible rural development strategy. The chapter that follows is the
research methodology where the design, location, sampling, data collection methods,
data analysis and ethical considerations of the study are highlighted and discussed.

45
CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction

In this chapter the research design, location, sampling, data collection methods, data
analysis and ethical considerations of the study are presented in detail. Research
methodology refers to the systematic, theoretical description and analysis of methods,
approaches and rules to be employed by a research study (Hart, 1998: 28). Research
methodology includes the “understanding of how to proceed from the findings of
empirical research to make inferences about the truth … or at least the adequacy…”
(Perri & Bellamy, 2012: 1). In this regard, research methodology entails the
methodological framework through which the study should be understood. The
framework includes the research design, location and sampling procedure, research
tools, data analysis, as well as the ethical considerations. This chapter provides
justifications for the methodological choices that the researcher has made.

3.2 Nature of the study

Although there are two main research traditions, namely qualitative and quantitative
research, mixed methods research has also been evolving (Teddlie & Tashakkori,
2009). Qualitative research involves studying human behaviour from perspectives of
participants in their natural settings (Babbie & Mouton, 2001), while quantitative
research involves explaining phenomena using numerical representations with a
purpose of describing and explaining the phenomena using statistical tools (De Vos,
2002; Creswell, 2015). A central thesis of mixed methods research is that it dismisses
the claims of the incompatibility thesis, which presents qualitative and quantitative
approaches as philosophical and methodological foes, and holds that it is possible and
useful to blend quantitative and qualitative approaches within a single study (Creswell,
2013).
This study is located mainly within the qualitative research tradition. However, the fact
that a questionnaire with closed-ended questions was used suggests that the study
also utilised quantitative research to understand the selected rural development
programmes, albeit to a limited degree.

46
Quantitative methodology is the method which is associated with analytic research,
and its purpose is to arrive at a universal statement (Brynard & Hanekom, 2006: 370).
Moreover, Theron et al (2016) states that quantitative methodology is useful in eliciting
information from the respondents on the perception and effectiveness of community
participation in development projects. Being deductive and particularistic, quantitative
research methodology is based upon formulating the research hypothesis and
verifying them empirically on a specific set of data.

By using qualitative research method, the researcher could expand the range of
knowledge and understanding of the world beyond themselves as a researcher. It
helps people to see why something is the way it is, rather than just presenting a
phenomenon (Creswell, 2015).

The qualitative approach allowed the researcher to learn the most by participating or
by being immersed in research situation (Brynard & Hanekom, 2006: 370). In this
study, the researcher investigated the challenges of community participation in
community development projects at Tickyline. The researcher used qualitative
research methodology for acquiring, arranging, processing, and interpreting the data
as stated by Theron et al. (2016). In this study the researcher used the qualitative
research method as this enabled one to understand human behaviour by getting to
know the persons involved, their values, beliefs and emotions (Babbie & Mouton,
2001: 279).

3.3 Research Design and Focus

Babbie and Mouton (2001: 117) define research design as “a plan or blueprint of how
the researcher intends conducting research”. Theron et al. (2016) aver that a research
design is the total plan we use to assist in answering our research questions. In
addition, research design refers to a plan for selecting subjects, research sites, and
data collection procedures to answer the research question. The design showed which
individuals was studied and when, where, and under which circumstances were they
studied (McMillan & Schumer, 2001: 14).

The researcher decided on the research questions, the data that was required, people
from whom to obtain data, and also the best way to gather the data. In this study, the

47
researcher employed a descriptive research design. According to Creswell (2013), the
purpose of a descriptive study is to provide a picture of a phenomenon as it naturally
occurs. It seeks to `draw a picture` of a situation, person or event or show how things
are related to each other. It is concerned with making complicated things
understandable. It involves finding the reasons for things, events and situations,
showing why and how they have come to be what they are (De Vos et al., 2014). All
descriptive research have one thing in common, in that they may provide description
of the variables in order to answer the question (Creswell, 2015). According to Theron
et al. (2016), descriptive research observes, describes and documents aspects of a
situation.

3.4 Area of the study

This study was conducted at Tickyline which falls within the jurisdiction of the Greater
Tzaneen Municipality in the Limpopo Province, Tzaneen.

3.5 Study Population

Mark (1996: 104) defines a population as a collection of all individuals, families,

groups, organizations, communities and events that we are interested in finding out
about. According to Gray (2009: 148), population is defined as the total number of
possible units or elements that are included in the study. To define a population, the
researcher needs to specify a set of variables or characteristics. The targeted
population in this study was people of Tickyline, in Greater Tzaneen Municipality;
which is situated 34 km outside Tzaneen town. The researcher selected both male
and females (inclusive of all age group) within the residence of the researched
location.

3.6 Sampling

According to Bless (2006), a sample is a group of elements drawn from the population
that is considered to be the characteristics of the population and which is studied in
order to acquire some knowledge about the entire population.

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3.6.1 The sampling method used:

The researcher used non-probability sampling since the probability of the selection of
each element of the population is not known (Bless, 2006). In this study, purposive
sampling was more appropriate because the target group shared common
characteristics as they are living in an area where development seemed to be a
problem. Earl (2006) states that in purposive sampling, the sample is chosen because
they are likely to be knowledgeable and informative about the phenomenon that the
researcher is investigating. This type of sample was based entirely on the judgment of
the researcher in that the sample is composed of elements that contain the most
characteristics.

3.6.2 Introducing the sample

In this study a sample of 22 community members was selected at Tickyline. Since the
study was conducted in a rural area, as it has already been mentioned above, the
researcher found it important to include the traditional leader (the Chief), ward
councilor and the chairperson of the ward committee as part of the sampling size. The
22 participants comprised 11 men and 11 women.

3.7 Research Instrument

The researcher used interviews and questionnaires with the participants in order to
collect the information from them. Quantitative questionnaires were closed- ended.
The interviews allowed the researcher to adapt questions as necessary because it is
direct. Also, it clarified doubt and ensured that the responses were properly
understood by repeating or rephrasing questions. It allowed an interviewer to observe
the candidates facial expression/body language which in turn gave interviewer a
clearer indication of the candidates’ honest feelings/emotions. Additionally, face to
face interviews were an important integral part of the research process. This helped
the researcher to pass a clearer/strong judgment of the candidate as they were
conducted face to face.

Semi-structured interview was used because they offer the advantage of being able
to be conducted with a fairly open framework which allows for focused, conversational
and two-way communication.

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3.8 Data Analysis

Bless (2013) defines data analysis as a search for patterns in recurrent behaviour,
objects or a body of knowledge. The aim of data analysis is to organize and structure
the data in such a manner that a meaningful conclusion can be reached (De Vos et
al., 2014). Data analysis is a challenging and creative process characterized by an
intimate relationship between the researcher, the participants and the data generated.

In this regard, data collected through questionnaires was analyzed using Statistical
Package for Social Sciences (SPSS). The information gathered through
questionnaires was presented in tabular form, showing frequencies and percentages
while data collected through face to face interviews was analyzed using thematic
analysis and was presented in a narrative form.

3.9 Ethical Considerations

Research ethics refer to the moral principles guiding research. Ethics are sets of moral
principles or norms that are used to guide moral choices of behaviour and relationships
with others (Gray, 2009: 69). Bless (2013) maintains that “ethical issues should always
be considered when undertaking research because the nature of qualitative research
requires observation and interaction with groups. It is understandable why certain
ethical issues may arise. Bless (2013) listed several issues that researchers need to
be aware of during and after the research had been conducted.

 Informed consent: Respect for person requires that subject must be given the
opportunity to choose what shall or shall not happen to them (Grinnell & Unrau,
2008: 37). Patton (2004: 407) asserts that before the interview or during the
opening of the discussion, it should be communicated to participants that
information is important and the reasons for the importance, and the willingness
of the interviewer to explain the purpose of the interview should be clear. The
researcher informed the respondents that participation is voluntary and that
they could withdraw from the study at whatsoever time they want to withdraw
from the research.

 Honesty and trust: A researcher will first mention his names and reasons or
purpose of the study to the participant and tell them that the purpose of this
study is to fulfill the requirement of degree, so no one will be compensated for

50
 his engagement in this study. The aim of the researcher will be to develop
reciprocity between him and respondent, so the respondent will get to trust him
this will enable the researcher to generate rapport.

 Privacy, confidentiality, and anonymity: Privacy in its meaning is to keep to

from one self that which is normally not intended for others to observe or
analyze. Confidentiality can be viewed as a continuation of privacy, which refers
to agreements between persons that limit others access to information.
Anonymity protects the identity of specific individual`s from being known
(Babbie, 2007: 65). The researcher maintained confidentiality by not divulging
information shared by the participants unless in cases where they have agreed
that the information can be shared with others.

3.10 Conclusion

The chapter covered and outlined all issues concerning the methodology of the study,
how the study was conducted, showing the nature of the study, research design and
focus, study population, sampling, data collection an analysis as well as ethical
considerations. After highlighting what research methodology entails, the chapter that
follows presents and analyses the data collected from the participants.

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CHAPTER FOUR

DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Introduction

Active community participation is essential to empower and bring about sustainable

community development at the grassroots level. Sibanda (2011), (Chambers, 2007;
De Beer & Swanepoel, 1998; Estralla et al., 2000; Green, 2007; Rahman, 1993) state
that research in the field clearly indicates that participating communities achieve
greater citizen satisfaction in their community. In this chapter, the results of the study
conducted are reported, discussed, and analysed. Considering the research topic, a
combination of both quantitative and qualitative research methodology was applied.
Data collection instruments included (i) a questionnaire and (ii) focus group discussion
and an interview schedule that was administered by the researcher. The chapter will
start by presenting the biographical data, before the presentation and discussion of
the research findings. The presentation of data will be guided by research objectives
as outlined in chapter 1.

4.2 Presentation and discussion of the findings

The study had three main research questions which were derived from the main
objectives. The questions are:

 What is the level of community participation in development projects?

 What are the challenges of community participation?

 Which strategies can be used to encourage community participation in

community development projects?

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With the formulated research question, the researcher sought to align the desired
research objectives with the research aim and what unfolded is discussed below:

4.2.1 Biographical Data

This research consisted of a total of 22 participants, 1 female who is a chief, 1 male

who is a ward councillor, 1 male who is the chairperson of the ward, 10 women and 9
men. The level of education of the remaining 19 participants is between grade eleven
(11) or lower and post graduate degree. All the participants’ age group is between 18-
55 and their marital status is between being single and divorced.

The table below indicate detailed biographical information of each participant but
exclude the ones of the Chief, Ward Councillor and the Ward Committee Chair-person.
Their exclusion emanated from the fact that pseudonyms could not be used for them
as they are known to be the occupants of those titles.

Pseudonym Sex Age Marital Status Level of Education

1 Martin Male 47 Married Grade 11
2 Paul Male 44 Married Post- graduate Degree
3 Lesiba Male 53 Married Grade 11
4 Fhatu Male 30 Single Post Matric Diploma
5 Kulani Male 27 Single Grade 11
6 John Male 18 Single Grade 11
7 Dennis Male 28 Married Matric
8 Molamo Male 41 Divorced Matric
9 Katila Male 32 Single Grade 11
10 Ben Male 55 Divorced Matric
11 Patracia Female 52 Married Matric
12 Winky Female 27 Single Baccalaureate Degree
13 Mahlatse Female 30 Married Grade 11
14 Nthabiseng Female 29 Married Matric

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 15 Maringa Female 43 Divorced Matric
16 Josephine Female 54 Married Post Matric Diploma
17 Paulina Female 34 Divorced Post Matric Diploma
18 Nkele Female 18 Single Grade 11
19 Mologadi Female 23 Married Matric

4.2.2 Quantitative Research Analysis

In quantitative research, emphasis is placed on variables in describing and analysing

human behaviour (Babbie & Mouton, 2001). This section will present the findings from
quantitative data. Participants were given questionnaires which they had to give their
honest answers to. From the first objective, which is to determine the challenges of
participation; there are sub-questions and they are analysed below.

[Link] The first objective seeks to examine the level of participation in community
development projects and the sub- questions under this objective will
demonstrate the level of participation based on the selected participants.
With this objective, the researcher sought to examine the magnitude of
participation drawn from the selected sample and what follows below is the
outcome which was derived from the main question of the objective. The sub-
questions thereof emanate from this research question: What is the level of
community participation in development projects? and below is what the
researcher elicited.

[Link] Have you participated in any of the development projects within your area?

Responses Agree Disagree Sometimes

Percentage 69.6 17.4 % 13 %
(%) %

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This table indicates the percentage of participants from the selected sample that
participated in the projects within their area. Amongst the 22 participants, 15 (69.6 %)
of them do agree that they have participated in development projects within their area,
4 (17.4%) have never participated and 3 (13%) do sometimes take part in the
development projects. From the acquired information, it is evident that not everyone
participates in projects within their area and one can conclude that each person from
their community chooses which projects to participate into, based on their interests or
potential gain from particular projects. The statement is corroborated by Meldon [Link]
(2004) when they mentioned that people can choose to participate in projects that are
beneficial to them.

[Link] Do you see or feel the need to participate in development projects within
your community?

The table below illustrates whether the participants find the significance of taking part
in development projects and their percentage to some extent corroborates the above
question and its findings. As it has already been said, each community member only
participates in projects based on their personal interests or potential gain. Just like
Theron (2009: 105) in Sibanda (2011), people’s perception on development is more
than economic growth, it often overlaps to institutional transformation, socio- cultural
and political systems and structures; and addressing development holistically.

Responses Agree Disagree Uncertain

Percentage 34.8 39.1 % 26.1 %
(%) %

From the selected sample size of 22 participants, 8 (34.8%) of them do feel or see the
need to participate in development projects within their community while 9 (39.1%) do
not feel or see the need to and 6 (26.1%) feel uncertain to participate in development
projects.

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[Link] Do you as a community leader or part of the community see your community
working as a unit or collectively?

This question was particularly directed to the chief, ward- councillor and ward chair-
person and their responses in the table below will reveal whether the community that
they are in charge of, works as a unit or not.

Responses Agree Disagree Uncertain

Percentage 100 % 0 % 0%
(%)

The table shows that all leaders agree that their community works in unison. However,
their assertion that there is unison in their community contradicts the statistical data
from two above questions.
One can safely justify their responses by saying that their answers may be based on
what Marias et al. (2007) meant when they pointed out that in most cases if not always,
participation is determined by indicators of participation than exploring the more
significant analysis of impact on participation in development projects. Moreover,
these leaders may be of the notion that these indicators will significantly and potentially
capture material and relational changes as alluded to by Mendes (2008). Succinctly,
it is evident that unison as an integral component of participation within this community
is not salient.

[Link] Does government and Municipal officials inform you as a community about
development projects which will take place within your community?

Responses Agree Disagree Sometimes

Percentage 30.4 43 .5 % 26.1 %
(%) %

The above table reveals how their relationship with government and Municipal officials
is with regard to development projects within their community. From the total number

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of the 22 participants, 7 (30.4%) indicated that they were consulted by the officials
regarding development projects in their community, while 10 (43.4%) pointed out that
they were never consulted and 5 (26.0%) stated that they are sometimes consulted.
The figure indicates that there is a disconnection amongst community members and
between community members and the officials. According to Desai (2009), if
government and municipal officials are choosey when consulting the community
members about development projects within their area, it will at the end make
community members lose interest in participating as they will be more frustrated as a
result of not being consulted. Thus, it will make them feel less important if they were
not consulted and engaged in the inception of the project.

4.2.3 The second objective sought to determine the challenges of community

participation in development projects within the researched area. The main
research question was: What are the challenges of community participation?
With this question, from the selected sample, the researcher wanted to verify if
indeed there were any challenges encountered with regard to community
participation. Below are the sub- questions that were formulated from the main
question.

[Link] Do you think there is a need for development projects within your area?

Responses Agree Disagree Partly

Percentage 100 % 0% 0%
(%)

The table above indicates that all the 22 participants agreed that there is a need for
development projects within their area. As it has been mentioned that their area is
underdeveloped, they absolutely see the need for projects. Evaratt and Gwagwa
(2005) maintain that it is in rural areas where development projects need to be
implemented and this is because that is where development is ideally needed.

[Link] Has there been any development projects which were introduced to you as
a member of the community before?

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 Responses Agree Disagree Partly
Percentage 82.6 17.4 % 0%
(%) %

The above table confirms the percentage of the participants amongst the 22 regarding
the asked question. Of the 22 participants, 18 (82.6%) confirmed that they were told
and introduced to development projects within their area and the remaining 4 (17.4%)
indicated that they were never told about the development projects within their area.
This shows that there is something that is not done right regarding the manner in which
the messages are supposed to reach the participants, as it shows in the above table
that some of these community members are not told about projects within their area.
Corroborating the statement is Cavaya (2001) who maintains that public meetings and
other “traditional” forms of participation often appear to be used by default.

4.2.4 This last objective sought to determine strategies to encourage community

participation in development projects and the sub-question was envisaged to
help in understanding whether community members were satisfied with the
strategies that were being used.

[Link] Are you happy with how local municipality and the Department of Rural
Development and Land Reform handle or facilitate development projects
within your community?

Responses Agree Disagree Partly

Percentage 69.6 43.4 % 13 %
(%) %

The table above indicates the satisfactory level of the community members based on
the selected sample. Out of the 22 participants, 15 (69.6 %) indicated that they are
satisfied with the way in which their local municipality handles or facilitates

58
development projects within their community, while 3 (13 %) of the 22 participants
indicated that they are not satisfied at all and the remaining 4 (43.4 %) are partially
satisfied. This clearly indicates that there are things that the local municipality and the
Department of Rural Development and Land Reform are doing wrong as shown by a
large number of the respondents who dissents to the way in which they handle or
facilitate development projects within this community. According to Hickey and Mohan
(2004), most government officials choose to use a ‘top-down’ approach and this has
been proved by many researchers to be ultimately hindering the desired objectives of
most projects.

From the quantitative findings, it can be deduced that the respondents were involved
and others were not involved; especially in the conception, planning and
implementation of the projects. Furthermore, the findings revealed that community
leaders truly believe that indeed the community does work in unison, which is not the
case as the results showed. Evidently, there is a large gap with regards to doing things
collectively and to some extent, reaching one common goal regarding development
projects. Another thing which the findings revealed is the unsatisfactory responses of
the community drawn from the sample on how governmental and municipal officials
handle and facilitate projects in their area.

Therefore, the final overall discussion will be done after the completion of the interview
questions under qualitative findings.

4.3 Qualitative Research Analysis

Mouton (2001) in Sibanda (2011) claimed that qualitative research helps in

understanding the dynamics of people’s experience, the structure of their lives, and
their perceptions, assumptions, attitudes, behaviour, judgments and suppositions
within the context of their social world. Qualitative research is crucial because it is
subjective and provides a deeper understanding of human experience (Sibanda,
2011). The qualitative research approach also helped to investigate the challenges of
community participation in development projects at Tickyline village in Tzaneen.

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  Challenges of community participation

The first question that the participants were required to answer was whether they
understand what community development projects and community participation meant
and they answered the question according to their own understanding. With this
question, the researcher sought to determine the challenges that the participants
encounter regarding community participation. Most of them answered the question in
a more or less the same way and this includes the community leaders.

Fhatu, (30) ‘community development projects to me means infrastructural

change within a community and community participation means that community
members must take part in what is going in their community”

Katila (32) ‘a community development project to me means that there will be a

creation of jobs, though they may be temporal and community participation
means taking part in all activities happening in your community’

Winky (27) ‘community development projects and community participation to

me means that community being fully involved in changes within their
community and those changes are the ones which will better their lives’

Nkele (18) ‘community development projects to me means a process of bringing

change in people’s lives through social structures and community participation
is basically when community members getting involved in activities happening
in their community and gaining full control of them’

The quotes above show that the participants understand the intertwined concepts and
each one mentioned what basically these concepts entail. They did mention
infrastructure, job creation, better standard of living and a change in social structures,
which are some of the major key proponents to development and as Oni (2005)
mentioned, it is significant to understand that development does not only entail and
affect tangible assets only, but also the psycho-social and economic entities of the
people that need to be developed.

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On the concept of community participation, their emphasis is on the full involvement
of the community in activities that are happening in their community. Additionally, the
last respondent mentioned one important element in development, which is ownership
of development projects by beneficiaries. Attesting to this, Theron and Mchunu (2014)
further state that community participation to some extents, inwardly stimulates a sense
of ownership of the development projects and development process, similarly,
development process becomes an integral part of the community and assists them in
believing that they own their development process.

The follow-up question sought to validate the answers provided in the above question.
Participants were asked if they participate in development projects within their
community and below are what few of them had to say:

Maringa (43) ‘yes I do participate fully, because it is important in that get to learn
new things with each project’

Kulani (27) ‘yes I make sure that I participate because with what I learn from
each project prepares me for the next one’

Nthabiseng (29) ‘I participate yes because this projects are equipping me with
skills for future projects’

The quotes above demonstrate that most of the community members as drawn from
the sample view development projects as another form of education, though is not a
formal one, but there is something that is learnt from each project. Their emphasis is
on skills they acquire during their time in these projects. Fundamentally, as Phologane
(2010) asserts, development projects are prone to educate and equip residents with
the appropriate skills that are to assist them in future to improve their lives.
Furthermore, Phologane (2010) stresses that development projects should not be
limited to improve the only infrastructure, but should extend to provide skills to its
community members.

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However, other participants do not see the importance of participating in development
projects within their community and below is what they had to say when they were
asked the same question as the one above:

Mologadi (23) ‘I do not, because the meetings held, they are not favourable and
I always get the messages late’

Lesiba (53) ‘I do not benefit from any of the projects as an individual and it is
not everyone who gets the message in time but the chief always knows about
these projects, so I do not see the need why must I participate’

Paulina (34) ‘most of the meetings held are not formal and sometimes you find
that it is only the chief who knows about such projects’

Participants here display high level of disinterest in participation in development

projects resulting from the manner in which the meetings are facilitated and also the
fact that they usually get the messages late. It is evident that most community
members still want a formal traditional way of being called for meetings and the
manner in which these meetings are facilitated should be in a traditional way, which to
some extent is true as this researched community comprises many illiterate elderly
and young people. Supporting what these participants are saying, Cavaya (2001) and
Green (2007) highlighted that people are tired of committees that use public meetings
which are in most cases not traditional as default and by so doing, they are tossing
aside their traditional values and beliefs. Subsequently, these participants’ pointed out
that they end up getting the meeting invites when it is too late.

The respondents also mentioned that they are not benefiting anything from the
projects, which is a concern expressed by most community members. They are
blatantly saying that they can only participate if they were to gain or learn something
in the process, which for them is not the case. With what they have said, it is safe to
categorize them under the type of participation that participates for material gain and
not to gain skills and knowledge as explained by Meldon et al (2004).

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The next question sought to elicit whether there is a common ground and
understanding between the political affairs as they are influential when it comes to
development and culture, as in most casesresearch has shown that culture is resistant
to change. In this regard, participants were asked how political and cultural affairs
influence community participation with regard to developmental projects within their
community and below it is what they had to say:

Chief ‘development brings change in people’s lives and as their chief; I cannot
deprive my community a chance to change their lives; together with their
environmental change. Therefore, politicians should understand that
development should take place without compromising our culture; I will give it
a go ahead and plead with my people to fully participate in those projects’.

Ward- councilor ‘we as politicians, before bringing any project to a community,

we make sure that we consult with the chief to verify if the project will not be
against cultural beliefs and affairs oh his/her community. By so doing, we want
to make sure that we work together without any power issues amongst us and
the chief’.

The quotes display a great epitome of unison between both politicians and the chief
with regard to their agenda of developmental projects brought to the community.
Moreover, the chief believes that as long as this development projects do not
contradict or defy their culture, he then finds and deem them relevant to his community.
Everatt and Gwagwa (2005) explained that the prime purpose of community
development is to restore the wholeness of life, creating a sense of self- reliant and
self- respecting for community members, so that they can be familiar with cultural
traditions of their own country and to efficiently utilize modern resources with
effectiveness for their fullest development of their physical, social, economic and
intellectual conditions. The purpose that development comes when developing a
community as indicated above is precisely what the king was referring to in a nut shell.

However, community members disagree with what their leaders are saying regarding
the question asked and below is what they said:

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 Josephine (54) ‘the resistance of change by culture really discourages most of
us from participating in development projects within our community. There are
two projects that the chief did not approve to be implemented in our community’

Molamo (41) ‘I respect our cultural beliefs but I lost interest the day the chief
openly refused one great project to be implemented in our community because
of his cultural reasons not of community’s as a whole’.

Participants above clearly indicate the disappointment they endured based on the
decisions that their chief often takes regarding what is bound to bring change to their
community, merely because of culture. By him putting culture before what is to benefit
them, they withdraw their participation from development projects. It is evident that the
chief does not consult his community on matters or issues that concern and affect
them directly; he just takes final decisions on his own. Corroborating this is Manyozo
(2006) who avers that chiefs and community leaders need to be consulted and
engaged regarding development projects taking place within their vicinity and this
gives them power to make that final decision on which project should take place within
their community.

The question which follows sought to discover whether there is any contact and
relationship between the community and municipal and government officials. The
question which was asked is whether the government and Municipal officials inform
them as a community about new development projects in their area and if the way in
which the officials approach them is appropriate.

Nkele (18) ‘the officials do inform us but what I don’t like is how they approach
us. They often tell us which project is going to be done instead of asking us
what we want.’

Paul (44) ‘they actually do come to consult with us during the IDP drafting but
when it is time for them to implement the projects, they do the opposite, which
is taking decisions for us.’

64
 Ben (55) ‘they do contact us but for them to come and deciding which projects
must be done first, it is just not fair and not cool.’

The responses above reveal the frustrations that the officials are causing on them.
Regardless of officials informing them about projects which will be implemented in
their area, the fact that they take decisions for them on which project needs to be done
first is unappreciated, particularly by the residents.

To this effect, it is evident that the community’s self- awareness of their social reality
and that they were able to realize and unleash with the help of both the municipal and
government officials, is basically tossed aside as they are deprived a chance to voice
and decide the projects that need to be implemented first. Instead, it is the officials
who decide on their behalf the projects that take priority in their community. Attesting
to what is being said by the participants is Mbambo and Tshishonga (2008) who assert
that the officials are using the top-bottom approach in this matter which gradually
demoralizes the community in participating in the whole process of development
projects, as it is already alluded to by the above participants.

 Strategies that can be used to encourage community participation

in development projects
This objective sought to bring about community’s opinions and inputs on how to enable
them as a community to fully participate in development projects within their
community and also to make them sustainable. The first question under this objective
that was asked is: In your own opinion, what do you think should be done to address
what has been asked in the previous question. What follows below is what they had
to say:

Paulina (34) ‘I strongly think that the officials should not decide for us which
projects should be of priority, as they don’t understand the importance of why
we suggested and gave them those projects in sequence’

Katila (32) ‘my opinion is that when the officials come to us in implementing the
projects, they must not change the sequence of our listed needs because it is
us who understand our social and basic needs’
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The respondents above are highlighting the fact that officials must be considerate of
how they have enlisted projects they need according to their needs, as it is themselves
who understand and know their social reality as far as basic standard of living is
concerned. Therefore, to them, it is not fair when the people who are supposed to be
intervening in bettering their lives, reshuffle their prioritized list of needs and decide on
which needs to be done first, without consulting them again. The respondents’
frustrations are highlighted by Mbambo and Tshishonga (2008) who assert that
community members need to feel that they are in charge of what is bound to better
change their lives, than being dictated on what needs to be done to better their lives
in the context of community development. In addition to what has been said, the
following participant hinted what most people from areas where development is
needed, don’t realize. And this is what she has to say:

Winky (27)’what these officials are doing wrong is that, how they make most of
us a community feel because I strongly feel that they take advantage of our
educational background and use it to take decisions for us on what needs to be
done first. My opinion in this is that, they must implement these projects
according to how we have listed them.’

Paul (44) ‘what the officials are doing wrong from where I am standing is, the
fact that they undermine the decision making capacity of the community by not
telling them why they are not doing things the way they have listed them.
Therefore, my opinion is that people at the grass root of development should
be consulted on every change that is made regarding what they have discussed
during their meeting’.

These respondents above demonstrate the level of ignorance and how they are taken
for granted by government officials. As they have rightfully said, their level of literacy
should not be used as a platform to deprive them having to make final decisions on
which projects must be implemented first, when final decisions are being taken. David
et al. (2011) highlighted that the level illiteracy of community members leads to officials
not to consult the community members with the whole process of projects.

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Supporting further on what the participants have highlighted, Desai (2009) purports
that it is significant for municipal and government officials to consult community
members in a transparent manner; and should the community feel that they are
ignored, it will cause confusion as most of the community members in areas that need
development are illiterate. Consequently, this will make them lose interest in
participating in future development projects simply because they are not consulted.
Therefore, consultation and transparency should be essential to community
participation and development projects.

The question that follows sought to establish what community members think should
be done to have sustainable development projects within their community, and below
is what that they had to say:

Chief ‘there should be training that is provided to the community as to how what
is expected from them throughout the project phase and also make them feel
that they are in charge of how the project as a whole’

Ward- councilor ‘the community needs to be empowered and taught skills that
will help them survive even after the project cycle is complete’

Nthabiseng (29)’there should be empowerment strategies and required skills

that need to be taught to us, so we can be able to implement during and after
the completion of the projects’

Dennis (28)’empowering us and making us own up to the projects will help us

understand the importance of keeping the project running and also we should
be awarded the opportunity to make our own decision, not having people decide
for us’

The quotes above demonstrate the need for these community members to be
empowered so that the projects can be sustained, and with the relevant skills
as they have said, the project is sure to be sustained. Also, they say that if they
are provided with a sense of ownership, their own development and
sustainability will be attained. Also, they emphasized on the need for them to
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be given a platform to make their own decisions regarding projects that are
specifically meant for them. Oni (2015) asserts that relevant and desired skills
and knowledge towards community development projects enable community
members to comprehend the significance of keeping the project running, as this
will inwardly stimulate their sense of self- reliance. Furthermore, Oni (2015)
explains the essentiality of having empowered community members with regard
to their development projects as it enhances their capacity building and this
ultimately helps them in making sound and meaningful decisions as to the
direction that the projects should take. Additionally, Sibanda (2011) highlights
that once the community is empowered, they able to take ownership as the
development projects belongs to them.

The follow up question required the community to express what needs to be

done to have their maximum participation regarding their development projects
and below is what they had to say:

Ward- chairperson ‘involving the community with every step of the project, will
encourage them to participate fully.’

Lesiba (53)’letting us decide on what we want when it comes to development

projects, will have us participate fully.’
Fhatu (30)’informing us with every change that happens along the
implementation, letting us decide on what we want as a community will make
us participate more and more.’

Maringa (43)’ involving us from the creation of the project to the end of it and
also letting us have a say in changes that are made along the process, we will
feel that we are greater part of development projects in our community.’

The quotes above demonstrate the extensive need to belong and to be part of
development projects by community members as they feel that they should be
part of development projects within their area. In essence, this is true as they
are the main actors of development projects happening in their area. Supporting
this, Theron and Davids (2014) explain that a well-informed community that is
68
 involved in decision-making process and implementation stage, surely
guarantees maximum participation and sustainable development projects.
Therefore, involving people in all stages of development will extensively urge
them to participate fully.

Qualitative findings revealed that there are issues that need to be addressed
with regard to community participation in development projects. Based on the
outcome of the interviews conducted, it is evident that the highlighted issues
are the ones that are hindering development in the researched area.

All in all, both methods elicited the aim and objectives of the study, and the findings of
each objective will be discussed in the next chapter.

4.4. Conclusion
In this chapter, data from the respondents was presented, analysed and interpreted.
The respondents highlighted the challenges of community participation, the level of
community participation and the strategies to be used for community participation in
community development projects. Therefore, the presentation of the findings and
recommendations are presented in the chapter that follows.

69
5 RESEARCH FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Introduction

This chapter focuses mainly on the major findings and how they have answered the
research questions. What follows is a discussion of the major findings and how these
findings have answered the research questions. The conclusions will be discussed
under the following themes:

 What is the level of community participation in development projects?

 What are the challenges of community participation?
 Which strategies can be used to encourage community participation in
development projects?

5.2 Major Findings

After the collected data was analysed in chapter four, the researcher found major
findings as discussed below:

 The level of community participation in development projects

The findings revealed that there is an imbalance on the level of community

participation. This imbalance is brought up by the challenges which the community is
encountering as revealed above. However, it is not everyone who does not participate
according to the responses, but there are those who participate and those who do not
participate do so based on their own personal reasons or gains, according to their
responses. Therefore, it is evident that these community members do not share or
have common objective in relation to participating in development projects.

70
  Challenges of community participation
Findings reveal that there are major challenges when it comes to community
participation with regard to development projects. The challenges start from the
community not working in unison, although their traditional leader and political leaders
assume that their community share same interests, which is not the case. Also, the
community demonstrates the need to be empowered, as this will help them to be in
acquisition of power and to be effective. Municipal and government officials also
contribute to these challenges by not involving community members in decision
making; not consulting with community members regarding changes made along the
process of project cycle; not being transparent and by using top-down approach
regarding development projects that are for these community members. The findings
demonstrate that there is a lot that the community leaders and both the municipal and
government officials need to do to assist in addressing these challenges that the
community is encountering.

 Strategies that can be used to encourage community participation in

development projects

The findings reveal that the community wants to be made part of every decision that
is taken throughout the development project stages and to be informed regarding
every change regarding the projects within their area. By so doing, they believe that
they will have an opportunity to contribute to what needs to be done regarding the
changes and planning of the projects. This will give them some sense of ownership of
their own development projects. Therefore, this will win their full and maximum
participation.

5.3 Overview of the study

This study covered the background of the study, problem statement, and aim of the
study specific objective, critical questions, limitations and delimitation of the study.
In the problem statement the researcher demonstrated how the Constitution of the
Republic of South Africa and other statutes emphasise the significance of involving
the public through public participation in matters affecting them in bettering their lives.

71
The main aim of the study was to investigate the challenges of community participation
in community development projects in order to encourage wide participation in projects
at Tickyline village.

The researcher highlighted the literature regarding the community participation, its
level of participation and even the strategies to be used. He even touched on the legal
framework to outline what the government says in line with the study.
The researcher further outlined and presented the research methodology used in the
study by focusing on how the data collection methods were used and how data was
analysed and interpreted.
The researcher synthesized the findings, gave recommendations and concluded the
study.
The recommendations were formulated to address the research problem based on the
findings of the study.

5.4 Conclusion

This chapter presented the study overview which was followed by the discussion of
the research findings which were guided by the research questions. The findings were
followed by recommendations.

5.5 Recommendations

This section details the recommendations based on the above conclusions. Due to the
significance of the study, the researcher recommends the following:

 Community leaders must ensure that their community works in unison and that
they share a common goal towards development participation. Also, municipal
and government officials should see to it that with every project they introduce,
they must empower community members and ensure that they are transparent
and consult with the community members with matters that concern their
development projects. They must also use the bottom-up approach in community
development projects to avoid confusion and frustrations of community members.

72
 Community members should have gatherings to address issues that affect them
as a community to enable them to have one common goal or objective when it
comes to matters of development.

 Municipality and government should include community members in decision

making from the project design to project handover to ensure active participation
by community members.

73
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 APPENDICES

APPENDIX 1: INFORMED CONSENT FORM

School of Management Sciences

TITLE OF RESEARCH PROJECT

The perceptions of community participation in development projects at

Tickyline in Tzaneen, Limpopo Province in South Africa

By

Malatji K.P

Researcher:

I would like to request you participate in this research project. Your participation in this
study is entirely voluntary and you are free to refuse participation. You may discontinue
your participation at any time without prejudice or without jeopardizing the future care
either of yourself or your family members. You are welcome to withdraw your
participation and the information provided, if you so wish. Any significant new findings
developed during the course of the study that may relate to your willingness to continue
participation will be provided to you.

Respondents Consent:

I have understood the provisions and hereby give my consent to participate in this
project.

Subject’s signature…………………………. Date……….

Interviewer’s signature................................... Date……

85
QUESTIONNAIRE SCHEDULE

APPENDIX 2: A guide for community members

Section A- Demography

1. Gender
Male
Female

2. Age
18-25 26-35 36-45 46-55

3. Marital Status
Single Married Divorced

4. Home Language
Sepedi XiTsonga TshiVenda Other(s)

5. Educational Qualifications
Grade 11 or Lower

Grade 12 (Matric)

Post Matric diploma or certificate

Baccalaureate degree (s)

Post- graduate degree (s)

86
Section B- Questions are derived from the objectives (Questionnaires)

The challenges of community Agree Disagree Partly/

participation sometimes
1. Do you think there is a need for
development projects within
your area?
2. Has there been a development
projects to you as a member of
the community before?

The level of community Agree Disagree Partly/

participation in community Sometimes
development projects
3. Have you ever participated in
development projects in your
community before?
4. Do you see or feel the need to
participate in development
projects in your community?
5. Do you as a leader or part of
the community, see your
community work as a unit or
collectively?
6. Does government and
Municipal officials inform you
as a community about new
development projects in your
area?

87
Strategies to encourage participation in Yes No Partly/
development projects sometimes
7. Are you happy with how local
municipality and the Department of
Rural Development and Land Reform
handle development projects within
your community?

88
 APPENDIX 2: Interview Schedule

 What is your understanding of development projects and community

participation?
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
 Do you participate in development projects in your area? Please explain
why?

…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………

 How do political affairs vs cultural affairs influence community

participation with regard to development projects within your
community?
.................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................

 Does government and Municipal officials inform you as a community

about new development projects in your area? If no, what do you think
they are doing wrong?
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………

 In your own opinion, what do you think should be done to address what
has been asked in the above question?

89
 …………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………

 In your opinion, what do you think should be done to sustain

development projects within your area?
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………

 What do you as a community member think should be done to get

maximum participation of the whole community?
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………….

90