TRAINING FOR MUGHER CEMENT PLANT

OPERATION TEAM

May 2022

Compiled by Jibril Ahmed

 Training Contents

[Link] Manufacturing
[Link] material Grinding
[Link] Mix Control
[Link]
[Link] Of Fuels
[Link] and physical chemistry
7. Cement Grinding
[Link]
 Training content

Cement Manufacturing
1.1 Process flow diagram
1.2 What is Cement?
1.3 Mining
1.3.1 Mining Operations
1.3.2 Crushing
1.3.3 Pre-blending

2. Raw materials selection and grinding

2.1 Homogenization and storage of raw meal

3. Raw mix control

3.1Objectives of raw mix control
3.2 raw mix Burnability
3.3 Raw mix design
 Training content

4. Pyro processing
4.1 Types of kiln system
4.2 Physical and chemical transformations
undergoing in the thermal equipment
4.3 Process related kiln zones
4.4 kiln burner
4,5 The flame
4.6 Clinker Cooling
[Link] of fuels
 Training content

6. Clinkering and physical chemistry

6.1. Main Transformation steps in the thermal equipment
[Link] Major Elements.
6.3. Clinker quality- impact of major elements.
7. Cement Grinding
7.1 Cement strength influencing parameters
7.2 Dust collecting equipment
8. Refractories
 Process flow in block diagram

Mining &
Quarrying Crushing Stacking Proportioning Raw Grinding

Cement Clinker Preheating & Homogenization

Clinkering Calcining
Grinding cooling

Coal
Packaging Bulk Grinding
Loading

Mining is the process of extracting buried material below the earth surface.
Quarrying refers to extracting materials directly from the surface
 Process flow diagram
Proportioning
Stacking
Homogenizing
Mining Crushing

Raw Milling
Coal Milling Preheating &
precalcining

Clinkering
Clinker cooling

Cement milling
Packaging Bulk loading
 What is cement?
Cement is a binder, a substance used for construction that sets, hardens, and adheres to other
materials to bind them together. Cement is seldom used on its own, but rather to bind sand and gravel
together. Cement mixed with fine aggregate produces mortar for masonry, or with sand and gravel,
produces concrete.

It means when a finely ground inorganic material like cement, is mixed with water it forms a paste which
sets and hardens by means of hydration reactions and which, after hardening and setting, retains its
strength and stability even under water.

Setting and Hardening of cement are not due to a drying process but due to a hydration process.
Requirements on the compressive strength after 2 days and 7 days:
A 32.5N cement should attain a compressive strength of ≥16 MPa at 7 days,
A 32.5R cement should attain a compressive strength of ≥10 MPa at 2 days
A 42.5N cement should attain a compressive strength of ≥10 MPa at 2 days
A 42.5R cement should attain a compressive strength of ≥20 MPa at 2 days
A 52.5N cement should attain a compressive strength of ≥20 MPa at 2 days
A 52.5R cement should attain a compressive strength of ≥30 MPa
 Cont‘d

The 5 classes of common cement defined by EN 197 are then dependent on the other constituents of the cement,
besides Portland cement clinker and gypsum for regulation of setting time.
SN Types of cement Parts of Cement Cement Ratio Designation
Clinker 90 -95% Portland Cement
1 CEM I Gypsum 5%
OPC minor additional constituents Up to 5%
Clinker Portland Cement
2 CEM II Gypsum
Other additional constituents up to 35%
Clinker
Gypsum
3 CEM III
Other additional constituent More than 35% Blastfurnace slag cement
Blasffurnace Slag
Clinker
4 CEM IV Gypsum
PPC Other additional Constituent, Pozzola More than 35% Pozzolanic cement
Clinker
Gypsum
5 CEM V Other additional constituents,
More than 31% Composite cement
other constitutes, blastfurnace slag and Pozzolana
Raw material preparation

Raw material require to produce cement

 Lime stone (calcareous material , Calcium
carbonate)
 Shale , low grade lime stone , clay (argillaceous
materials, Silica)
 Aluminous material (clay, bauxite)
 Ferrous material, hematite (iron ore , ferric
oxide )
 Mining

Well developed mining benches

 Mining

Mining operations
 Core drilling (bore) holes to explore the mines

 Drill holes for blast

Spacing between holes is 3000mm
Hole diameter is 114mm
 Blasting
Hole depth is 8000mm
Explosives (NH4NO3) = 25-30Kg/hole
 Excavation and haulage
Diesel oil = 1.257kg/hole
 Transportation to crusher

 Size reduction for process requirements

 Pre- homogenization/blending

Homogenisation Sampling

 Core drilling samples to explore the mines

quality pattern :
 To ensure that the required quantity and quality are
met for daily, weekly and year productions for the plant
 To minimize the total operation cost for milling
 To optimize the limestone quality for the raw mills.

 On line analyses of the limestone going to

the limestone stockpile :
 To ensure that the required quality are met according
to the mining plan after blasting and crushing
 To optimize the limestone quality on the stockpile for
the raw mills.
 On line analyzer are used for this function
 Pre- homogenization/blending

Drilling machine

Rock Drilling
 Pre- homogenization/blending
Blasting is the primary stage of rock size reduction after drilling and
it is followed by crushing and grinding actions on the comminution
system.
The main objective of blasting action in the mine is to produce a
fragmented rock with sizable and cost-effective way
What is a quarry blast?
Blasting is the breaking of rock masses using explosives to obtain
the fragments and separate rock materials for further processing
.
The released energy of the explosive is converted into various
other forms of energy.

 Heat
 Seismic energy ( stress waves)
 New surface energy (rock fragmentation)
 Kinetic energy of spoil (throw) rock displacement
 Concussion and noise (air blast)
 Crushing

Crushing is the process of size reduction

Crushers are chosen depending upon the material characteristics such as hardness
,abrasiveness, feed input size, moisture content etc.

The commonly used crushers are hammer crushers, impact crushers, roll crushers,
gyratory crushers, jaw crushers. Size reduction depends upon the grinding system to
be adopted i.e.., ball mill or vertical mill

Size reduction ratio Max feed size ( linear edge dimension)

= ……………………………………………….
Maximum feed size of crushed product

( linear edge dimension)

 Cont’d

Different types of crushers for raw materials are commonly found on cement
factories. The type of crusher installed will have been decided by the properties of
the raw materials to be crushed. The critical characteristics are:

1. Hardness
2. Abrasiveness
3. Moisture content

Crushers work on the principle of compression or impact. A compression crusher

such as a gyratory crusher, cone crusher or jaw crusher is not suitable for highly
abrasive materials as the wear would be too high. Neither would it be suitable for a
material of high moisture content
 Cont’d

Jaw Crusher: is opposed by a driven

crushing element.
Unfortunately the throughput of jaw crushers is limited
to around 500 tonnes per hour, which is too low for
large modern cement plants. The size reduction ratio is Crushing is effected by
also limited to ~6:1, meaning that a 60cm lump of rock compression between the
loaded into the crusher will be reduced to ~10cm fixed and driven crushing
maximum dimension. This means that multiple stages elements.
of crushing with secondary and tertiary crushers
after the primary jaw crusher can be required if ball These are simple
mills crushing machines
and the working
are being used for raw grinding. Jaw crushers remain
liners of the
in common use for hard secondary materials such as crushing elements
gypsum can be reversed
when they wear.
 Cont’d

A crushing element
Gyratory crusher:
is suspended from
Crushing is effected by compression between the above…
crushing element and the liners of the crushing
bowl. …………..in a
Throughput can be up to 5000 tonnes per hour, crushing bowl.
sufficient for the largest modern cement plants. The
size reduction ratio is again limited to between 6:1 The crushing
and 15:1, i.e. a 60cm lump of rock loaded into the element is driven
crusher will be reduced to ~6cm. Secondary and eccentrically within
tertiary crushing stages can again be required if ball the crushing bowl
mills are being used for raw grinding. The liners from below
suffer heavy wear and cannot be reversed.
 Cont’d

Cone Crushers.
Also a type of gyratory crusher, usually employed as secondary, tertiary or quaternary
crushing stages.
 Cont’d

Roll Crushers:
Also crush by means of compression between rotating
rolls, but are not commonly used for primary raw
materials. The surface of rolls can be smooth, ribbed or
toothed. These crushers are only suitable for soft raw
materials. Heavy wear will be suffered by the rolls with
abrasive raw materials.

Hammer Crusher:
Rely on the impact between rotating hammers
and side walls of the crushing chamber to
smash rock.

A single pass through the crusher can achieve reduction

ratios of 60:1 (although 40:1 is more common). This
eliminates the need for multiple stages of crushing, as
one hammer crusher is sufficient to reduce the size
sufficiently for feed to a ball mill for raw grinding.
Throughput can exceed 1000 tonnes per hour
Cont’d
 Cont’d

Impact Crusher:
These crushers purely rely on impact between rotating
impellor bars, impact plates and also rock-on-rock impact
to smash rock.

They are suited to brittle rocks.

A single pass through the crusher can achieve a reduction

ratio of 50:1.

Size of the raw stone inputs to the crushing system is These jaw, gyratory, roll, hammer and impact
critical but also its moisture content and associated crushers are the types of crushers found on
cement factories around the world. Operating
―stickiness‖. Hammer or impact crushers will not crush
these crushers involves operating the whole
very wet, sticky or plastic materials but will become
mechanical and electrical system of the
blocked. crusher.
 Pre- homogenization/blending
Quarry Equipment

Excavator

Drilling Machine

Wheel loader
Surface miner
 Pre- homogenization/blending

Limestone stockpile stacking and storage

 By definition, Blending is the function integration of a number of raw materials with
different chemical and/or physical characteristics in such proportion that a completed
pile represents the requisite composition.

 Similarly, Homogenisation can be defined as the function of a systematic

transformation of the input flow of the pile into the output flow, so that the fluctuations
of a property in the flow are evened out.

 The quarry fluctuations are smoothed early in the raw meal preparation process,
namely at the pre-blending beds.
 Stacking/blending of raw materials in preparation for raw grinding process is pre-homogenization
 Storage is the final opportunity for raw material feed uniformity.
 Product from crushing operation is stacked & later reclaimed specifically to improve material
uniformity.
 Methods/equipment of raw material stacking vary from plant to plant; however, there are some
common stacking methods
 Pre- homogenization/blending

In quarrying the raw materials used for the manufacture of cement, blending is achieved through good
planning and control of the daily operations of drilling, blasting and loading rather than through the use
of special blending equipment. Quarry planning must be based on reliable sampling of the areas being
worked.

Pre-homogenisation is achieved by building a stockpile of crushed material and then reclaiming from
the full pile. The stockpile material normally has a maximum particle size of up to 25mm in the case of
cement production, to reduce the effect of segregation. The requirements of other processes may
result in larger particle sizes being stockpiled.

The degree of blending achieved depends on the methods used for stockpiling and reclaiming. Usually
the stacking of blending beds is performed along a longitudinal axis, while reclaiming takes place in a
transverse direction.
 Cont‘d

Circular storage

Side scraper/reclaimer

Linear stacker and storage

 Pre- homogenization/ blending

Limestone stockpile formation/Simulation

Loading point 1 Loading Point 2 Loading point 3
Oxides

SiO2 2.62 4.70 7.10

Al2O3 0.31 0.47 0.77

Fe2O3 1.16 1.17 1.71

CaO 49.15 48.85 44.55
MgO 1.68 1.48 1.43

CaO Target 46.5

MgO Target 1.5
Target CaO and MgO for three loading points
Target CaO for two loading points (only one parameter)
Simulation can be calculated using Excel solver (Based on matrix algebra)
 Pre- homogenization/ blending

# Trips
SN Description Parameter %age ratio material requirement
(pile tonnage)
Total Trips
LSF SR 12000
Loading point 1 362.98 2.70 16.7% 2000 67
1 Blend 1
Loading point 2 83.3% 10000 333 400

Loading point 1 238.1 2.7 20.65% 2478 83

2 Blend 2
Loading point 3 79.35% 9522 317 400

Loading point 1 270.40 2.68 24.08% 2890 96

3 Blend 3 Loading point 2 19.59% 2350 78
Loading point 3 56.33% 6760 225 400

Loading point 2 225 3 22.09% 2651 88

4 Blend 4 Loading point 3 77.91% 9349 312 400
 Raw material preparation and Raw milling
What is the function of raw milling?

The function of raw milling is to produce sufficient quantities, a raw meal of optimum fineness and
consistent composition for good burnability in the kiln.

Maximum fineness would give easiest burning (lowest fuel cost) but grinding costs would be prohibitive
- for each set of raw materials, there is a balance between grinding costs, fuel savings and clinker
quality

Since raw materials vary chemically, the feed rate of various components also changes and overall
grindability also changes

Coarse particles affect clinker quality the most - these are controlled by keeping the 90μm residue of
the raw meal typically between 10 and 15%
 Cont‘d
Limestone and other naturally occurring compact raw materials are usually received in a plant from
the quarry in maximum sizes of 1 to 2 m. In order to convert these raw materials into clinker and
cement, it is necessary to produce a raw mix with a top size of about 0.2 mm ( 200µm)
The crushed and preblended raw materials are further processed into a fine raw mix by dry or wet
grinding. With escalating energy costs. Dry grinding of raw materials is practiced most extensively

Ball Mills:
The majority of grinding in the world is performed with the help of ball
mills. The material to be ground passes through the rotating cylinders,
and grinding takes place by the impact of and attrition from the
grinding balls tumbling inside the mill.
The mill shell was protected against wear by liner plates bolted to it. A
more recent development has been the introduction of ―classifying
liners‖ designed to aid the small balls in migrating toward the
discharge end and the bigger ones toward the feed end.
In the subsequent period, ball mills known as ―air-swept tube mill‖ and
―tube mill with bucket elevators‖ were developed to carry out both
drying and grinding of moist materials.
 Cont‘d
Vertical Roller Mills:
The raw feed then falls onto the rotating table of the
mill, as the feed lands on the rotating table it is thrown
towards the outer edge of the table by the centrifugal
forces generated by the rotating table.

This brings the raw feed under the rollers pressing

down on the rotating table, the rollers are pressed
towards the rotating table and onto the bed of raw feed
by hydraulic pressure
The capacity is a function of the diameter of the
rotating table, the speed of the rotating table, the
number and width of the rollers, and the hydraulic
pressure exerted on those rollers. The required
capacity of a vertical mill when it was specified and
supplied will have been a critical consideration
determining the diameter of the table and the number
of rollers
 Cont‘d
The grinding efficiency of a vertical mill is also
related to the condition of the rollers and table. To
illustrate this we need to look in detail at the
working principles of the grinding action of a vertical
mill
Around the edge of the table there is a ―dam ring‖.
The height of this ―dam ring‖ is critical for
determining the depth of the material bed on the
table under the rollers and the susceptibility to
vibration problems with the mill. The height of the
dam ring is therefore a critical adjustment for the
maintenance department. table

In raw grinding we have to remember that grinding and

milling are only the final stage of size reduction before the
raw minerals are delivered to the kiln. Some raw As the material passes over the rotating table and under
materials, and particularly limestones, have to be blasted the rollers it ultimately overflows over the ―dam ring‖ and
with explosives to break them from the ground. This is picked up by the gas flow entering the mill
blasting begins the process of size reduction
 Cont‘d
through the nozzle or louvre ring that surrounds the table. The velocity of the gas through the nozzle
ring determines the maximum size of particles that can be lifted. The velocity of the gas determines
the pressure drop across the louvre or nozzle ring. A compromise therefore has to be arrived at, and
the coarsest particles will fall through the nozzle ring and have to be recirculated to the mill feed.

Gravity then plays a critical role in recirculating coarse particles back to the table for further grinding,
coarser, heavier particles cannot be lifted through the mill body to the classifier or separator and fall
back onto the grinding table.
 Cont‘d

All raw grinding systems in cement manufacture and

most finish grinding systems include separators
within the grinding circuit.
The operation and set-up of these separators are
fundamental for the control of product fineness from
the grinding circuit

In raw grinding we have to remember that grinding and milling are

only the final stage of size reduction before the raw minerals are
delivered to the kiln. Some raw materials, and particularly
limestones, have to be blasted with explosives to break them from
the ground. This blasting begins the process of size reduction
 Cont‘d
Comparison between ball mill and Vertical roller Mill:
Feed size
Ball mill can accept feed size of +25 mm. So, primary and secondary crusher is required.
Roller mill can accept up to 150mm [Link] secondary crusher is not required.
Drying capacity:
Roller mill can handle feed with moisture up to 20% where as ball mill up to 6-8 %.hence ideal choice for
high moisture material
Response to mix chemistry
the material retention time in roller mill is about 2 minutes compared to about 15 minuets in ball mill. so,
mix chemistry control is easy.
Limitations:
1- Mill is mechanically sophisticated equipment with special design gear [Link] well trained
maintenance personnel required
2 - Mill is susceptible to vibration and it requires close monitor, other wise serious break down of internal.
will occur
3 – In some mill replacing of liners may require a long stoppage
 Cont‘d

.
Raw mills
Ball mill

Roller press & Ball

mill

Vertical roller mill

Horizontal roller mill

 Cont‘d
Ball mill grinding
 Cont‘d

.
 Cont‘d
Mill Circuits
 Cont‘d

.
 Cont‘d

Advantages of vertical mills

 Energy consumption is less compared to ball mills.

 Flexibility in operation as all forces can be controlled.

 Drying capacity is better than ball mills.

 Noise level (noise pollution) is much less than ball mills.

 Particle size distribution better than ball mills.

Cont‘d

An efficient separator the which operates

with no fines in coarse return (rejects)
and no coarse in fine products .
 Cont‘d

Vertical Roller Mills

 Raw Mix control

Raw mix preparation is the quality key control parameter for stable, continuous
manufacture of high quality clinker and cement

Objectives:
 To produce clinker with uniform and predicted quality
 To have smooth kiln operation
 Stable coating in the kiln with stable raw meal feed to the kiln
 Formation of favorable clinker phases grown from raw meal with consistent properties
 A kiln feed that permits effective energy conserving production of a quality Portland
cement clinker
 Cement is ground to high quality from consistent clinker quality with well-balanced
phase
 To improve pozzolana addition in cement grinding
 To reduce production cost
 Raw Mix control

The raw mix chemical composition corresponds to the quality requirements expressed
either by the specific
Lime saturation factor (LSF),
Silica module (SM) and
Alumina module (AM),
Or by the potential clinker phases
C2S, C3S, C4AF, C3A.
Both groups of magnitudes can be derived from the main raw mix oxides CaO, SiO2,
AI2O3 and Fe2O3
 Raw Mix control
Cement clinker mineral composition:
Cement clinker is composed of calcium silicates, calcium aluminates and calcium alumino-ferrites. The
calcium silicates in Portland cement are:
Tricalcium silicate Ca3SiO5.
Dicalcium silicate Ca2SiO4.
Tricalcium aluminate Ca3Al2O6.
Tetracalcium alumino-ferrite Ca4Al2Fe2O10

Cement chemists adopt a shorthand to represent these minerals:

Tricalcium silicate Ca3SiO5 = C3S Alite

Dicalcium silicate Ca2SiO4 = C2S Belite
Tricalcium aluminate Ca3Al2O6 = C3A Celite
Tetracalcium alumino-ferrite Ca4Al2Fe2O10 = C4AF Felite

Reference to C3S as alite and C2S as belite is common practice, while the terms celite and felite are
seldom encountered. Portland cement clinker is a partially fused, or sintered, agglomeration of these
minerals.
 Raw Mix control
The amount of total silicates in the cement is controlled by cement chemists via the silica ratio:

Silica Ratio = %SiO2/(%Al2O3 + %Fe2O3)

This is one of the most important ratios used as a target and control in cement manufacturing. It is also
commonly referred to as the ―silica modulus‖ (SM).

Various formulae to calculate the maximum combinable lime have been proposed. The most widely used
is that of Lea and Parker:

%CaO = 2.8 x %SiO2 + 1.18 x %Al2 O3+ 0.65 x %Fe2 O3

Lime saturation Factor LSF = %CaO

2.8 X%SiO2 + 1.18X%Al2O3 + 0.65X%Fe2O3
If LSF is greater than 100% then all the lime cannot be combined and some residual free lime will be
present in the clinker after burning in the cement kiln. This effectively defines the maximum C3S content
which can be achieved in clinker and cement, and therefore the maximum strength potential.
 Raw Mix control
The alumina ratio (or modulus (AM)) is the ratio of the Al2O3 to the Fe2O3 content in
cement raw mix, clinker or the cement itself.

Alumina ratio = %Al2O3/% Fe2O3

0.64 is the minimum alumina ratio for production of Portland cements, as below that
value there will be insufficient Al2O3 available to combine with the Fe2O3 in C4AF. Below
that alumina ratio there would be free Fe2O3 present in the cement

Cement clinker is composed of calcium silicates, calcium aluminates and calcium

alumino-ferrites. The chemical and mineral content of the clinker (and raw mix) is
controlled by 3 important oxide ratios which are used as targets and controls in the
manufacture of Portland cement.
Lime saturation factor = LSF
Silica ratio = SR
Alumina ratio = AR
 Raw Mix control

Raw materials for cement manufacturing:

Lime saturation is greater than 90% in commercial Portland cement clinkers, and typically ~95%. Silica
ratio (or modulus) is typically 2.50. Alumina ratio (or modulus) can vary from 0.70 in sulphate resisting
cements to >10.0 in white cements, but is typically ~1.5 in ordinary cements. The major oxides CaO,
SiO2, Al2O3 and Fe2O3 will typically make up 98% of the composition of Portland cement clinker.

CaO = 67.01%
SiO2 = 22.13%
Al2O3 = 5.31%
Fe2O3 = 3.54%

Portland cement clinker is therefore over ⅔ CaO, and raw materials which provide this proportion of CaO
will have to be used to manufacture the clinker.
Pure calcium carbonate, CaCO3, is comprised of 56% CaO and 44% CO2. The CO2 is liberated from the
CaCO3 in the cement kiln to produce CaO, meaning that 67.01% x 44/56 = 0.53 tonnes of CO2 will be
lost for every tonne of clinker produced
 Raw Mix control
The kiln feed required to produce clinker of this composition is given by:

CaO = 67.01%/(1 + 0.6701 x 44/56) = 43.90%

SiO2 = 22.13%/(1 + 0.6701 x 44/56) = 14.50%
Al2O3 = 5.31%/(1 + 0.6701 x 44/56) = 3.48%
Fe2O3 = 3.54%/(1 + 0.6701 x 44/56) = 2.32%

This means that a source of calcium carbonate, CaCO3, with minimum CaO content of 43.90% must be
used to produce a commercial Ordinary Portland cement.
If the calcium carbonate, CaCO3, has a higher CaO content than 43.90% then secondary raw materials
will be required to dilute the CaO and make up the shortfall in SiO2, Al2O3 and Fe2O3. Normal practice is
for the calcium carbonate, CaCO3, to have a higher CaO content than this minimum of 43.90%, and to mix
this with appropriate secondary raw materials to adjust the SiO2, Al2O3 and Fe2O3 content.

The clay minerals are alumino-silicates with varying quantities of SiO2 and Al2O3, plus some Fe2O3
contamination. Clays or shales (compressed clays) are the most common secondary raw materials used
in cement manufacture. The proportion of clay or shale which must be used depends on the purity of the
limestone. Pure limestone requires more addition of SiO2, Al2O3 and Fe2O3, therefore a higher proportion
of clay in the mix.
 Raw mix control
Burnability vs LSF
Assuming there is an ideal chemical reaction in a kiln, all four major oxides are consumed
during clinkering.

There is two scenarios and it depends on the AR:

C
If AR > 0.65 LSF = ------------------------------------
2.8 S + 1.65 A + 0.35 F

C
If AR < 0.64, LSF = --------------------------------------

2.8 S + 1.18 A + 0.65F

 Raw mix control

Levers to control volatilization

Control Volatilization

In addition to quality aspects (

strength, reactivity,…)

Raw mix control

 Burnability
If we can control these factors, then we are able to:
• Fineness
• Ratios
 Lower burning temperature
• Uniformity  Lower the heat consumption
• Stability Meaning that we need less fuel, and as a result, we
reduce the sulfur entries!
 Raw mix Control

Improve burnability:
 Raw Mix Ratios
LSF, SR, AR, Na(eq.)

Factors that influence the raw mix design

 Raw Mix Fineness
 Raw Mix Uniformity
Quarry and crushing
Stacking and reclaiming
Silo Homogenization
Sampling
Kiln Feed Uniformity
 Raw mix Control

Improve burnability
Burnability can be related to the time that it takes to produce C3S, it is the time taken to fully
combine C2S + C to produce C3S.

Burnability is the relative ease or difficulty with which feed is changed into clinker.
In order to improve the burnability, we need to focus on :
 Chemical composition (Raw mix ratios) of the feed
 Burnability vs lime saturation factor
 Burnability vs C3S
 Burnability vs silica ratio
 Burnability vs alumina ratio
 Burnability vs Feed fineness•
 Uniformity of the composition and the fineness
Producing good quality clinker is a team effort.
 Raw mix Control

Burnability
The burnability of a mix denotes the ease with which free lime can be reduced to an acceptable value
in the kiln.
The burnability decreases with increasing LSF, and increasing silica ratio (SR). Increase in LSF implies
more CaO that has to react and increase SR implies less liquid at a given temperature.

Minor components such as MgO or fluxes can reduce the melting temperature then have a positive
influence on burnability.

The burnability also depends on the mineralogical composition of the raw materials. Silica present as
quartz is less reactive than that present in clay minerals and a limestone with high silicate minerals
content is likely to be more reactive than nearly pure calcite.

To complete the reactions between the chemical elements in the raw materials to yield the clinker
compounds, the elements must be in close contact. It is not possible for a lime molecule to combine
with a silica molecule if they are too far apart. This is why blending of the raw mix is important. Poor
blending can be the cause of low burnability.
 Raw mix Control

% liquid phase at 1450OC : Typically: 20-28%

Represents the potential liquid phase at the clinkering temperature.

%Liquid (1450 ) = 3.0 Al2O3 + 2.25 Fe2O3 + MgO + Alkalis (<2%)
% liquid (1400 ) = 2.95 Al2O3 + 2.20 Fe2O3 + MgO + Alkalis (<2%)

Higher liquid Easier to burn

Too high liquid phase can lead to ball formation.

The impact of Liquid phase :

If the liquid phase is too high: If the liquid phase is too low:
•The clinker porosity decrease •The C3S formation speed decreases
•Grindability decreases (Harder) •The clinker nodule size reduces
•1-day strengths reduce
 Raw mix Control
Burnability
Burnability factor : Typically: 110-115
Considers the components of lime, alumina, silica, iron, magnesia, and alkalis, which all
directly influence burnability.
= 100 X LSF + 10 X SR -3 (MgO + Alkalis) Clinker

Higher B.F. Harder to burn

Complicated tests and formulas exist to arrive at a direct indication of free lime. Based on the
feed composition, free lime content of two mixes would be different at the same burning zone
temperature.
Rule of thumb:
•K2SO4 improves the burnability.
•A 1% increase in the SO3 lowers the combustion temperature by 60oC
•A 1% increase in K2O increases the combustion temperature by 30oC
 Raw mix control

Burnability vs LSF
We need to control the LSF so that we can control the C2S / C3S combinations in clinker

Too high LSF is :

 Hard to burn which will lead to high fuel consumption thus more Sulphur entry.
 Tend to have high free lime and C3S values in clinker which will result in high early strength.

Too low LSF is :

 Easy to burn
 Cause excess coating due to high liquid phase which can cause possible brick infiltration
 Tend to have low free limes, low C3S and High C2S values in the clinker which will result in
reduced cement strength
 Raw mix control

Raw mix ratios

It is based on the available raw materials. You use these to design the required raw mix to produce the desired
type of clinker.
Predicting Determining
.Clinker characteristics will Quantitative composition of the raw mix
.Burnability
Fe2O3 Al2O3 SiO2 CaCO3

There are 3 main raw mix indicators used to predict clinker characteristics and burnability

LSF SR AR

Strengths for Used to indicate burnability

1, 2, 7, and 28 days
Which is also the result of the C3S
 Raw mix control
Burnability vs LSF
The normal range for LSF is from 90 to 96% depending on
the fuel ash chemistry and the quality targets. Clinker
Lets look at 3 scenarios in a
perfect burning environment:
[Link]
 Theoretical lime required: C4AF C3A C2S
0%
[Link]
C4AF C3A C2S
0%
 In a perfect condition there was enough lime to form C2S and enough lime left to combine with the C2S to
form C3S, but there is no FCaO left over.

 If the lime is less than the required [Link]

C4AF C3A C2S
theoretical lime (under limed mix) : 0%
 In this scenario there was enough lime to form C S, but there was no lime left to combine with C S to make
2 2

C S.
3

 If the lime is more than the required C4AF C3A C2S [Link]
theoretical lime (over limed mix) : 3-5 %
The total amount of lime is more than required for the combination. In this case most of the C2S formed is
changed into C3S by the available lime. There is high [Link] regardless of how the kiln is burned.
 Raw mix control

LSF ratio
The burning zone temperature requirements regarding to LSF
Clinkering temperature °C

Lime Saturation Factor

 Raw mix control
Burnability vs SR
To form the desired C3S, we need certain quantities of C and S. Thus, (A + F) cannot be extremely high, will
look at this shortly
Fe2O3 AL2O3 SiO2 CaCO3

Silica and lime

Fluxes
combinations

Silica ratio = SiO2 S

____________ = ______
Al2O3 + Fe2O3 F+A

The SR target is between 2.2 and 3.2%. For values less than
2.2% the raw mix is very easy to burn and the value of the C S
3

and the C2S compared to the fluxes becomes very low and the
cement strength will decrease.
 Raw mix control

Burnability vs SR
The Silica ratio is the main indicator of the burnability of the raw mix. The standard deviation should
not be higher than 0.05%

If = A +F SR

C3A + C4AF

Percentage of liquid Burning

phase time
= Formation of C2S &
Easier Burning C3S easier, less
fCao
 Raw mix control
Silica ratio
The burning zone temperature requirements regarding the SR
Clinkering temperature °C

Silica ratio
 Raw mix control
Silica ratio
. The liquid phase facilitates the formation of C3S. The higher the liquid content the easier to burn.
Too high Silica ratio :
Weakens the burnability of the clinker that results in hard burning
Reduces liquid phase content
Causes a thermal load in the kiln
It creates no coating or strip/remove the coating
Kiln stays dusty and unstable
Creates a high Free lime
Reduces the tendency toward formation of coating in the kiln
Causes a slow setting and hardening of the cement
Too low Silica ratio:
Increases liquid phase content
Improves the burnability of the clinker that results in easier burning. Less fuel.
A tendency of brick infiltration
Create hard clinker and some times create large clinker balls.
Improves formation of coating in the kiln
When the silica ratio is low, there is more liquid phase. The mix is easier to burn but the C3S content will be lower.
The liquid phase facilitates the formation of C3S. The higher the liquid content the easier to burn.
 Raw mix control

Burnability vs AR
The alumina ratio defines the quantity of aluminates (C3A) compared to the quantity of alumino-
ferrites (C4AF). It promotes the formation of clinker in an industrial environment. This ratio also
governs the C3A content and the cement color.

Fluxes

A
AR = ----------
F

The target of the AR is 1.3 to 2.0%. The iron, which melts

at a lower temperature than the alumina decreases the
viscosity of the liquid and increases the diffusion ratio of
= Liquid phase ions in the formation of C3S
67
 Raw mix control

Burnability VS AR
SO what happen to C3A if all the alumina ratio is changed:
A is consumed for the formation of C4AF and C3A is formed from the rest of A

When AR ≤ 0.638,both oxides present in their

molecular ratios, therefore only C4AF can be
formed in the clinker and there will be No C3A
in the clinker

C3A is typically 8-12% in the clinker anything less that this will influence the early or initial
strength of the cement.
The more iron the darker the cement
This ratio has a more important impact on the coating formation in the kiln.
 Raw mix control

Alumina ratio
The burning zone temperature requirements regarding the AR
Clinkering temperature °C

Alumina ratio %
 Raw mix control

Alumina ratio
The liquid phase facilitates the formation of C3S. The higher the liquid content the
easier the burning. It influences the formation of the crystals which influences the early
day strength

Too high alumina ratio :

 Weakens the burnability of the clinker that results in hard burning
 Reduces liquid phase content
 Increase the C3A and reduces the C4AF contents.
 Tends to render quick setting times as well as high early strengths.

Too low alumina ratio:

 Leads to easier burning
 Improves the burnability of the clinker that results in easier burning. Less fuel.
 Makes the clinker sticky and tends to create large clinker balls if there is no free
silica
 Raw mix control

The effect on coating by SR and AR

Coating behavior
Thick coating Very thin coating
Clinker ball or sinter ring formation dusty clinker
(plenty of viscous melt phase) (little of viscous melt phase)
1.9
AR
Normal
1.6
Coating

1.3
Thin coating Thin coating
refractories attack (little of fluid melt phase)
(plenty of fluid melt phase)
2.2 2.5 2.8

SR
 Raw mix control

Raw Mix fineness

The burnability is proportional to the raw mix fineness. The finer the material the easier it is for the
reaction to occur, thus less fuel is required for the reactions.

With large particles there is fewer spots. This

means there is less heat exchange between the
particles thus less combination of particles

With smaller particles there is more connection spots. By increasing

the number of contact areas for heat exchange is improved, thus a
lower burning zone temperature is needed for the same reaction.
 Raw mix control

Raw Mix fineness

The burning zone temperature requirements regarding the fineness of the material
Clinkering temperature °C

Particles > 90 um (%)

 Raw mix control

Particle size & size distribution

 Whether a grain of material reacts fully under given burning conditions depends on its diameter,
structure and chemical composition.

 Some materials are more difficult to break into fine particles than others. This is the concept of
grindability. Grindability is important for the raw mill production rate but it is also crucial for the raw mix
quality.

 If two materials have different grindability they will have different fineness in the raw mix. A typical
case is a mix made of limestone and sandstone. Since limestone is softer than sandstone, most of the
fine particles will consist of limestone and most of the coarse ones will be made of sandstone. The
sandstone being coarser, it is more difficult to combine its silica molecules with the lime molecules.
This raw mix will be qualified as difficult to burn.

 Some times there must be a tradeoff between burnability and raw mill production. As milling
finer can cause loss in output and an increase in energy consumption.
 Raw mix control

Raw Mix Uniformity

Variable kiln feed result in:
Kiln instability
Lower production rate
Irregular volatilization
Ring formation
Preheater plugging
Clinker over burning
Cost increase
Lower reactivity Low cement to clinker ratio‘s (CK ratio)
Poorer grindability
Higher heat consumption
Reduced kiln and cooler life
(Refractory and mechanical parts)
Irregular clinker chemistry
Poor C3S formation
Fluctuation in [Link] control
 Raw mix control

.
Raw mix uniformity
Lets look at the causes for bad raw mix uniformity!
Fineness
Particle size distribution
Kiln dust changes Poor quality control
Quantity and composition Manual control
Sampling frequency
Weigh feeders problem
Raw materials Non
Chemical composition variability uniform
Mineralogical composition
Raw mix Analysis problem
XRF calibration problem
Analyzer breakdown
Sampling
Manual sampling
Unreliable sampler
Non representative sample Homogenization efficiency
Mechanical problems
Low level of raw meal silo
 Raw mix control

.
Good Quality control
A well established quality control concept is essential to:

 Support optimum production process conditions

 Help to minimize production costs
 Ensure desired product quality and uniformity

It substantially contributes to the

overall success of a cement plant
 Raw mix control

Principles
.
of modern Quality Control:
•Adequacy
Emphasis to be laid on areas associated with high risks and high costs for process and product.

•Anticipation
Prevention rather than cure. Concentrate efforts at earliest possible stage, to enable corrections before
process or product is affected.

•Rationalization
Liberation of personnel from simple routine work, by application of fast, reliable and possibly automated
sampling and testing equipment.

•Systems Integration
Compatibility of control concept with process control and product requirement, from raw materials to
cement application.
 Raw mix control

Frequency
. control (Low / High):
Here, the sampling frequency and correction frequency on are the same.

Sampling Frequency = Correction Frequency

2 Rules to remember :
1. The higher the control frequency, the higher the frequency of the variations that can be
controlled

* The first criteria for the sampling frequency is often manpower and availability of the analysis
equipment.
* It is obvious that corrections every two hours will not have any impact on 30-minute cycles.
• The retention time is an important consideration. If it takes 30 minutes for the material to travel from
the weigh feeders to the sampling location, any correction done before that period will just make
things worst

[Link] must NOT be made before results of the previous correction are seen
* Retention time
 Raw mix control

Poor quality control

.
Weight feeder problems :
•Check the operational range (Max, Min=Max/10)
•Avoid using the weigh feeder at low outputs. A belt weigh feeder is most accurate when it runs at more than 60% of
its capacity.
•Regular Zero checks and span checks

•Reliability
•Blockages
•Lack of material

•Cleaning
•To avoid off-set

•PID tuning, has to be on target

•Regular check of the reaction time of the weigh feeder between actual and set point.
 Raw mix control
Analysis Problems
.
The chemical analysis allows us to determine if one element, approximately or exactly how much
is present.
There is two major types of analysis: 1. Wet
2. Instrumental
• Sampling and sample preparation are the most important part in the analysis, if it was not
sampled at the right place, time or not well prepared, we would be inducing an error without
knowing it.

• Samples must be fine, well homogenized, dry and of the same weight.
• Some important steps need to be followed in every case, before chemical or physical
analysis is performed;
-identification
-splitting [to get a representative sample]
-crushing
-pulverizing [passing 150 microns]
• XRF calibrations by means of calibration curves for each elements of concern.
• XRF principle may be somehow complex
• XRF or analyzer breakdowns
Homogenization and storage of raw meal

General:
The raw meal is separated in the raw mill cyclones and
conveyed to the CF- silo by air slide and an elevator.
CF-silo provides a kiln feed of constant chemical
composition and fineness
CF-silo provides intermediate storage of raw meal which
allows maintenance on raw mill system etc.
Metered kiln feed is conveyed to the top of pre heater by
an air lift or elevator.
Homogenization and storage of raw meal

.
 The CF silo is a continuous operation homogenizing and storage silo for feeding
and extraction of raw meal for cement production.
 The material is continuously supplied to the silo via an inlet located in the center of
silo top
The raw meal extracts at different rates from the silo bottom.
The homogenization efficiency of a silo is defined as:

H = Si
Su
Where:
H - Homogenizing efficiency
Si - The standard deviation of the composition of the material entering the silo
Su - The standard deviation of the composition of the material leaving the silo
Homogenization and storage of raw meal

The attainable homogenizing efficiency of the CF-silo depends on the

following factors.
1, The extraction distribution control.
2, The efficiency of aeration at the bottom of the silo and in the bin
3, The size of active storage volume.

Different extraction rates of the extraction holes have the effect that the layers are
offset during the sinking process in the silo so that layers with different lime
saturation factor leave the silo simultaneously.
Homogenization and storage of raw meal

Controlled flow inverted cone blending silo

The raw meal is discharged into the silo uniformly in

the radial pattern through the aerated stock distributer
and eight short and four long air slides.
There is a large round concrete cone at the center of
the silo bottom through which the raw meal weight in
side the silo transferred to the silo wall

The annular space which is found between the cone

and the silo wall is divided into zones inclined to the
silo center.
Homogenization and storage of raw meal

There are 8 -10 air supply zones at the bottom of blending and homogenizing silo.
Each zone is provided with aeration boxes and one electric ball valve for air supply.
Two zones are aerated at a time diagonally for predetermined time.
The bottom of blending and weighing tank is provided with aeration boxes in the
discharge zone, fluidizing air supplied from the root blowers through the electric ball
valves.
Performance of blending and storage silo is monitored by homogenization efficiency
Homogenization and storage of raw meal

Controlled flow Inverted cone silo

Homogenization and storage of raw meal

Blending silo
The efficient blending silo does efficient blending with minimum
energy.
The variation in chemistry at the silo outlet is expected to be
minimum possible

Standard deviation of LSF <1

Standard deviation of CaO < 0.2
Standard deviation of Silica ratio < 0.1
Standard deviation of A/F < 0.01
 Pyroprocessing
Pyroprocessing: is an important stage in
cement manufacturing process. In this process,
materials are subjected to high temperatures
so as to cause a chemical or physical changes.
Its control improves efficiency in energy utilization
and hence enhances production for good quality
assurance
 It is a thermal processing unit
 Steadily increasing temperatures from 9000C
to 14500C
 Raw feed transitions through distinct zones in
the whole system
 For the creation of a new artificial mineral
called……Clinker
 Cont‘d

Introduction 1450oc
Clinkerization
1300oc
Chemical and physical Clinker
transformation
C3S
. C2S
C3A
900oc
C4AF
[Link]
Rapid cooling
100OC

Stable
clinker
Raw Mix
 Cont’d

Oxides

Fe2o3 Al2O3 SiO2 Cao

Others
F A S C

Fluxes Silica 1450OC

Silica combination

C2S

C3A

Liquid phase
90OC
 Cont‘d

.
Material flow Gas flow
 Cont‘d

Heat transfer in the kiln

It is critical to know that the kiln is actually a complicated heat exchanger.
Radiation is the most important heat exchange source in a kiln.

Flame radiation Brick wall heat up

Radiation: from the wall that Conduction: The heat

from the walls that are Convectional: The heat
is not in contact with the that is carried by the
material in contact with the
material gasses

Material bed
heat up
Conduction and Overall heating of the
mixing of material material in the kiln
Cont‘d

Clinker
 Cont‘d

Types of kiln system

Wet Process: Slurry, 25..40% H2O

Semi Wet Process: Cake Nodules, 17..21% H2O

Semi Dry Process: Meal-Nodules, 10..12% H2O

Dry Process: Meal,< 1% H2O

 Cont‘d

Wet process:
 Feed enters the kiln in the form of slurry
 Moisture content up to 40%
 Additional dehydration zone requires the kiln be longer than dry kilns
 Requires more fuel
ADVANTAGES
Uniformly blended feed
Lower dust losses
suitable for moist climate regions
High specific heat consumption
waste fuels
Robust process
Operational comments high moisture alternative raw materials
Brick life limitations
high thermal loading in BZ
 Cont‘d

Long dry process:

 Operate with a high back-end temperature
 Typically have chain sections at the feed end
 Suitable for cogeneration of electrical power
 Issues
.Combustion emissions
.Operator control practices
 Can be highly competitive
If entire process (plant) optimized
 Reasonable specific heat consumption
Operational comments not a precalciner but not wet process
not ―forced‖ to use waste fuels
 Volatile cycles must be recognized & managed
 Tendency to overburn
long burning zone, lower quality
 Cont‘d

Preheater kilns:
 Feed is preheated and partly calcined
by the kiln exit gases in cyclone tower
 Heat exchange mechanism
Operational
cold material in suspension with hot gases in cyclones comments
 Tower plug-ups
High concentration of alkalis, sulfur and chlorine in the kiln exit gases
often requires bypass
Advantages of Precalcining:
 More stable kiln operation
 Smaller dimensions of rotary kiln  Fire low grade fuel in precalciner
 Lower specific thermal load of kiln tube  Lower downtime (stability, refractory life)
 Increased refractory life  Increase capacity of existing pre-heater kilns
 Possibility of large capacities (8000 tpd)  Volatile problems
 Independent calcining fuel control  more easily controlled
 Cont‘d

Comparison of different process on heat consumption

6000
Heat consumption,MJ/t

5000

4000

3000

2000

1000

0
Long wet Long dry preheater Precalciner
 Cont‘d

Kiln size VS capacity (typical figures)

We process 4.5*150m 1200t/d

Long kiln dry process 4.5*150m 1500t/d

Short kiln dry process 4.5*64m 1700t/d

Precalciner kiln 4.5*64m 4200t/d

It is clear that the kiln was becoming shorter for the same diameter but
could produce almost 3 times more.
It also resulted in lower cost for installation as well as a smaller area
required for the plant.
 Cont‘d

Reducing the retention time

It is the amount of time material spends inside kiln.
Long Wet ≈ 2.5 hrs
Long Dry ≈ 2 hrs
Precalciner ≈ 0.5 hrs

It takes much quicker to make more clinker in a shorter time.

The length of the kilns will depend on the type of preheater designs.
There are two types :
Suspension Preheaters = Stack of cyclones that improves heat exchange.

Precalciners Preheaters = Stack of cyclones with an additional heat source at the

preheater
 Cont‘d

To improve the efficiency of a rotary kiln:

It is made up of a stack of cyclones, in order to complete some
reactions and heat up the material before the material enters the
kiln
In the tower there is heat exchanges between material & gases

The preheater kiln

 Decarbonation levels can be reached up 40% before
the material enters the kiln
 The kiln is shorter
 The heat consumption is lower.
 Higher Capacity (up to 3000 t/d)
 Cont‘d

Preheater with calciner

 Another possibility to increase rotary kiln
performance is to add a secondary heat source
upstream in a preheater, which will fulfill a
maximum of reactions.

This is the most modern way of preparing the raw mix before it
enters the kiln, but it can be used only on dry meal. The
exchanges exist due to the air which transports the fine material
The precalciner kiln:
 Decarbonation rates can reached up to 95 % before the
material enters the kiln (Calcination).
 The kiln is shorter than a preheater kiln as the kiln does not
have to do the rest of the calcination.
 Lower Heat Consumption
Secondary fuel
entry point
 Higher Capacity (up to 12000t/d)
 Cont‘d

Thermodynamics of Clinker formation

Temp. (oC) Type of Reaction Heat Change /Reaction
20 -100 Evaporation of free H2O Endothermic
100 -300 Loss of physically absorbed H2O Endothermic
400 -900 Removal of structural H2O Endothermic
(H2O, OH groups from clay minerals)
600 -900 Dissociation of CO2 from Endothermic
>800 Formation of intermediate products, belite,
aluminate and ferrite Exothermic
>1250 Formation of liquid phase and
( aluminate ferrite melts) Formation of alite Endothermic
1300 -1240 Crystallization of liquid phase into mainly
(cooling cycle) aluminate and ferrite Exothermic
 Cont‘d

Reaction in the themodynamics process of clinker

 Cont‘d

Major equipment description

Preheater & Cyclone
Precalciner
Kiln
Cooler
Now look at the equipment in the kiln system in order to:
List the main components
Describe their function
Describe their specification
 Cont‘d

. Preheater and Cyclones:

lets look at the following processes in the preheater cyclones

Heat exchange principles:

 Heat exchanges in the cyclone
 Gas & material flow in the tower
 Temperature in the tower
 Pressures in the tower
 Preheater sensors

Sketch the prehaeter string and show material and gas flows
Discuss working principles of preheater cyclones
How does the heat exchange process undergoing in the
preheater tower?
 Cont‘d
Heat exchange
What is the objective:
To prepare the raw mix by increasing the raw mix temperature from between 60 and
90oC to around 900oC before entering the kiln.
What method is used to increase the raw mix temperature:
By recuperating the heat contained in the hot gas that comes from the kiln. It is when
the material absorbs the heat of the hot gases.
Remember… It takes place in the risers between the splash box and the inlet of
the next cyclone. This is the area where the gas and material is in the same
direction.
But the efficiency of heat exchange between gas rising up the preheater and kiln feed
descending down the preheater is determined by the condition of the splash boxes and
meal distribution plates in the preheater
The collection efficiency of the cyclones determines the total load recirculating in the
preheater, and the migration of preheated material up the preheater.
 Cont‘d

Preheated material migrating up the preheater due to poor cyclone collection

efficiency lifts preheater exhaust temperature and the fuel consumption of the kiln.

Migration of partially calcined material up the preheater from the lowest stage
cyclone increases the likelihood of recarbonation, seriously increasing the fuel
consumption of the kiln.

The condition of the feed flaps prevents short-circuiting of gases through the
cyclones and attendant danger of preheater blockages.

The proper functioning of the splash boxes and meal distribution plates also causes
volatiles to condense on the feed rather than the inner walls of the ducts as build-up,
again reducing the likelihood of preheater blockages.
 Cont‘d

With the internals of the preheater in good condition it should be possible to lower
the preheater exhaust gas temperature from a 5-stage preheater to 310ºC. With a
4stage preheater it should be possible to achieve preheater exhaust gas
temperature of 330ºC. Other factors such as combustion of organic material in the
feed or oxidation of sulphides can also lead to higher preheater exit temperatures.

Higher preheater exit temperatures mean higher kiln fuel consumption and lower
clinker productivity as a greater volume of combustion product gases have to be
exhausted from the kiln. These are the reasons why the internal fittings of a cement
kiln preheater must be maintained in good condition.
 Cont‘d

In order to optimize the thermal transfer in a preheater, the heat exchange between
gases & material has to be progressive.…………It all depends on the number of stage in the preheater.
6-stage preheater
5-stage preheater

4-stage preheater
Conversion of 4 stage preheater to 5
stage preheater saves 28 Kcal/kgcl.
Conversion

Conversion of 5 stage preheater to 6

stage preheater saves an additional
14 Kcal/kgcl.
 Cont‘d

The principle of heat exchange

What will happen with the material and gas temperatures during the heat exchange in the
preheater?

The gas gives of most of the heat to the material. This transformation is called co-current or
parallel flow.
 Cont‘d
Lets look at the following example:
The material being perfectly dispersed into the hot gas is a requirement for good heat exchange.
 In this area the material and gas is moving in the same direction therefore it is co-current.
 The material and the gas needs to be separated before going to the next stage.

3650C 5850C
What is the temperature of the
material after the heat exchange?

585°C is the right answer! When they separate, gas &

material are practically at the same temperature.
However, in practice, material temperature is slightly lower.
Rule of thumb: the gas temperatures leaving a cyclone
should not be more than 200C of material temperature.

7750C …...?0C
 Cont‘d

Heat exchange factors:

The heat exchange factors are basically retention time and particle size of the material

The heat exchange is influenced by:

 The contact area between the gas and the material. The contact area is a function of the raw mix
fineness. The fineness level is selected to maximize reaction during the burning process.

 The elapsed time of the contact between material and gas. The elapsed time depend on the gas
speed. The speed is a function of the duct work (length and with) and fan speed.

•The material travels through the preheater in less that 30 seconds.

•The material is ready at 8500C for clinkering in the kiln.

 Cont‘d

Where does the mixing of material and gas happen on the preheater cyclones?
Material

It is at the splash box where the mixing of gas and

material take place. The gas comes from the cyclone
below or the kiln inlet. The material comes from the Splash box
cyclone above or from the kiln feed.

It happens in the cyclone due to a drop in Gas

gas speed. The area of the cyclone is
about 4 times larger than the riser (where
the material and gas enters). Thus the gas
speed is 4 times lower in the cyclone and
the material will not be suspended in the
gas.
 Cont‘d

Separation
Where does separation happen on a cyclone?

 It happens in the cyclone due to a drop in gas speed or pressure.

 The area of the cyclone is about 4 times larger than the riser (where
the material and gas enters)
 Thus the gas speed is 4 times lower in the cyclone and the material
will not be suspended in the gas.
 Separation is a function of centrifugal and gravitational force
 The circular movement caused by the vortex and gas speed creates a
centrifugal force that pushes the material to the walls of the cyclone. At
the walls the lower gas speed and friction slows the material down. The
material slides down the cyclone wall into the cone by there own weight.
Gas and fine particles moves back to the cyclone they came from
through the vortex. This process is called recirculation
 Cont‘d

Flap valve
The function of the flap valve is to prevent gas to pass
through the feed pipe.
 The flap must always move freely
 The flap must all be adjusted properly
No air to pass through
 If it is too light gas will pass through the feed pipe and
cause blockages.
 If it is to heavy it will retain material in the cyclone that can
cause blockages and uneven flow of material (uneven flow
will cause a cycle in the kiln)
 Cont‘d
Dip tube or vortex
Stage 1
.

The function of the vortex is to avoid or reduce the shortcut of dust

laden gas to the gas outlet and to maintain the centrifugal force.

The length of the vortex is different for each cyclone

Stage 2
 Top stage: 100% gas inlet height
 Intermediate stage: 75% gas inlet height
 Bottom stage: 50% gas inlet height

Stage 3,4,5
The separation efficiency of a cyclone is 95%, thus meaning that 95% of the
material will go to the feed pipe and 5% of material will leave the cyclone with
the gas through the vortex to the cyclone it came from.
 Cont‘d

Stage 1 cyclone
 1st stage cyclone on the top acts as dedusting cyclones. This is the dust that will go to the bag
filter through the ID fan.
Levers affecting the dedusting efficiency:
 Cyclone design,
Dip tube lengths of 1st and 2nd stage cyclones.
Cyclone bull nose condition
 The particle size distribution of the kiln feed (which you have controlled over)
 Operation of gas flow and temperatures (which you have controlled over)
Consequences of inefficient separation of cyclone:
 Heat loss through the preheater (typically 30 to 60 kJ/Kgcl),
 ID fan capacity limitation with the risk of coating and vibrations
 Transportation problems from the dedusting transport and limiting the kiln feed transport system.
 Large impact on the kiln feed consistency
 Cont’d

Typical problems on cyclones

High velocity
Dip tube missing
/damaged

Meal flap not

working/stuck
False air ingress

Splash plate worn out;

splash box not clean
Material build up

Cyclone blockage Blasters not functional

Thermocouple displaced
/misallocated
 Cont‘d

Cyclone Blockage
Reasons:
 Overheating (during start ups and feed loss), excessive Chlorine/Sulphur, coating
drops, pendulum flap malfunctioning, foreign bodies like vortex pieces or castable
and bricks)
Most common - forgotten items after maintenance
All the above mentioned leads to a kiln stoppage
 The longer you fill the cyclone, the longer the stoppage to clean
 The larger the cyclone, the more difficult to clean
 Suction rings and blockage detectors should be in place to detect a blockage (but
sensor accuracy and reliability is not perfect) you should observe the trends.
Indications;
The cyclone bottom pressure decrease dramatically (leads to positive side
What should you do incase of a blockage indication?
 Cross check what is happening in the field
 Cont‘d

Check if meal and gas exit temperatures are still fluctuating parallel to
each other.
Check temperatures and pressures of bottom cyclones.

Remedial actions
Stop the kiln system
 develop slight negative pressure in the pre heater tower
Stop the kiln drive and start continuous barring
Remove the blockage by using appropriate tools
 Cont‘d

Preheater cyclone questions

Gas and material flow in the preheater
1 Sketch a single stream 4 stage preheater with out a tertiary air duct, show gas and
meal flow and directions.

2. Sketch a single stream 5 stage preheater with a tertiary air duct, show gas and
meal flow and directions.

3. Sketch a double stream 5 stage preheater with a tertiary air duct, show gas and
meal flow and directions.
 Precalciner

To carry out decarbonation reaction outside the kiln tube

You can decarbonate the material With this system the heat energy
separately before it enters the is introduced at the location
kiln. This system should have its where it is needed the most.
own fuel supply. The preheater

This way all the heat energy from the secondary

burner is used for decarbonating the material at a
constant temperature between 800 and 850oC
depending on the calcination degree. At this stage
the material is still in a powder form. The kiln will
then only do 5 to 10% of the decarbonation and
This is calciner vessel
the rest will be for clinkering.
 Cont‘d

Functions of precalciner
 To decompose calcium carbonate
 To decrease the kiln thermal load
 To increase the production of kiln
 To increase the fuel efficiency
 Cont‘d

Precalciner:
A combustion chamber / reactor integrated in the suspension preheater where up to 60% of the total heat input is
generated to calcine the kiln meal up to 95% before it enters the rotary kiln.

Tertiary Air:
The hot air extracted from the clinker cooler used for combustion of the precalciner fuel.

Secondary Air
The hot air entering the rotary kiln from the clinker cooler used for combustion of the main burner fuel.
Precalciner is controlled according to the Gas Temperature at exit of bottom cyclone; Normally 8400C to 8900C
or, More recently the meal temperature of the meal leaving the bottom cyclone: Normally also between 820oC
and 860oC.
These temperatures are only controlled by the fuel rate of the secondary burner. The lower the temperature the
more fuel must be used at the calciner. Always take in consideration the degree of calcination. The lower the
calcination the higher must the temperature be.
 Cont‘d
Working Principle of the precalciner
 The raw meal is dispersed, heated and decomposed by high temperature gas from
the kiln and tertiary air from the cooler.
 The fuel is sprayed into the precalciner and combust in the calciner vessel, the
temperature of the raw meal continues to rise up the calcium carbonate (CaCO3) in
the raw meal is decomposed 90-95% calcium carbonate is decomposed in the
calciner.
 90-95% calcium carbonate is decomposed in the calciner.
 60% of the total fuel is injected in the calciner
 Air for the combustion in the calciner consists of the kiln gas, tertiary air and fuel
conveying air.
 It is required, the calciner temperature is kept constant in the range of 860-880C. to
ensure a constant degree of calcinations of material entering the kiln
 Cont‘d
The kiln control structure
 The clinker burning process has inherent properties where stable
operation automatically implies proper quality of clinker and high
production level. The kiln control structure are thus working with
two main parts of the control strategy.
[Link] of the clinker formation process
[Link] of the combustion process.
 Control of the clinker formation process
 Is a question of maintaining the correct temperature in the burning zone.
 Process stability, clinker quality and production level are elements of
the burning control
 Combustion control: concerns the establishment of the fuel and air level
that minimizes the kcal/kgcl
 Four fundamental rules of clinker burning
Four fundamental rules of clinker burning which in order of priority are:
[Link] of equipment and personnel at all times:
When operating a kiln, avoid all situations, which expose personnel to both health and life risks or
or lead to equipment failures. Each action taken must give this criterion the highest priority
2. Production of well burnt clinker. Neither under burnt nor over burnt.
Clinker produced in the kiln must fulfill specific quality criteria. One of the most important criteria is
Free Lime (FCAO) content and or liter weight Other criteria may include alkali,SO3 and C3S content.
3. Continuous stable kiln operation.
A smooth and stable kiln is achieved when only small adjustments are made to produce the desired.
clinker quality. All process parameters should be in a very narrow band close to a certain target value
Smooth and stable kiln operation helps prolong the lifetime of the refractory and is a prerequisite
maximum thermal efficiency and production rate
[Link]. production with Max. fuel efficiency
The kiln should have an overall production as high as possible with high thermal efficiency.
The most important pre-requisite for a maximum production rate is a stable kiln.
 Cont‘d

Parameters for stable kiln operation

The primary parameters for stable kiln operation

1. Kiln feed chemistry composition 5. Fuel heating value

2. Kiln feed chemistry uniformity 6. Fuel fineness and volatile content
3. Kiln feed fineness 7. Fuel feed rate
8. Clinker cooler operation
4. Kiln feed rate

Parameters the kiln operator varies to control the burning process

1. Quantity of the fuel to the kiln
2. Kiln speed and feed
3. Draft level/ID speed
 Cont‘d
Control parameters are certain process indicators, which
are used to monitor and control the kiln process.
Oxygen at KI (for
coal) 2.5 - 3.5%

The control parameters of a kiln system are:

o Burning Zone Temperature (BZT) Fuel rate

BET
~1150 °C
The BZT represents the clinker temperature within the
Feed rate
sintering zone, where the maximum temperature is
approximately 1450 °C

o Back End Temperature (BET)

The BET is a gas temperature, which is measured to
control the intermediate physical and chemical reactions
of the raw meal before clinker formation occurs. The gas
temperature is an indicator of how far the intermediate
BZT 1450 °C
reactions (basically dry out and calcination) are
advanced.
 Cont‘d
o Oxygen concentration of combustion gases
Oxygen concentration of combustion gases after the main flame is measured to control the excess air
required for complete and efficient combustion in the kiln. The target for oxygen concentration depends
both on the type of kiln system and fuel being burned within the kiln.

control parameters of a pre Calciner kiln system are:

o Precalciner outlet temperature
The temperature at the pre Calciner outlet (gas temperature or meal temperature) is measured to control
the calcination degree of the hot meal. This calcination degree should be kept constant, because the
higher the temperature the higher the calcination degree.

o Oxygen concentration of combustion gases after the precalciner

The oxygen concentration of the combustion gases after the pre Calciner is measured to control the
amount of excess air required for a complete and efficient combustion in the pre Calciner. The target for
the oxygen concentration depends on the type of kiln system and the type of fuel burned in the pre
Calciner.
 Cont‘d
Typical problems that is associated with the Control Parameters:

Instrumentation problems
Inattention of the operators
Lack of documented operating procedures (SOP)
Lack of skills

o Burning Zone temperature:

 The hotter the burning zone, the more complete the transformation of the C3S is and the less residual
FCAO (free lime) remains in the clinker.
 When the clinker leaves the kiln, it should have a FcAo content of 0.5 - 1.5 %
 The appropriate BZT needed to reach the desired FCAO content depends on the burn ability of
material and varies from one kiln to another.
 As the exact BZT cannot be effectively measured, usually secondary indicators are used. They are:
 Cont‘d
The pyrometer measures the intensity or color of radiation in the burning zone. The hotter the measured
clinker and flame, the higher the intensity of radiation and the more the color moves from orange or yellow
to light yellow or white.

o NOx content of the kiln exhaust gases

NOx is the sum of NO and NO2 (most of the NOx is NO). The amount of NOx produced in the flame
depends predominantly on the combustion temperature. The higher the combustion temperature, the more
NOx is produced. NOx formation is also influenced by the amount of excess air. Oxygen promotes the
formation of NOx whereas CO reduces it. The type of fuel used also influences the NOx formation.

o Kiln Amps
The kiln amps have a direct correlation to the torque that has to be applied to rotate the kiln. The higher the
BZT the higher the torque required to turn the kiln (and the higher the kiln amps), since more liquid phase
is formed which lifts the clinker further up in the kiln side and clinker granulation starts earlier. The kiln
amps are influenced by the coating situation in the kiln; therefore kiln amps may change in the long term
without any change in the BZT.
 Cont‘d

Other indicators like the secondary air temperature, position of the dark feed (area where the hot meal
enters the burning zone and starts to form liquid phase and the granulation to clinker balls takes place)
or the sound of the satellite coolers are used to estimate the BZT

o The Kiln back end temperature (BET):

• BET is an intermediate gas temperature measured at the kiln inlet (kilns with preheater) or before the
chain section (kilns with chains)
• If no reliable BET measurement is available, the preheater exit temperature (kilns with preheaters) or
the kiln inlet temperature (kilns with chains) can be used.
• From a trend of gas temperature, the meal temperature can be derived in order to reflect changes in
the degree of meal preparation
• The reactions which the meal has to undergo before it reaches the burning zone are basically drying
and calcination
• If BET increases, these reaction zones will shift to the back of the kiln system
• If the BET decreases, these reaction zones will shift to the front of the kiln system
 Cont‘d

Optimize operating parameters

 Kiln hood pressure
 Secondary air temperature
 Cooler operation
 O2, NOX and CO in the exit gas
 Kiln back end temperature
 Flame characteristics
Kiln shell temperature
Fuel flow rate
 Calciner temperature
 Cont‘d

Controlling parameters in operation:

Temperature:
 Secondary air temperature
 Kiln back end temperature
 Calciner out let temperature
 Cyclone C1 – C6 top temperature
 Cyclone C1_ C6 bottom temperature
 Kiln shell temperature
 Inlet and outlet temperature of exhaust gas collector
 ID fan inlet temperature.
 Burning zone temperature (Radiation [Link].)
 Cont‘d

Pressure:
 Cyclone C1 – C6 top pressure
 Cyclone C1 – C6 bottom pressure
 kiln hood pressure
 Primary air pressure
 kiln in let pressure
 Tertiary air pressure
 Coal conveying blower pressure. Etc
 Cont‘d

Upset condition of the kiln:

Present typical kiln upset conditions, how to detect them and the appropriate counter actions
 Upset conditions are abnormal process conditions that disturb kiln operation and lead to poor
performance.
 It is important to detect upset conditions as early as possible in order to react quickly
 Certain upset conditions need a significant reduction in kiln feed and/or require a kiln shut down
 The typical kiln upset conditions are:
 Ring fall
 Coating fall
 Hot meal flush
 Red spot on kiln shell
 Cyclone blockage

Typical problems that are associated with upset conditions:

 Delayed detection of an upset condition
 Delayed counter action
 No common agreement on how to counteract and on a common strategy
 Cont‘d
Common problems and remedial actions
Blockage in the preheater cyclones:
The cyclone bottom pressure decrease dramatically (leads to positive side)
Possible causes
 Coating in side the cyclone peeled off
 Coating at the conical or discharging pipe
 Discharging flaps can not activated
 Excessively high temperature in the preheater system
 Central pipe dropped down
 Material composition variation
Remedial actions
 Stop the kiln system
 Develop slight negative pressure in the preheater tower
Stop the kiln drive and start continuous barring
Remove the blockage by using appropriate tools
Safety precautions should be in place
 Cont‘d

Operation when in abnormal situation

Kiln coating are dropping down:
Possible Cause
 Thermal regulation in the kiln tube is not stable
 Kiln feed chemistry change
Remedial actions
 Increase the fuel to the main burner
 Decrease the kiln speed
 Decrease the kiln feed
 Cont‘d
Operation when kiln coating is falling:
1. Increase the fuel rate
2. Increase the fuel rate and decrease the kiln speed
3. Increase the fuel rate , decrease feed and speed
Operation when there is under burnt clinker:
1. Increase the calciner temperature
2. Increase fuel to main burner
3. Decrease kiln feed and speed
Operation when unburnt clinker is produced:
1. Decrease the kiln speed, feed and increase the fuel to
the kiln burner
 Cont‘d

Operation when preheater out let temperature increased suddenly:

Possible cause
 Feed is decrease or interrupted
 The 1st stage cyclone is blocked.
Remedial actions
 Increase the feed or recover the feed
 Stop the system and handle the blockage
 Cont‘d
There are 3 types of Rings:
1, Sulfate ring formation
2. Burning zone ring formation
3. Kiln discharge end ring formation
[Link] Ring:
Possible causes
Drop in back end excess air
Kiln back end pressure become more negative
Sulphur volatilization
Effect:
Kiln torque increases
May causes material spillage via the kiln inlet seal
The semscanner shows the sharp drop In kiln shell temperature
 Cont‘d

Remedial actions
Control the circulation load
Reduce the thermal load
Adjust the flame shape
Use low sulphur containing coal

Improve the heat recovery

Increase the fuel rate (increase the calciner temperature)
Increase the raw meal fineness.
Stop shell cooling fan if running there
 Cont‘d
[Link] zone ring formation (Clinker Ring):
 With a normal flame there is a clear separation between the de-carbonation zone and the liquid phase
zone.
 With a short bushy flame the de-carbonation zone shifts down wards and overlap the liquid phase
zone..
 The de-carbonation and liquid zones are mixed and create a sticky load, this occurrence of the two
shapes in the flame forms the ring.
 More liquid phase

Remedial actions:
A reasonable increase in SM in the
Stabilize the flame temperature and shape (flame characteristics)
raw mix eases the growth of the
Increase the draft level ring, so that it breaks up.
Increase the silica modulus
Shift the fuel to the calciner in order to manage the thermal load of the kiln.
 Cont‘d

[Link] discharge end Ring formation:

 Rings form due to local formation of volatilization cycle, kiln feed chemistry or when the neutral point
in the cooler is too far from the cooler back end wall and the heat recuperation is shifted to the cold
parts of the cooler), dust particles to the secondary air flow will increase, the cold dust particles will
stick to the nose ring.
 If the hood draft suction is too high, it creates an in leak of clod air at the nose ring seals. This air
cools the nose ring and then the neutral point of the cooler will be closer to the kiln discharge, this
will cause hot clinker dust in the secondary air flow to stick to the castable.
Partially liquefy clinker mix with the
fines coming from the cooler, and
sticks on the refractory on the coating
which already emerging
Remedial actions:
Action 1
 – Decrease the hood draft set point to as close as possible to zero.
 – Reduce the first 2 cooler fan volumes by at least
 Cont‘d

 This is to increase the secondary air temperature and it will let the ring fall within one to two hours.
 If the ring falls, put the cooler air volumes back to normal, put the hood draft suction back to where it
was and reduce it slightly from the first set point.
Action 2
 Check the cooler operation and fluctuation, it is critical to have the clinker bed as steady as possible,
this will help to have a steady and the secondary air temperature as high as possible.
 Check the cooler fan volume settings and make sure that the fans are doing what the need to do and
that they are operating within the range of the set point.
This is very critical for the first 4 cooler fans.
 Ensure that the hood seal is in good condition and check the operation of the hood seal fans
Action 3
 Stop the cycle of volatile matter
 Shorten the flame shape, retract the burner pipe in order to create thermal shock at the discharge end
ring. (This method is advantageous, not disturbing the production rate)
 Process related kiln zones
PROCESS RELATED KILN ZONESrelated
kiln zones
Practical experience shows that the part of the kiln model can be divided in to
four zones. The zones, of course, are not distinguished by sharp boundaries
but instead they are characterized by the dominant physical and chemical
processes occurring to the material in each zone. These zones are commonly
donated as calcining zone(CZ) , transition zone(TZ) ,Burning zone (BZ),
and Cooling zone (CZ)

Calcining Zone (CZ)

Decarbonation of the carbonates in the raw meal take place
5-10% CaCO3 = CaO + CO2
Formation of C2S is taking place in this calcining zone
2CaO + SiO2 = 2CaO.SiO2
 Cont’d
The material temperature rises only slowly along this zone, in the range of 820 – 900
deg. Cet. However, as soon as all co2 has expelled, the temperature rises rapidly
 At the end of calcining zone about 20 -30% free lime (cao) in the hot meal is found.

Transition Zone (TZ)

 The material temperature in this zone will be in the range of 900 – 1300oC
 This zone is located in side the kiln directly behind the flame where the bed of the
kiln charge has a ‗‘dark‘ ‘color.
 The heating zone is characterized by a sudden rise in the temperature of the kiln
charge since no heat consuming reactions take place
 Cont’d

 Solid phase reactions taking place in this zone

 cao.sio2 + cao = 2cao. Sio2 C2S

 CaO.A l2o3 + 2cao = 3cao.A l203 C3A
 Fe2O3.Al2o3 + 3cao = 4cao.Al2o3.Fe2o3 C4AF

 C2S formation is an exothermic process in which 125kcal/kgcl is evolved

 Cont’d

Burning Zone (BZ)

 This zone begins at the temperature of the charge between 1300 to
1450oc, where the liquid phase is started.
The amount of liquid phase in the kiln is expected to be in the range of
25 -30%, 25% is normal
The liquid phase depends primarily on the chemical composition and
increase very little as the temperature increase.
The melt changes the surface of the solid particles sticky which acts as
binding agent. The internal friction of the charge increases and speed of
the movement is reduced, causing the charge to increase in volume.
The formation of alite (C3S)
2CaO.sio2 + CaO = 3Cao.SiO2 (C3S)
C3S and C2S found as a solid phase in the melt.
 Cont’d

Cooling zone (CZ)

• The cooling zone begins when the material starts to solidify.

 C3S = C2S + CaO

 CaO +CA (C3A5 or C7A12) = C3A

• A rapid cooling generally has a positive effect on the clinker quality as well as
its grindability. For a rapid cooling, the maximum temperature is very close to
the kiln discharge end, resulting in a fairly high clinker exit temperature,
followed by a rapid cooling in the first section of the cooler
 Cont’d
Calculated kiln Zones
Name Position Characteristics
-Unstable coating
Nose ring / Cooling Zone Up to 1.2 m -Fluctuation of cooler Heat Recovery => discharge ring
often appear here
Unstable coating
Lower Transition Zone 1 -2 x D Presence of volatile elements

-Stable Coating
Burning Zone 3xD
-High temperature (hottest zone in the kiln) - Liquid phase
Unstable coating

Upper Transition Zone 3XD Beginning of liquid phase

Risk of clinker ring

No coating

Safety Zone 2xD Raw mix still in powder state (no liquid)

Sulphate rings likely to appear there

-No coating
Preheating / Calcining
Up to the inlet -Raw mix still in powder state (no liquid)
Zone
-Sulphate rings likely to appear at the end of th zone
 Cont’d
Wet process kiln with planetary cooler
Outlet Length 0.4 to 1.0m

Lower Transition Zone Length 1-2xD

Sintering Zone Length 3xD

Upper Transition Zone Length 2-3xD

Safety Zone Length 2xD

Preheating Zone Between safety and chain zone

 Cont’d

Preheater Kiln - Planetary Cooler (< 4.0 m Diameter)

Outlet Zone Length 1-1.5xD

Lower Transition Zone Length 1-2xD

Sintering Zone Length 3xD

Upper Transition Zone Length 2-3xD

Safety Zone Length 2xD

Preheating Zone Reaching from safety zone to 1 m in front of inlet

Inlet Zone About 1m and inlet cone

 Cont’d

Precalciner Kiln - Grate Cooler

Outlet Zone Length 0.4 to 1.0 metre

Lower Transition Zone Length 1-2xD

Sintering Zone Length 6-8xD

Upper Transition Zone Length 2-4xD

Safety Zone Length 2xD

Preheating Zone Reaching from safety zone to 1m in front of inlet

Inlet Zone About 1 m and inlet cone

 Cont‘d

Kiln zones fluctuations

Let’s see how these three factors will affect the Burning zone length
Kiln speed
Kiln feed rate
Kiln feed calcination level
What happens to the burning zone length if we increase the Kiln speed?
Material retention time decreases
Material burning time decrease
preparation of the material is longer
Burning zone is shorter
What happens to the burning zone length if we increase the kiln feed flow rate?
More material to burn
Heavier decarbonation
Burning zone shorter
 The kiln Burner

Adjustment of the kiln burner position in the kiln

What ever the penetration of the burner in the kiln, the burner axis must be
aligned with the kiln axis. The kiln burner is there fore inclined from the
horizontal of the values of the kiln slop.

Adjustment of the burner inclination in the kiln

Orientating the kiln burner on the clinker bed is made for better heat transfer
1) For an inclination adjustment in the vertical plane equipped with ―facilities‖
2) For an inclination adjustment in the horizontal plane equipped with ― facilities‘‘
 Cont‘d

What happens to the burning zone length if we increase

the calcination level of material entering the kiln?

Better prepared material entering the kiln

Shorter calcining zone
 Burning zone longer
 Cont‘d

Cooler
Pyroprocessing zone

& Endothermic 161

 Cont‘d

Optimized cooler operation:

 Increase heat recovery

 Decrease clinker temperature
 Improve kiln stability
 Reduce power consumption
 Reduce vent flow
 Improve clinker quality

162
 Cont‘d

.Learning Objectives Clinker Coolers

 Know the two main tasks of the clinker cooler.

 Know symptoms and cause of the most typical problems of grate cooler
operation.
 Know typical operating parameters of clinker coolers.

Functions of clinker cooler

 Heat recuperation
 Clinker cooling
 Transportation
 Crushing
 Cont‘d

Cooler definition and function

Grate Cooler:
The clinker is discharged onto an air permeable grate where it forms a layer. Cooling air is pressed across
this bed from below through the grate while the clinker is moving from feed end to discharge end in 15 to
20 min, continuously giving heat to the passing air. [Link] recuperation

Main functions of grate cooler:

 Quenching [Link]
 Clinker cooling

[Link] reduction
 Heat recuperation
 Transportation
 Size reduction
2. Cooling
1. Quenching 4. transportation

 Quenching is required to trap and stabilize the new chemical minerals that was formed in the
clinker. This critical stage is from the burning zone to the nose ring.
 Cont‘d

General truths (all coolers)

 The hotter the inlet temperature the hotter the clinker outlet
temperature.
 The hotter the cooling air temperature the hotter the clinker outlet
temperature.
 The longer the air/material contact time the cooler the clinker
outlet temperature.
 Quicker the clinker cooling (quenching) the smaller the crystals,
results in micro cracks of the minerals, improves the soundness of
the clinker (when MgO% exceeds 1.5 %).
 Cont‘d

.
 Cont‘d

Heat exchanging types

 Cont‘d

.
 Cont‘d

How cooling is accomplished

 Cont‘d
Heat exchange
The process used a cross current heat exchange

The hottest air is Cooler excess air is

recuperated for exhausted outside
combustion. the cooler

Clinker travels & forms

a permeable bed on the
top of the grate
Cont‘d
 Cont‘d

Rather uniform-sized nodules are in general an advantage regarding burning

efforts and uniform degree of burning.

Uniform nodule Sizes

Quickly cooled clinkers are favorable for the early strength potential; no alite
is lost. The fine crystalline liquid phase prevents aluminate from an early
hydration. The influence of aluminate on the setting time is limited in quickly
cooled clinker.
 Cont‘d

Influence of cooling on clinker phases

Clinker when it is quenched in cooler it creates micro cracks which
needs less energy for commination during grinding.
 Cont‘d

.
 Cont‘d

2. Clinker cooling
To protect the equipment from high temperature
The clinker handling & storage equipment will not stand with t°> 200°C

To avoid false setting of cement while comminution.

Too high clinker T° can cause dehydration of the gypsum added during cement grinding. This will cause
cement ―stiffness‖ a few minutes after mixing=> Objective: Clinker t°< 110°C

Fast cooling well

Slow cooling
distributed small
Larger crystals
crystals

175
 Cont‘d

3. Heat recuperation
Maximum heat exchange between clinker and air is influenced by:

 Clinker granulometry  Narrow range

 Clinker density  Dense for best conductivity
 Clinker bed thickness  As high as possible
 Air distribution /allocation  Correct air / clinker ratio
 Retention time of clinker  As long as possible

Any change in running condition of kiln can lead to changes in the clinker cooling
and heat recovery.
Wide particle size distribution of clinker can affect the clinker cooling and heat
recovery
Cont‘d
 Cont‘d

4. transportation:

At the kiln discharge, the clinker falls and spreads out

over the grate in a layer of 40 to 80 cm bed thickness

For an even distribution of the clinker on the

static grate the velocity profile must be adjusted
to compensate for the PSD (particle size Fines
distribution) of the clinker to the cooler. The fine Coarse
and the coarse clinker will not fall at the same
place in the cooler.

The grate plates move back & forth (reciprocating motion),

which moves the clinker through the cooler. 178
 Cont‘d

5. Size reduction
The larger chunks of clinker are crushed up by a clinker hammer crusher to size
them for the conveying.

Red River
 A Red River is fine clinker fluidized by cooling air on top of
and on one or both sides of the clinker bed (like air slide).
 Travelling faster than the clinker bed, it has less retention
time, is hotter than the clinker below and radiates on top of
black clinker.
Effect:
Damage on grate side seal
Reduced heat exchange
 Cont‘d

Snow man
 A snowman starts when hot clinker sticks
to the cooler, often in the drop area, and
the following clinker keeps piling up.
 If not removed on time (by air blaster
e.g.) the snowman can reach the kiln
nose ring and must be manually
removed. 1 –2 days kiln stop!
Effect:
Disturbed clinker distribution
Kiln stop
Cont‘d

181
 THE FLAME

To an untrained eye, all flames in the burning zone of a rotary kiln appears
more or less the same.

Flames vary considerably in length, shape, color, direction and point of

ignition

Under stable operating conditions, no changes to the burner assembly or

position are normally made unless hot kiln shell conditions make such an
adjustment necessary. There fore, the flame characteristics should
theoretically remain unchanged.
 Cont’d

 Once the kiln is stable, flame setting can be optimized by adjusting the
primary air pressure and swirl.
 After any adjustment a period of 24hrs have to be observed before any other
adjustment and the following parameters have to be taken in to account.
 Kiln shell temperature
 Burning zone temperature
 Secondary air temperature
 Kiln inlet temperature
 Sulfur volatilization
 O2 and CO content at the kiln inlet
 Cont’d

The flame shape can be adjusted by changing the primary air momentum and swirler position

If primary air pressure nominal and swirl minimum = Thin and short flame.
 If primary air pressure nominal and swirl maximum = Short flame.
 If primary air pressure reduced and swirl minimum = Soft and Long flame
 If primary air pressure reduced and swirl maximum = Wide and long flame exceptional.
 THE FLAME

To an untrained eye, all flames in the burning zone of a rotary kiln appears
more or less the same.

Flames vary considerably in length, shape, color, direction and point of

ignition

Under stable operating conditions, no changes to the burner assembly or

position are normally made unless hot kiln shell conditions make such an
adjustment necessary. There fore, the flame characteristics should
theoretically remain unchanged.
 Cont’d

 Once the kiln is stable, flame setting can be optimized by adjusting the
primary air pressure and swirl.
 After any adjustment a period of 24hrs have to be observed before any other
adjustment and the following parameters have to be taken in to account.
 Kiln shell temperature
 Burning zone temperature
 Secondary air temperature
 Kiln inlet temperature
 Sulfur volatilization
 O2 and CO content at the kiln inlet
 Cont’d

The flame shape can be adjusted by changing the primary air momentum and swirler position

If primary air pressure nominal and swirl minimum = Thin and short flame.
 If primary air pressure nominal and swirl maximum = Short flame.
 If primary air pressure reduced and swirl minimum = Soft and Long flame
 If primary air pressure reduced and swirl maximum = Wide and long flame exceptional.
 Cont’d

The initial ignition of a fuel is dependent on sufficient heat to ignite it and

on sufficient air to obtain its combustion.
 Cont’d
 The plume is the part of the flame in between the burner nozzle and the point of ignition
of the fuel.

Control of plume length is not easily accomplished and is influenced by:

Secondary air temperature,
Kiln interior temperature and
Primary air temperature.

Ignition Temperatures:
Natural gas………………. 600 - 700°c
Pet coke ……… ………. 620˚c
Fuel oil………. …………. 300 - 550°c
Coal …….………………. 200 - 300°c

The natural gas ignition temperature is high , so special care has to be taken when the
lining / coating of the BZ is not warm enough to ignite it.
Petcoke fired kilns tend to have their ignition point of the flame further back in the kiln
than coal or fuel oil fired kilns.
 Cont’d

The flame of an efficient burner

 Cont’d

impingement of partially burned fuel upon the clinker bed or kiln

wall must be avoided at all times.
it is absolutely essential that all the combustion reaction – the
burning of fuel – takes place in the burning zone.
alignment and mechanical condition of the burner is
fundamental to avoid flame impingement
 Cont’d

 We do positioning of the burner for centering

the flame. The positions 1,2,3, 4 and 7 are
close to the refractory and they are away from
the charge. Positions 9 and 8 are close to
charge.
 Only 5 is close to charge and refractory and
this is best as the flame in this gives the best
thermal distribution to do effective burning.
Position 8 & 9 are very close to charge if coal
is trapped it has serious negative impact.
Position 1,4 & 7 is very close to refractory and it
can burn the refractory.
 Cont’d

.
 Cont’d

Different flames
 Cont’d

Different flames
 Cont’d

Longer flame increase the back end temperature resulting in:

Heat loss at kiln exit and hot meal clogging.

Burner Operation

Burning zone, flame-profile

• Low momentum burner
 Cont’d

.
 Cont’d

Heat exchange in the rotary kiln

 Mainly radiation of heat from flame to refractory wall and to charge.

 Conduction of heat from refractory and to charge. Convection of heat within the
charge (particle to particle contact).
Cont‘d
 Cont‘d

•We’ve just seen the Burning Zone Position:

3xD
•The location of the ignition point gives the Burning Zone length that is about 3 times the kiln
diameter.
 Cont‘d

If flame is wrong everything goes wrong whatever you may do with chemistry or
higher heat input through calciner or kiln.
The burning zone needs heat and it can be only obtained from well-shaped
radiant flame .i.e. short, sharp and narrow flame.
 CLINKERING AND PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY

Contents

Raw Mix to Clinker

Main transformation steps
Clinker mineralogy
Clinker quality: impact of major elements
 Cont‘d
Main transformation steps
What is cement?

CSH is obtained by
Cement is a glue Glue = CSH
hydration of C3S

So… our objective is to produce C3S

What are the oxides required to produce C3S

CaO SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3

 Cont‘d

. C3S formation requires some steps

•A & F are used to form the liquid phase which allows the combination of the other
components in an industrial environment (kiln)
•Combination of pure C3S is not achievable in an industrial kiln
C4AF& C3A represent the liquid phase, they are fluxing components

•Lime and Silica combine in C3S at very high temperature:

•3 particles of C + S C3S
•This is not achievable in our conditions, and there is one intermediate step…
As a result, we also produce C2S

•Main Components of clinker are

•C3S & C2S Silicates phase
•C3A & C4AF Aluminates & ferrites
 Cont‘d

Lets look at the different stages.

[Link] evaporation & dehydration
From 100OC to 600OC : free water evaporation &
clays dehydration

Stage 1
[Link] Calcining
Until 900OC / 1000OC : mainly physical phenomena
(drying,decarbonation) & first chemical reactions

[Link]:
From 900OC, then mainly between 1200OC and
1450OC : very complex chemical reactions Stage 2
Liquid phase, then solid state reactions Clinkering

4. Cooling :
Stage 3
From elevated temperature 1450OC down to 100OC Cooling
 Cont‘d
.
Stage 1 : CALCINING
The first stage of burning :
It is called decarbonation which means the releasing of all volatile elements in the raw mix that
will form part of the gasses and will exit via the stack.
c
1. Evaporation of H2O at around 100o , then
2. Releasing of CO2 from limestone (CaCO3) that you are only left with CaO (quick lime)

H2O By losing a part of myself to the

CO2 stack gases, I get my own name in
the cement plant. From now on I am
called C for lime.

CaCO3 820 – 9000c Now during the

burning process I am
ready to combine
Limestone with other particles.
Quick lime
Cao
 Cont‘d

. Stage 2 : CLINKERING
There are 4 stages in the chemical formation of clinker, these four stage
will appear at different temperatures.
1. C4AF
2. C3A
3. C2S
4. C3S
5. [Link]

Remember :
Alumina (A) & Iron (F) represent the liquid phase, they are fluxing components,
without these two elements we will not be able to form C3S in an industrial
environment.
 Cont‘d
.
Stage 1. Formation on C4AF
The iron oxide first combines with alumina and lime to
form a compound C4AF. Any remaining alumina will then react with
lime to form C3A

.
900 – 13300c

+
Here is C4AF family
. At this temperature it is in a liquid phase. All the
F is consumed and there will still be some A left
. for the next stage
Remember….C4AF is a fluxing component
 Cont‘d

Stage 2. Formation on C3A

After the formation of C4AF any remaining alumina will then react with lime to form C3A

. 900 – 13300c

+ Here is C3A family

At this temperature it is in a solid phase, And all
. the F and A in the raw mix had been consumed.

C4AFand C3A generate the liquid phase which accelerates the solid chemical
reactions between silica and lime and hence, contribute to burnability
 Cont‘d

Stage 3. Formation on C2S

After the formation of C4AF and C3A there is still lime left as well as silica that
needs to combine this actually starts at around 800OC.

. 900 – 13300c

+ Here is C2S family

This is the solid chemical reactions
.
between silica and lime

After the formation of C2S there will still be some left that needs to
combine with C2S
 Cont‘d

Stage 4. Formation on C3S

C3S From 1330OC and particularly in the presence of liquid C2S reacts with
remaining lime to form C3S.

. 1330 – 14500c

+ Here is C3S family

. This is the solid chemical reactions
between silica and lime
Generally, the reaction is not complete and some uncombined lime is left
over: it‘s free lime.
 Cont‘d
.
Step 3 : COOLING Quenching is required to trap
1450OC 100OC and stabilize the new chemical
minerals that were formed in
We also need to cool the clinker……..Actually, Fast the clinker. This critical stage is
more than cooling, we need to quench!
= Cooling from the burning zone to the
kiln nose ring.
Too slow cooling causes the following 3 transformation
1 2 3
Decomposing of C3S For high MgO (Magnesia) clinker, it The crystal structure
into C2S + Cao. crystallizes out of its glass structure. of the C3S increase.

The decomposition of the C3S into The crystallization of the The longer the C3S is exposed to
C2S and Cao decreases the short MgO causes cement heat the larger is the growth of the
term strength and reactivity in cement expansion crystal structure and the less reactive
and increases the [Link] a bit. the clinker will be.
 Cont‘d

. Clinker major elements

Chemical Composition Crystal structure

C3S Alite

C2S

C3A &
= Belite

Celite Aluminate &

C4AF Felite Ferro Aluminate

•Alite & Belite are the crystal structures in (C3S and C2S) which are really contained in the clinker
•Alite and Belite contains impurities with in C3S and C2S.
•The small proportions of impurities are:
•Free CaO
•Free magnesia
•Alkali sulphates
•Calcium sulphates…
 Cont‘d
.
Proportion of clinker phases
C3S = 50 to 70%
C2S = 10 to 20%
C3A = 0 to 12%
C4AF = 0 to 15%
Alite crystals
(Scanning Electron Microscope)
C3S/ Alite
Typically 55 to 65% C3S of clinker
Main strength constituent in cement
High initial strength and good final strength
Rapid hydration
Contains impurities (alite): Mg, Al, Fe …
C3S > 65% over burning less reactivity
 Cont‘d

.
Belite crystals
(Scanning Electron Microscope)
C2S/ Belite
Typically 10 to 20% of clinker
Low early strength but good final strength:
+1 % C2S = up to + 0.5 MPa (@ 28 days)
Slow hydration
Contain impurities: alkalis, Al, Fe, etc.
Clinker grindability is badly impacted by
higher C2S
 Cont‘d

.
C3A crystals
(Scanning Electron Microscope)

C3A/ Aluminates
Rapid hydration with heat development Gypsum is
added to control hydration rate
Early strength (@1d and before)
Typically 8 to 10% of clinker
May contain alkali
Important effects on concrete quality-Workability-
Resistance to sulphates in soil/water exposure
 Cont‘d

C4AF / Ferro Aluminates

No impact on strength
Typically 7 to 11% of clinker
C4AF crystals
Color of cement: higher C4AF = darker cement (Scanning Electron Microscope)

IRON
( C4AF )
 Cont‘d

. Optical Microscope of Clinker

-Alite –C3S
-Belite –C2S
-Interstitial phase
(matrix) –A & F
 Cont‘d
. Clinker quality
Cement is a Hydraulic product. It react with water and develop strength by crystallization.

The hardening of cement

takes place over time.

Setting time is the short term Long term hardening builds the
hardening with in a few hours strength in cement

Gypsum is always added to clinker to The 28 days is used to classify the

slow down the hydration and to cement. The cement must meet
regulate the setting time the minimum 28 day strength
requirement
 Cont‘d

. Let’s look at the early day strength

Compare the strengths of C3S and C3A and choose
the correct statements :
A. The 28 day strength is 70Mpa
B. C3S gives fast setting
C. C3A is the strongest
D. C3A hydrates the fastest

The gypsum in the cement slows down the

Ettringite hydration process of the C3A. If there was no
layer ettringite layer the C3A hydration would have
been much faster. C3A contributes to the
early day strengths
 Cont‘d

Let’s see what minerals in the clinker give setting time

The setting time is the transitory stage between liquid phase and solid phase. From the start the
hydration of the C3A and C3S starts to build strengths.
However C3A react extremely fast in the presence of water and that releases a lot of heat, it is
imperative to slow it down to prevent the reaction of the C3A with the available lime in the
cement.

To avoid FLASH SET we need to add Calcium Sulfates (Gypsum) during grinding. When the cement is
mixed with water the formation of the ETTRINGITE water proof layer starts.

Ettringite When the ettringite layer is formed it slows

layer down and regulate the hydration of the C3A,
thus giving the C3S time to hydrate.
C3A + C+ nH
 Cont‘d

Burning too hard

leads to the following:
Burning
too high Crystal size of
Crystal purity of the C3S increased
C3S increases

Grindability
Reduces
Disappearance of
attack openings for
water Risk of poor
grinding
Difficulty in the
hydration process Cement fineness
reduces

Short term strengths

decreases
 Cont‘d

Cooling
. too slow

Burning Cooling too

too high Crystal size of slow
C3S increased

Decomposition of
Grindability
C3S into C2S +
Reduces
Cao

Risk of poor
grinding

Short term strengths All paths leads to the same

decreases Cement fineness conclusion
reduces
 Cont‘d

.Lets look at the risk

of poor grinding

Risk of poor
grinding More Energy
Required

Thus, a higher energy For the same

Cement fineness
consumption for BURNING
implies a corresponding
higher energy consumption
To reach the same
for GRINDING in order to strength
maintain the same cement
strengths.
 Cont‘d

Conclusion
So we need a high quantity of C3S to get our cement strength…..
But….We also need REACTIVE C3S
We will cover later during the course what parameters need to be
mastered in order to produce a reactive cement.

So… over burning

the CLINKER is the
wrong choice.
Proper cooling is a
must…..
Fuels used in cment indusrties

Types of fuels:
Solid fuels (coal, pet coke )
Liquid fuels (furnace oil. Diesel oil).
Gas fuels (natural gas).
Alternate fuels (shredded tyres, waste wood, chemical waste, animal meal, rice
husk, coffee husk).
Fuel lumps are crushed to suitable size depending on the grinding system and
hardgroove index of fuel. The residue depends on the volatile matter
 Cont‘d

.
 Cont‘d

.
 Cont‘d

.
 Cont‘d

Vertical roller mill for coal grinding

The acceptable feed size is 2 % of the roller diameter

 Cont‘d
Comparison between coal types
 Cement grinding

Cement grinding
 Cont‘d
1. Roller Press

Pressure applied to material varies from 3000 –

4000 Kg/m2. They are over dimensioned in order to
operate at lower pressures (2500). Requires a
subsequent de-lump, in order to separate the
resulting paste, except in the case the roller press
feeds a ball mill.
Pressure application angle should be around 6°.
Press consumes 20 to 25 kWh/ton of cement.
Circulation factors range from 6 to 10.
Requires great maintenance.
Wear out elements expected lifetime:
10,000 hours.
 Cont‘d
2,Tubular mill (ball mill)
Rotates at 0.7 - 0.8 of critical speed.
.Consume 35 to 40 kWh/ton.
Circulation factors: 1 to 3.
Requires little maintenance.
Expected lifetime measured in years. It is the most widely used
for cement milling. Its drying capacity is proportional to D2, so in
cement the L/D proportion is 3. In raw meal milling L/D is 1.5, if
humidity is not greater than 3%, a single chamber mill is
recommended. In case the material has humidity greater than
7%, it is necessary to incorporate a flash dryer or change to a
vertical mill. The % of material in suspension will determine
which type of mill should be used. necessary to incorporate a flash
dryer or change to a vertical mill. The % of material in suspension will
determine which type of mill should be used.
 Cont‘d

[Link] Roller Mill

Pressure on material: 300 to 500 Kg/Cm2
Application angle: 12°. The width of the material layer is proportional
to this angle and to the rollers diameter. Consumes 25 to 35 kWh/ton
of cement.
Circulation factors: 3 to 5.
Requires great maintenance.
Wear out elements expected lifetime:
15,000 hours.
Recommended in cases where humidity is greater than 7%, taking
into consideration that abrasive content must remain low. This is why
it is commonly used in raw meal milling. It works better than a ball
mill on plastic materials (clay).
 Cont‘d

The setting is depend on the water molecule of gypsum CaSO4.2H2O

If the water in gypsum at 1250C it results in false setting
If it is partially dehydrated CaSO4.1/2H2O, called hemi –hydrate it
contributes to initial strength. Hence cement temperature to be
maintained > 100 0C and < 125 0C
 Cont‘d

Factors influencing the quality of cement

 Mechanical handling of clinker.

 Chemical and mineralogical
composition of raw mix.
 Chemical and mineralogical Quality
composition of clinker.
 Burning process & cooling process.
 Chemical composition of fuels (ash).
 Circulation phenomena (volatiles).
 Cont‘d

Cement quality tests

 Compressive strength (mortar).

 Modulus of rupture (bending strength).
 Fineness (Blaine or Particle size distribution) Expansion (Le
Chatelier & Auto clave soundness).
 Setting time.
 Cont‘d

Cement strength influencing parameters

 Cont‘d
 One day strength is contributed mainly by C3A,Soluble alkalis, and
.
C3S.

 3 day is contributed mainly by C3S.

 7 days strength is contributed by mainly C3S

 28 days strength is mainly contributed by C2S.

 Apart from the above cement strength is enhanced by higher

fineness of cement.

 Less C3S crystal size achieved by rapid burning and quenching the
clinker in cooler.

 Higher fineness of raw meal also reduces the crystal size of clinker
minerals, i.e. C3S & C2S which enhances the hydraulic reactivity.
 Cont‘d

.
Pre-hydration of clinker
Pre-hydration of clinker minerals can occur:

• As a result of incorrect internal water cooling in cement mill.

• When storing too hot cement in a silo.
• When clinker and especially cement is exposed to humidity.

Please note:
If clinker has more soluble alkalis and sulphates it is highly hygroscopic
especially when pet coke is fired.
In cement silos they form Syngenite, K2SO4. 2CaSO4. H2O which forms lumps and
block the cement silos. Hence venting is must to evacuate moisture and silo cleaning.
Cements having soluble alkalis and sulphates preferably packed in paper bags to
avoid depletion of strength
 Cont‘d

Influence
. of fineness on cement strength
For cements with the same specific surface the increase of the uniformity factor results in increase of
strength of all ages.

The specific surface, the percentage of fractions 3- 32 mm and the uniformity factor n really influences the
development of cement strength.
The influence of 3 - 32 mm fraction and the uniformity factor is higher in cement with higher in specific
surface (> 3400 cm2/g).

The fractions with particle size less than 3 mm contributes only to early strength while the fraction with
particle size more than 24 mm influences strength development significantly.
While the fractions 3 – 16 mm and 16 – 32 mm seems to be more significant factor for specific surface
3500 – 4000 cm2/ g). This is relevant only if the granulomeric distribution is continuous and steep.
The optimistic granulometric distribution of a cement is a continuous and steep (with high uniformity factor)
distribution with a high (65%) content in 3 – 32 mm fraction and specifically in 16 - 24 mm fraction and low
content of fine particles (< 3 mm, 10 %) and specific surface of 2500 –3000 cm2/g according to
Blaine.(high efficiency separator and grinding media distribution plays significantly roll here).
 Cont‘d

Characteristics of Cement
 Cont‘d
Problems Solutions
1 Grinding problems
A False setting lower cement temperature
B Reduced strength add less gypsum
add partly anhydrite
High mill temperature
less water cooling
Correct water cooling
2 Silo Storage

A False setting Shorten storage time Cement temperature < 70 degree

B Reduced strength Increase gypsum dehydration in m

add less gypsum

Lump formation and silo blockage (syngenite use partly anhydrate
C formation

K2SO4. 2CaSO4.H2O decrease K2O content to avoid of

hyngenite
 Cont‘d
Problems Solutions

3 Bad storage

A Reduce strength Shorten storage time

Lump formation Add TED during grinding (Tri ethanol

B amine)
Add hydphobic agent

C Crust formation Use plastic coated bags

D Abnormal setting cover pallets with plastic

 Dust collecting equipment

.
 Dust collecting equipment

Electrostatic Precipitator (ESP):

Electrostatic precipitator, also called electrostatic air
cleaner, a device that uses an electric charge to remove
certain impurities—either solid particles or liquid
droplets—from air or other gases in smokestacks and
other flues.

Electrostatic precipitators operate on the principle of the

attraction of a charged particle for an oppositely charged
collector. They have been used for both collecting
particles for further analysis and for controlling particulate
emissions from sources

Corona is a stream of charged particles such as electrons

and ions that is accelerated by an electric field.

Back corona, the migration of positive ions generated in the

fly ash layer towards the emitting electrodes, which
neutralize the negatively charged particles.
 Cont‘d

Cyclone Dust Collector:

A cyclone dust collector is the simplest and lowest cost
air-material separator. Most commonly found in grain and
woodworking facilities where fibrous dust is managed,
cyclones frequently serve as low-maintenance standalone
dust collectors requiring no compressed air for cleaning
 Dust collecting equipment
Bag Filter:
A baghouse, also known as a baghouse filter, bag filter, or fabric filter is an air pollution control
device and dust collector that removes particulates or gas released from commercial
processes out of the air

Purging air/ pulse clean air

 Cont‘d
7 8 9 4
This type of dust collector cleaning (also known as
11
pressure-jet cleaning) is the most common. A high pressure
12
blast of air is used to remove dust from the bag. The blast
enters the top of the bag tube, temporarily ceasing the 5
10
flow of dirty air. The shock of air causes a wave of 19
expansion to travel down the fabric. The flexing of the bag
shatters and discharges the dust cake. The air burst is about 3
0.1 second and it takes about 0.5 seconds for the shock 14
6
wave to travel down the length of the bag. Due to its rapid
release, the blast of air does not interfere with contaminated 1
Raw gas
gas Dust
1 flowloaden air inlet
11 Diaphragm pulse valve
2 Diffuser Clean gas
12 Pulse control timer outlet
3 Bag cage 15
13 Rotary valve 2
4 Clean air outlet (Plenum)
14 Differential pressure gauge 17
5 Tube sheet
15 Closing valve
6 Filter bag
16 Compressed air bin 16
7 Venturi 18
17 Regulation damper valve 13
8 Locking ring (or snap band fixation)
18 Fan
9 Blowpipe
19 Purge unit with hand reducer
10 Header (compressed air tank) and filter set
 Dust collecting equipment

.
 REFRACTORIES

Introduction
The process of manufacture of clinker include preheating, precalcining, burning and cooling. Each
process associated with different oprating factors;which can be linned with various types of stresses.
Refractories with different properties are required to tackle the particular stresses in that area/ zone

• Heat distribution according to a definite thermal profile,

• Raw meal chemical and physical modifications and
• Different kiln mechanics.

Therefore, the nature and magnitude of the thermal, chemical and mechanical stresses acting on the
refractory lining change along the kiln.

Because the refractories have to perform several duties, usual no single refractory type can fulfill all the
requirements.
A particular refractory is employed to meet each of the different [Link], it is standard practice to
adopt a zoning policy to identify the refractory quality to be used in specific locations in the kiln.
 Cont‘d

REFRACTORIES - DEFINITION

Refractories are inorganic materials having a softening temperature up to 1500c.

They are heat-resistant materials which provide the linings for high-temperature processing units.
They withstand thermal, chemical and mechanical stresses.
 Cont‘d

CHEMICAL CLASSIFICATION OF REFRACTORIES

Refractory materials mainly consist of Al2O3, SiO2, MgO, CaO and Cr2O3 as main
components, either alone or combined [Link] is going out of fashion these
days due to environmental considerations. According to ISO recommendations, there
are:

1. Acidic refractory products

2. Basic refractory products
3. Special products

Each with a defined percentage of the component oxides in the finished products
(bricks as well as un-shaped materials).
 Cont‘d

Acidic Refractories
 Group 1 - High-Alumina products Al2O2 < 56%
 Group 2- High-Alumina products 45% < Al2O3 < 56%
 Fire-Clay products 30% < Al2O3 < 45%
 Acid fire-Clay products 10% < Al2O3 < 30%, SiO2 < 85%
 Clay Dinas products 85% < SiO2 < 93%
 Silica products SiO2 > 93%

Basic Refractories
Magnesite MgO > 80%
Magnesite – Chrome 55% < MgO < 80%
Chrome – Magnesite 25% < MgO < 55%
Chromite - Cr2O3 > 25%, MgO <25%
Fostorite - MgO, Si2O3
Dolomite- CaO, MgO
 Cont‘d

Special Refractories:
 Carbon
 Graphite Blending Material Its Effect
 Zirconium Silicate
 Zirconium Dioxide MgO Gives refractoriness property
 Silicon Carbide
 Carbides (except Silicon Carbide Al2O3 improves Shock resistance property
 Nitrites
Fe2O3 Improves Coatability property
 Borides
 (Except chromite) mag-spinels
Fe2O3 & CaO Improves coatability property
 Products based on more than one oxide
improves therma shock resistance &
(except basic product) ZrO2 reduced alkali infiltration property
 Products based on pure oxides e.g.
Improves abrasion resistance
alumina, silica, magnesia, zirconium Si2O3 property
dioxide
 High purity products
 Cont‘d

REFRACTORY PROPERTIES:

Chemical composition:
Class of product  installation zone
Main aggregate content  Coating potential and thermal conductivity
Secondary aggregate content  Corrosion rate
Type of silicates  Wear by thermal and chemical stress
impurities content and nature  Wear by chemical and thermal stress
Fe2o3 content  Coatability and wear by reduction, (reduce atmosphere in
the kiln tube can chemically reduce the Iron compound in
in the lining)
 Cont‘d
Refractoriness:
Refractoriness is defined as the property of being resistant to softening or deformation.

Refractories are a mixture of crystals and glass and they have no true melting point, the change
from solid to liquid state takes place over a range of temperature.

As the temperature increases:

 Progressive softening of the glassy phase,
 Complete melting of the glassy phase,
 Melting of the crystal phase

Ability to bear load at temperature. A very high load bearing capacity inhibits coating formation
whereas a brick which starts to soften too early will fail.
The load bearing capacity is the temperature at which the refractory starts to soften, when applying a
pressure of 2 Mpa. The load bearing capacity of magnesite bricks should be approximately 150oC above
the burning zone temperature.
 Cont‘d

Kiln lining Selection:

[Link] to Temperature Changes
It is common for the difference in temperature in one cycle ( one rotation) to be 400oC. Thus the
lining must have the ability to resist these constant temperature changes.

In the heating up of a cold kiln it should be noted that in the temperature range 60-300oC magnesite
bricks are sensitive to water and water vapor. In this temperature range, the free MgO of the
magnesite bricks reacts with water to form Mg(OH)[Link] process is connected with an increase in
volume, resulting in the breakdown of the magnesite brick‘s [Link] water one is talking about
here is the combustion water from the flame which may condense on the cold refractory lining. One
should thus heat these bricks through this range fairly rapidly.

2. Resistance to Chemical Attack:

This is probably the single most common cause for refractory failure at present. The chemical
character of the kiln feed with a typical CaO of 65% is strongly basic. In the high temperature of the
burning zone, the kiln feed develops a strong chemical attack against the lining of the burning zone.
 Cont‘d

The kiln feed in the burning zone also consists of 20-25% liquid phase which makes it even more apt to
attack the refractory lining. Magnesite and dolomite are immune to the clinker‘s corrosive attack since
they have basic properties themselves. With coal firing, relatively fast melting ashes contact the kiln
lining with which they enter into reaction.

Additional chemical attack by alkali oxides, sulphur and chlorine is of particular significance – particularly
in preheater kilns where these compounds are effectively trapped and high concentrations are found.
Magchrome bricks and high alumina bricks are particularly prone to alkali attack.

The aggressiveness of the clinker depends on the values of the alumina modulus (AM or alumina ratio)
and the silica ratio (SR). The aggressiveness increases with increasing values of these ratios. With
Alumina ratios between 1,8 and 2,2 and silica ratios between 2,5 and 3,2 the clinker displays no
aggressiveness.
 Cont‘d

[Link] Expansion:
Despite the circumstance that the expansion coefficient of the kiln shell is higher than that of the kiln
lining, the linear thermal expansion of the kiln shell is lower than that of the lining. The reason for this is
the kiln‘s shell temperature, which under normal conditions does not exceed 280 – 365oC, whereas the
mean temperature of the kiln lining amounts to about 800-900oC. In the burning zone, the inside
surface of the kiln‘s lining can reach temperatures of up to 1 350 – 1 400oC. This causes high
compressive stresses, especially on the free surface of the lining which sometimes results in spalling of
the brick‘s upper layer.

To combat this spalling steel plates are used between the bricks. At temperatures above 1 000oC these
plates oxidise and combine with the bricks to a solid block, thus making the lining resistant to spalling.
We have subsequently used magnesite bricks without any steel plates without any adverse spalling
conditions occurring.
 Cont‘d

[Link] SPALLING – THERMAL SHOCK RESISTANCE

SPALLING of a refractory brick is the loss of a hot face layer caused by

extensive cracking.
Thermal spalling is caused by uneven temperature changes in the brick,
that sets up internal stresses due to non-uniform expansion and shrinkage
of the refractory brick.
 Cont‘d

[Link] Conductivity:
A high thermal conductivity of the kiln‘s lining results in overheating of the kiln shell,
and thus extreme heat losses. On the other hand, with a low thermal conductivity it is
difficult to get a protective coating on the refractory lining. In addition to thermal
conductivity the thickness of the lining is also of importance. Obviously one wants a
brick with a low thermal conductivity with good coating characteristics.
In addition to the thermal conductivity the thickness of the lining is of importance. The
recommended thickness is as follows:
Lining Thickness (mm) Kiln Shell Diameter (m)
160 Up to 3,5
180 2,8 – 4,2
200 3,5 – 5,0
220 4,5 – 5,8
250 Above 5,5
 Cont‘d

[Link] to Abrasion:
The kiln feed which during each kiln revolution slides on the kiln lining, causes abrasion of the refractory.
The resistance to abrasion should thus be as high as possible.

The resistance to abrasion is measured in cm3 per cm2 of exposed surface. Magnesite and dolomite
bricks as well as high alumina refractory should have an abrasion loss of no more than 0,2 cm3/cm2.
Refractory with an abrasion loss of more than 0,25 cm3/cm2 should not be used in rotary kilns
[Link]:
The refractory‘s porosity is distinguished between open pore space and true porosity. The true porosity is
the total of both open and closed pores and is ordinarily expressed as the percentage of the total volume
of the refractory brick.

% absolute porosity = Specific gravity – bulk gravity x 100

Specific gravity
 Cont‘d

The increase in mass of a refractory brick in boiling water serves as a basic guide to calculate the
apparent (relative) porosity. Magnesite and dolomite bricks show a relative porosity of about 12-15%
relative porosity of fireclay bricks is about 18-25%.In practical rotary kiln operation the closed pore volume
is not important and is not determined.

A brick with a high porosity promotes permeability of kiln gases as well as sedimentation of condensed
gas components in the pores. This may result in the destruction of the refractory. This is true especially
for alkali laden kiln gases. In this connection it should be mentioned that fireclay brick with 50% Al2O3 is
less alkali-sensitive than high alumina brick.
 Cont‘d

Thermal conductivity relates the rate of heat transfer through the product to the
temperature difference across its faces.

Thermal conductivity values are dependent on many influencing factors:

 Chemical composition
 Mineral composition
 quantity of glass material
 Closed porosity
 Bulk density
 Closed pores size and shape
 Temperature
Magnesia based bricks have a high content of crystalline components and by this
reason their thermal conductivity decreases with rising temperature.
 Cont‘d

In the cement industry there is no generally accepted guidelines for the properties of the
refractories required in the various kiln zones.
a qualitative relationship is hereafter proposed:
Preheating /inlet / calcining zone
Impact and abrasion due to sliding material and impingement of fast moving gases
With fine solid dust particles – Hot modulus of rupture
Temperature changes – Thermal shock resistance
Aggressive vapors attack – Permeability, apparent porosity, chemical composition,
raw materials basis
Safety zone
High temperature variations – Thermal shock resistance
Aggressive vapors attack - Permeability, apparent porosity, chemical composition,
raw materials basis,size of the crystals, hot modulus of
rupture
Chemical attack by eutectic reactions – Apparent porosity, chemical composition
material abrasion – Hot modulus of rupture
 Cont‘d

Transition zones
Very high thermal load – Refractoriness under load, chemical material
composition, hot modulus of rupture
Abrasion – Hot modulus of rupture
High ovalation – Elasticity modulus, hot modulus of rupture
High temperatures changes – Thermal shock resistance
Aggressive vapors attack – Permeabilty, apparent porosity, chemical
composition, raw materials basis,size of
the crystals, hot modulus of rupture

Chemical attack by clinker melt – Chemical composition, apparent porosity

Redox conditions – Chemical composition
CENTRAL BURNING ZONE
Coatability - No approved standard test (magnesita has developed a coating
test ), raw materials basis
Densification and chemical attack by clinker liquid phase penetration – Chemical
composition, raw materials basis, mineral composition,size of the crystals,
apparent porosity.
 Cont‘d

Aggressive vapors attack - Permeabilty, apparent porosity, chemical composition, hot modulus of rupture
High temperature - Refractoriness under load, chemical composition
clinker abrasion – Hot modulus of rupture
High temperatures changes – Thermal shock resistance
Redox conditions - Chemical composition

Cooling/outlet zone
High temperature changes _ Thermal shock resistance
Abrasion and erosion by clinker and clinker dust – Hot modulus of rupture
Aggressive vapors attack - Permeabilty, apparent porosity, chemical composition, raw
materials basis,size of the crystals, hot modulus of rupture
High temperature - Refractoriness under load, chemical composition
 Cont‘d

The kiln is lined with refractory bricks

Different quality of refractory bricks is placed along the full

length of the kiln tube according to gas and material
temperatures as well as chemical reactions inside the kiln

A good insulation will reduce the heat loss throughout the kiln
shell

Good heat protection will avoid warping or even destruction of

the shell due to excessive shell temperatures. the heat loss
throughout the kiln shell
 Cont‘d

The function of the refractories are:

 To protect the shell from the heat

 To insulate - reduce heat losses
 To withstand thermal stresses
 To withstand thermo-chemical stresses
 To withstand thermo-mechanical stresses

Refractories are lined inside the kiln shell and preheater cyclones to protect the metal from heat
as well as to insulate the shell- conserve heat. The bricks used are low alumina, high alumina
bricks, magchrome bricks and spinel bricks. Magchrome bricks are banned due to health hazard.
Chromium is poisonous. For severe conditions special bricks like zirconia based, are used.
 Cont‘d

Rotary kiln refractory lining

 Cont‘d
The Cement Burning Process
.

fireclay and high alumina fireclay and

materials Basic high alumina
materials materials
 Cont‘d
Stresses on the refractory lining in rotary cement kilns
 Cont‘d
Methods of Installation in the Rotary Kiln:

Safety for installation personnel.

This is a question of accurately complying with the installation instructions particularly. in the case of
the screw jack and glueing method

Installation quality.
The bricks must be installed in such a way that the lining fits tightly against the
kiln shell and subsequent loosening or twisting is impossible.

Acceptable bricking progress.

This can also be improved by the use of fork-lift trucks, roller conveyers and other equipment

Closing the Ring;

For the closure of the brick rings use the purpose-made keying bricks which greatly simplify the
operation. If purpose-made keying bricks are not used, the closure bricks are cut or ground to the
required shape by hand, but must not be reduced by more than half the original brick thickness
Although the last brick should fit tightly, it must not be hammered on or the brick might be damaged. If
necessary, 2 mm thick steel plates may be driven into the joints for keying-up, but never 2 plates in the
same joint. Joining of new lining to existing lining.
 Cont‘d

HOW TO GET OPTIMUM PERFORMANCE OUT OF REFRACTORIES:

The cost of re-bricking is one of the major cost items of a works for two reasons,
namely the cost of the bricks and the loss in production whilst the kiln is off line. As
kiln capacities increase the latter factor becomes more important, which means that
only the best quality bricks should be used and not necessarily the cheapest.

Refractory consumption is expressed in kg. Refractory/ton of clinker produced and the

target figure for this should be 0,5 kg/ton
Start-up after major brickwork repairs:

Light-up using an auxiliary burner raising the temperature slowly to allow moisture to
scape. If new castables have been installed the manufacturer‘s instructions, particularly
where soaking periods at constant temperature are required, should be strictly adhered
to Continue until a dull red heat has been obtained
 Cont‘d

(500oC).Once coal ignition temperatures have been reached, gradually increase the coal feed rate
maintaining a steady increase in temperature. The strength of refractories is very susceptible to rapid
increases and variations in temperature up to 1000oC. Rapid temperature changes induce spalling as
the hot face expands too rapidly and breaks away from the colder section of the brick underneath.
The kiln should be turned regularly, a little at a time, to achieve uniform temperature of brickwork and
preparation of feed.

When continuous rotation is possible the feed should be increased regularly until full output levels have
been reached, which should be about 48 hours after light-up.
After a long shut-down there is always a tendency to get the kiln to full production in the shortest
possible time. It is contended that this is not good practice since the service life of the bricks is
shortened by many days merely for the sake of saving a few hours in getting the kiln operational again –
with consequent loss of annual production tonnage. BRICKS ARE EXPENSIVE, BUT LOSS OF
PRODUCTION IS EVEN MORE EXPENSIVE, ESPECIALLY DURING TIMES OF SHORTAGE WHEN
EVERY EXTRA TON OF CEMENT PRODUCED CAN BE SOLD.
 Cont‘d

Screw Jack Method Hydraulic Rig for Different Kiln Diameters

REFRTECHNI
A K
 Cont‘d

SN Description Length (m) Safety Zone 8.5

Cooling Zone 8.5 KR 70 622 8.5
KR 85 622 8.5 4 KR 70 322 8.5
1 KR 85 322 8.5 KR 70 P22 8.5
KR 85 P22 8.5 KR 70 P+22 8.5
KR 85 P+22 8.5 Calcination Zone 17.68
Lower & Upper Transition Zone 8.5 KR 50 622 17.68
5
RMG 85 622 8.5 KR 50 322 17.68
2 RMG 85 322 8.5 KR P22 17.68
RMG 85 P22 8.5 KR P+22 17.68
RMG 85 P+22 8.5
Burning Zone 26.88
PX 83 622 26.88
3 PX 83 322 26.88
PX 83 P22 26.88
PX 83 P+22 26.88
 Cont‘d
Specifications
Reframag
PERILEX 83
85
Description (Magnesia- KRONEX 85 KRONEX 70 KRONEX 50
(Magnesia
Chromite)
Spinel)
Componenet in % 81-85 MGO 80-85AL2O3 74-78AL2O3 50-54 AL2O3 85-89 MGO
Bulk Density in g/cm3 2.90-3.05 2.75-2.90 2.60-2.75 2.3-2.45 2.85-3.00
Apparent porosity % 17-19 17-19 18-20 14-16 16-18
Cold crushing strength N/mm2 55 85 70 65 50
Refractoriness under load oC >1700 >1700 >1650 >1650 >1700
Thermal Expnasion in % at
400 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.4
800 1.1 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.8
1200 1.7 0.9 0.8 0.8 1.4
Therma Shock Resistence at
950oC/ait 80 80 40 50 100
Thermal Conductivity W/m.k at
300 4 2.3 1.8 1.2 4
Cont‘d
Cont‘d
 Cont‘d

Properties and installation of Monolithic Refractories/catables

Mixing with water: All mixing water must be [Link] risks are run if it is of a quality suitable for drinking
suitable for drinking. Water temperatures higher than 25oC should normally be
avoided as these may cause more rapid setting.

Shuttering: Water-tight shuttering, suitably braced and sealed with grease or machine oil should be
used to contain the refractory until set.

Mixing: Unless the castable is placed by means of a pneumatic gun it requires a mixing operation before
it can be installed. Mixing can either be by hand or by using a concrete or mortar mixer.
Casting: The correct consistency of a castable varies with the complexity of the job and whether
mechanical aids to consolidation are used
Vibration should cease when no more air comes to the surface. If water accumulates on the
surface, the batch is too wet and water additions should be reduced.
 Cont‘d

Different Kiln Zones and types of refractory wear:

 Zone 1: potassium chloride infiltration, condensation

 Zone 2: potassium sulfate infiltration, condensation
 Zone 3: unstable coating, brick erosion, mechanical stress
 Zone 4: peak temperature, clinker melt infiltration, redox, coating pull
 Zone 5: flame impingement, unstable coating, brick erosion, mechanical
 Zone 6: abrasion, thermal shock, alkali infiltration, brick retainer
 Cont‘d

Typical Burning conditions:

 Cont‘d

Clinker melt infiltration

. Densification of brick‘s hot face caused by clinker melt
 Increase thermal influence
 Variation of kiln feed composition
-
 Cont‘d

.
Concave/ sloping erosion Secondary Magnesia growth, thermotaxie
Constant thermal overload of the brickwork
Direct flame impact Hot face thermal overloading
Coating free operating conditions with standard  Hot face thermal overloading
bricks with low refractoriness

Thermotaxie (long magnesia crystals)

 Cont‘d
Thermal shock

 Too fast heating up or cooling

 Loss of coating

Optimizing:
Take heating procedure into consideration/
cooling down slowly
Using bricks with good thermal shock resistance
 Cont‘d

Alkali Spalling
Thin hot face spallings due to brittleness of the brick texture
Alkalis react with the brick components from fireclay and high alumina bricks forming alkali alumina
silicates (feldspar, feldspathoids). This formation is accompanied by volume increase
 Cont‘d

Salt infiltration
 Densification of different brick horizons
 Infiltration of gaseous alkali chloride and/or sulfate components, condensation and densification of
the brick texture
 Sulfate salts mostly in the lower transition zone and burning zone together with alkali chlorides in
the upper transition zone
 Cont‘d

Chemical influence

 Salt infiltration
 Corrosion of chrome spinel
 Redox burning conditions
 ―Alkali Spalling―
 Corrosion of the kiln shell
 Hydration
 Cont‘d

Corrosion of chrome spinel

 Corrosion of chrome spinel in the presence of free alkalis at higher temperature
 Formation of toxic, six valent alkali chromate sulfate
(yellow efflorescence = water soluble)
 Contamination of ground water
 Cont‘d

Hydration
Cracks from the brick surface into the bricks‗ internal texture
Magnesia bricks are sensitive to humidity and must be stored and protected against humidity,
rain and water.
MgO reacts with water to brucite (Mg(OH)2) which is accompanied by volume increase (~ 53%).
Tropical/sub-tropical climate conditions accelerate this reaction
 Cont‘d

Loosing of brick linings:

Loosenings of the brickwork due to brickwork movements
Spiral twisting, tilting of bricks, shearing cracks, abrasion marks on the brick‗s cold face
Wrong installation, frequent kiln stoppages, kiln shell deformations and ovalities
 Cont‘d

Mechanical influences
Themal expansion
Loosenings of the lining
Kiln shell deformation (ovality)
Grooves in the lining
Pressure loads on the kiln retaining ring
 Cont‘d

Thermal expansion

 Convex spalling's on the longitudinal joints

 Higher expansion in axial direction leads to a too
high pressure within the brickwork. Convex spalling's
finally occur

 Insufficient expansion space

 Frequent kiln stops after the burnout of the

cardboards
 Cont‘d
Groove formation
Increased wear parallel to the kiln axis caused by groove formation, the other brickwork
is intact (spallings of 2 - 3 brickwork width)
Brickwork rings are closed too tight, damage of the key bricks using a wrong hammer
More than one iron plate within the brickwork rings
 Cont‘d
Types of interlocking's:
[Link] interlocking:
 So important for the machine and for the safety of personnel that never be cancelled
 Generated of conditions out side the machine itself
[Link] interlocking:
 Necessary for normal operation of the machine
 For local test of a machine it can be cancelled with out further risk for the machine and
personnel.
3. Start interlocking:
 Must be fulfilled before the machine concerned may be started
 When the machine has been started it can be disregarded
4. Protection interlocking:
 It is so important for the machine and for the safety of personnel
 It is generated in side the machine it self.
 Cont‘d
The objective of the kiln operation is to produce good quality clinker at the desired production rates and with
the minimum of heat consumption.

Out Comes:  Preheater - Pressure Control

By studying this training manual you will be introduced  Control Parameter Condition
to numerous skills and knowledge. The aim of this
program is to enable you with the following desired  Counter Actions
outcomes.  Upset Conditions
 Objectives of Kiln Operation  Ring Fall
 Control Parameters  Coating Fall
 Burning Zone Temperature (BZT)
 Hot Meal Flush
 Back End Temperature (BET)
 Red Spot on Kiln Shell
 Oxygen Control - Kiln
 Cyclone Blockage
 Oxygen Control – Pre Calciner
 Temperature Control – Pre Calciner Outlet  High Level Control