Water Conservation
Order No. 577.100-1
Revised: June 2015
IRRIGATION SCHEDULING TECHNIQUES
Irrigation scheduling is a systematic method by which a TDR, neutron and aquaterr probes are all expensive
producer can decide on when to irrigate and how much units ($4,000 to $7,000) that are often used by
water to apply. The goal of an effective scheduling researchers but are not commonly used by producers.
program is to supply the plants with sufficient water
while minimizing loss to deep percolation or runoff.
Irrigation scheduling depends on soil, crop, Hand Feel Method
atmospheric, irrigation system and operational factors. To measure soil moisture using the hand feel method,
obtain a handful of soil and squeeze tightly. If it forms
Proper irrigation scheduling requires a sound basis for a ball, bounce it three times lightly in your palm. The
making irrigation decisions. The level of sophistication relative soil moisture can be determined for the
for decision making ranges from personal experience to different soils by using Table 1.
following neighbours’ practices and techniques based
on expensive computer-aided instruments that can The soil auger shown in Figure 1 can be used to obtain
assess soil, water and atmospheric parameters. the soil samples at different depths.
Irrigation scheduling techniques can be based on soil
water measurement, meteorological data or monitoring
plant stress. Conventional scheduling methods are to
measure soil water content or to calculate or measure
evapotranspiration rates. However, research in plant
physiology has led to scheduling methods by
monitoring leaf turgor pressure, trunk diameter and sap
flow.
Soil Moisture Measurement
The many different methods of collecting soil moisture
include neutron probe, time domain reflectometry
(TDR), gravimetric, aquaterr probe, tensiometers,
electrical resistance blocks and the hand feel method.
The discussion in this factsheet will be limited to the
methods that are practical for agricultural producers. Figure 1 Small Soil Auger
Factsheet 577.100-1 Page 1 of 5
Table 1 Soil Moisture, Appearance and Description Chart
Available Feel or Appearance of Soil
water 1
Sand Sandy loam Loam/Silt loam Clay loam/Clay
> 100% Free water appears when soil Free water is released with Free water can be squeezed Puddles; free water forms on
is bounced in hand. kneading. out. surface.
100% Upon squeezing, no free water Appears very dark. Upon Appears very dark. Upon Appears very dark. Upon
appears on soil, but wet outline squeezing, no free water squeezing, free water appears squeezing, no free water
of ball is left on hand. (1.0)2 appears on soil, but wet on soil, but wet outline of ball is appears on soil, but wet outline
outline of ball is left on hand. left on hand. Will ribbon about of ball is left on hand. Will
Makes short ribbon. (1.5)2 1 inch. (2.0)2 ribbon about 2 inches. (2.5)2
75-100% Tends to stick together slightly, Quite dark. Forms weak ball, Dark coloured. Forms a ball, is Dark coloured. Easily ribbons
sometimes forms a weak ball breaks easily. Will not slick. very pliable, slicks readily if out between fingers, has slick
with pressure. (0.8 to 1.0)2 (1.2 to 1.5)2 high in clay. (1.5 to 2.0)2 feeling. (1.9 to 2.5)2
50-75% Appears to be dry, will not form Fairly dark. Tends to form a Fairly dark. Forms a ball, Fairly dark. Forms a ball,
a ball with pressure. (0.5 to ball with pressure but somewhat plastic, will ribbons out between thumb
0.8)2 seldom holds together. (0.8 sometimes slick slightly with and forefinger. (1.2 to 1.9)2
to 1.2)2 pressure. (1.0 to 1.5)2
25-50% Appears to be dry, will not form Light coloured. Appears to Lightly coloured. Somewhat Slightly dark. Somewhat
a ball with pressure. (0.2 to be dry, will not form a ball. crumbly, but holds together pliable, will ball under pressure.
0.5)2 (0.4 to 0.8)2 with pressure. (0.5 to 1.0)2 (0.6 to 1.2)2
0-25% Dry, loose, single-grained, Very slightly coloured. Dry Slightly coloured. Powdery, dry Slightly coloured. Hard, baked,
flows through fingers. loose, flows through fingers. sometimes slightly crusted, but cracked, sometimes has loose
(0 to 0.2)2 (0 to 0.4)2 easily broken down into crumbs on surface. (0 to 0.6)2
powdery condition. (0 to 0.5)2
1
Available water is the difference between field capacity and permanent wilting point.
2
Numbers in parentheses are available water contents expressed as inches of water per foot of soil depth.
Tensiometers
A tensiometer measures the soil water tension that can The tensiometer is made of a closed tube with a special
be related to the soil water content for specific soils. ceramic tip attached to one end. The tube can be sealed
Figure 2 shows the relationship between the available off at the top to create an airtight seal within the tube
depletion and the soil matric potential (soil moisture (Figure 3). As the soil dries and draws water from the
tension). tube, a vacuum gage registers the amount of suction
indicating the level of soil moisture left in the soil.
The tube is filled with water and sealed. Installation
must be done carefully to ensure that the ceramic tip is
in complete contact with the soil. A pilot hole is
augered or bored to the proper depth, a soil-water slurry
mixed and put into the hole and the tensiometer tip
pushed into this slurry.
When the ceramic tip comes to a moisture equilibrium
with the surrounding soil, the gauge registers the soil
tension. Soil wetting and drying results in movement of
the vacuum gauge. Tensiometers are responsive to soil
water tensions of 5 to 70 centibars (cbars). The
practical operating range is from 0 to 75 cbars. Zero
indicates that the soil is saturated. Readings of 10
correspond to field capacity for coarse textured soils
while readings of 30 are at field capacity for fine
textured soils. The upper limit of 75 cbars indicates that
as much as 90% of the available water has been used
for coarse soils but only 30% depleted for the fine
textured soils. For detailed information on soil moisture
tension refer to Factsheet 577.100-2 Irrigation
Figure 2 Influence of Available Soil Water on Scheduling with Tensiometers available online.
Soil Moisture Tension
Factsheet 577.100-1 Page 2 of 5
Calibration of the specific soil type must be done to High resistance readings mean lower block water
establish the relationship between soil water content content; therefore, higher soil water tension. The
and soil water tension. Watermark will give higher values for dry soil
conditions and low readings for wet conditions, similar
Tensiometers are therefore to tensiometers. Calibration with the specific soil type
limited to use in coarse must be done to establish the relationship between soil
textured soils or in high water content and tension.
frequency irrigation regimes
where the soil moisture is Watermarks require little maintenance and can be left
kept at higher levels, such as, in the soil under freezing conditions. The Watermarks
in drip or center pivot are responsive to soil water tensions of 40 to 125 cbars,
irrigation. and therefore well-suited for heavier soils.
Routine maintenance is
critical to ensure successful
use. The liquid in the tube Locations of Soil Moisture Monitoring
must be periodically refilled Devices
and the air bubbles removed A soil moisture monitoring site should be established in
with the aid of a hand pump. a part of the field that is indicative of the majority of
the field conditions. Where two or more predominant
Figure 3 Tensiometer soil types are present, more than one soil moisture site
should be considered. Ideally, each distinct area will be
managed separately.
Electrical Resistance Blocks Depending on the plant’s maximum rooting depth and
The new generation of electrical resistance blocks have the soil type present, more than one sensor at a
been developed and are under the trade name of monitoring site may be required. All deep-rooted
Watermark (Figure 4). Watermarks measure the electrical plants, such as fruit trees, should have two monitoring
resistance to current flow between electrodes embedded in devices per site – one at 30 cm (12 in) and the other at
2
a material resembling fine sand surrounded by a synthetic 60 cm (24 in). Soil moisture should be measured at / 3
porous material. of the distance from the trunk to the canopy drip line.
Normally, tensiometers and Watermarks are installed at
two different depths to develop a zone of moisture
control. For most crops, the soil moisture should be
1 2
measured at a depth of / 4 to / 3 of rooting depths
greater than 2 feet; therefore, two soil measuring units
should be installed: one at a depth of approximately
2
250 to 300 mm and the other at / 3 of the plant rooting
depth.
The irrigation system should be scheduled using
information from a representative area, not just the
driest part of the field.
Figure 4 Electrical Resistance Block
Collecting Meteorological Data
The blocks are installed in the soil in a similar procedure Water budgeting is a widely promoted method of
to installing a tensiometer. The blocks must make good irrigation scheduling. This method involves monitoring
contact with the soil, and the pilot hole with the wire leads the additions and losses to the crop area and
should be refilled and tamped to prevent surface moisture maintaining a favourable soil water level. The most
from collecting around the blocks. Readings are taken by important component of water budgeting is to
attaching a special resistance meter to the wire leads, accurately determine the crop water use or
setting the soil temperature and pushing a button to initiate evapotranspiration (ET).
current flow.
Factsheet 577.100-1 Page 3 of 5
Plant Based Monitoring
There are a number of plant based indexes that can be
used to determine whether irrigation is required. The
most obvious is general plant appearance. Retardation
in foliar growth or fruit development is an indicator that
the plant could be experiencing water stress.
Figure 5 Soil Moisture Measuring
Figure 6 Evaporation Pan
ET can be calculated using sensors to collect radiation,
wind, temperature and relative humidity data. This
information can be imported into a computer to
calculate daily ET. While the calculation method is
often employed where weather stations have been
established, (research stations) more often ET
information is gathered by using evaporimeters.
Figures 6 and 7 indicate two types of evaporimeters.
The evaporation pan should be monitored weekly and
data is usually recorded manually. The atmometer can
be read manually or be hooked to a computer or data
logger to provide the information electronically.
Evaporimeter data cannot be correlated to crop water
use directly. Crop coefficients are used to adjust data Figure 7 Atmometer
for growth stage and seasonal changes. Table 2
provides crop coefficients for various crops at full
cover conditions.
Pressure Bomb
Real-time daily reference ET (ET o ) data is now A pressure chamber or pressure bomb measures the
available at the Farmwest website from over 80 climate water status in plant leaves. Several readings must be
stations across British Columbia. The ET o is based on a taken with this unit in order to characterize the status of
grass crop, and therefore needs to be multiplied by an a field. Readings will also change drastically during the
appropriate crop coefficient specific to the desired crop. day. Readings are lowest just before sunrise and
Refer to Table 2 for crop coefficients. For more increase rapidly until solar noon. Critical mid-day
information on how to use ET to schedule irrigation, readings must be established for the crops for irrigation
refer to Factsheet No. 577.100-5 Crop Coefficients for to be scheduled effective with this method.
Use in Irrigation Scheduling available online.
Factsheet 577.100-1 Page 4 of 5
Infrared Thermometers emit radiation in proportion to its surface temperature.
This technique measures the surface temperature of a The plant canopy temperature responds to air
crop canopy with making direct physical contact. temperature and the form of this response can be used
Measurements are based on the principle that objects to assess plant water status.
Table 2 Average Pan Evaporation Adjustment Factors for Various Crops
CROP FACTOR CROP FACTOR
Alfalfa and grass hay 0.95 Onion (dry) 0.70
Apple (with cover crop) 1.05 (green) 0.80
(without cover crop) 0.90 Pasture 0.95
Apricot (with cover crop) 1.00 Peach (with cover crop) 1.00
(without cover crop) 0.85 (without cover crop) 0.85
Asparagus (after full fern) 0.90 Peas 1.00 - 1.05
Cherry (with cover crop) 1.05 Pear & Plum (with cover crop) 1.00
(without cover crop) 0.90 (without cover crop) 0.85
Corn (grain and sweet) 0.95 Potato 1.00
Grape (with cover crop) 0.95 - 1.00 Raspberry 1.00
(without cover crop) 0.70 Small grains 0.90 - 0.95
Hops (after reaching top wire) 1.40 - 1.60 Strawberry 0.40 - 0.45
Mint 0.95 - 1.00 Turfgrass 0.80
NOTE: Given crop factors are for full cover conditions. Over-irrigation will occur when used for early- and late-season conditions,
but should be used as a rough guideline as to the minimum interval between irrigations early and later in the season.
Heat Pulse Sap Flow capable of reacting almost immediately to the onset of
The flow of water from the soil through trees is plant water stress, thereby preventing stomatal closure.
monitored by measuring how rapidly a pulse of heat is However, under conditions of high evaporative
transported by the sap flow up the trunk. A ½ sec heat demand, leaf turgor pressure may decrease despite a
pulse is applied by a miniature heater imbedded well watered soil and may trigger irrigation
radially into the trunk and the rate of sap flow is unnecessarily.
determined from the time it takes the pulse to reach a
series of thermistors located a short distance above the
heater. This procedure has provided an accurate Dendrometer
measurement of daily water use by trees. A dendrometer is a sensitive dial gauge attached to the
trunk or branch of a tree for measuring small changes
in diameter as water status of the plant changes during
Turgor Pressure Sensor the day. In a manner similar to the leaf thickness
A miniature displacement sensor attached to a leaf is sensor discussed previously, the need for and the
used to measure reductions in leaf thickness, and thus amount of irrigation can be determined from the
turgor pressure, a water stress of the plant increases. change in diameter which occurs over a certain time
An increase in the rate at which leaf thickness changes period (usually from morning to noon). This procedure
indicates the need to irrigate and is also used to does not detect water stress as rapidly as the leaf
determine irrigation duration. thickness method but provides a more integrated
measurement of conditions being experienced by the
To operate effectively, the method requires careful entire tree. Research efforts are aimed at relating
selection of a fully exposed leaf which accurately diameter changes to irrigation requirements.
represents the average response for the entire tree
throughout the day. It is claimed that such a system is
FOR MORE INFORMATION CONTACT MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE
Phone: 604.556.3001 1767 Angus Campbell Road
Toll Free: 1.800.221.7141 Abbotsford, B.C. V3G 2M3
Factsheet 577.100-1 Page 5 of 5
