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Patterns in hammertone paints
Jülide Erkmen,
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 Patterns in hammertone paints
Jülide Erkmen
Department of Chemical Engineering, Kafkas University, Kars, Turkey

Abstract
Purpose – The purpose of this study is to determine required paint and silicone proportions, their mixing rate and duration to eliminate the pattern
problems caused by the misuse of silicone polymers in hammertone paints. Results of the findings aim at preventing raw material, manufacturing
time and labour losses in hammertone paint production.
Design/methodology/approach – A paint formulation produced commercially was used. The effects of silicone proportion and mixing rate and
paint and pigment density on the pattern formation within the paints, to which the spray painting method was applied, were investigated. Brightness
controls of the produced paints were done, and the effect of the additive polymer on brightness was investigated. Photographs of paints for each
practice were taken.
Findings – The most suitable silicone proportion and mixing conditions for the silver grey paints, in which Al non-leafing pigments were used, were
calculated as 0.034-0.036 g/kg-paint and 15 s at 200 rpm, respectively. It was observed that the increase in pigment density increased required
silicone proportion for the desired pattern. It was determined that mixing rate and duration were very significant in pattern formation, and that
silicone decomposed and the pattern was disrupted in long-continued mixings. In addition, excess silicone use disrupted the pattern and decreased
the paint brightness.
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Research limitations/implications – This research was conducted for hammertone paints, which are industrial and self-patterned aluminium
silvered decorative paints. The results can be used for hammertone paint production.
Practical implications – The results will enable manufacturers to produce hammertone paints more economically. Results can be used in the paint
industry to produce such paint.
Originality/value – It is crucial to produce high-quality products using less raw materials in today’s industry, where the amount of raw materials
is decreasing, and economical and reliable production is becoming increasingly important. When environmental impacts in the solvent-based paint
industry are taken into consideration, paint production in shorter times is important for both workers’ and environmental health. As a result of this
study, hammertone paints will be produced more economically by appropriate production conditions yet without any energy, raw material and time
loss.
Keywords Pigments, Pattern, Alkyd resin, Paint, Silicone polymer
Paper type Research paper

Introduction they can cause pressure accumulation in a closed vessel due to

having a highly volatile solvent (Karlsson et al., 2006).
Hammertone paints are rapid-drying synthetic paints that
include aluminium pigment and metallic effects. Their main Aluminium non-leafing pigments are used in hammertone
components are rapid-drying styrenic alkyd, Al pigment and paint production because they do not form coat but metallic
silicone polymer (polysiloxane). Styrene-modified alkyds, which effect. Al pigments offer an ultra-fine protective effect and
constitute the main component and binder of hammertone decorative appearance, and thus, they are appropriate
paints, are produced through styrene copolymerization. These pigments for metallic automotive paints. Al powder pigments
alkyds are capable of very rapid drying. These resins are generally have been used in industrial paints, printing inks and plastic
copolymerization products of alkyds and vinyl toluene or materials for the past 20 years (Hirth, 2005). Ordinary
metacrylic esters and are used in rapid-drying synthetic paint aluminium pigments are produced by grinding atomized
production. aluminium powder with white spirit as a solvent and bitumen
Aluminium pigments, like their silver bronze counterparts, acid as a lubricant in a ball mill. Numerous new aluminium
are widely used in paint, ink and plastic industries because of
their low costs and metallic appearances (Li et al., 2008; Pi
et al., 2012; Zhang et al., 2011; Kiehl and Greiwe, 1999). One
disadvantage of these pigments is that their colour changes The author gratefully acknowledges Erbosan Paint A.C. and Abdulnasser
from silver to grey as a result of corrosion reaction. Moreover, Mifleh.

Received 11 August 2014

Revised 10 October 2014
The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available on
15 January 2015
Emerald Insight at: www.emeraldinsight.com/0369-9420.htm 23 February 2015
31 July 2015
4 January 2016
19 January 2016
Pigment & Resin Technology 31 January 2016
45/6 (2016) 456 –462 13 February 2016
© Emerald Group Publishing Limited [ISSN 0369-9420] 10 March 2016
[DOI 10.1108/PRT-07-2015-0067] Accepted 20 March 2016

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 Patterns in hammertone paints Pigment & Resin Technology
Jülide Erkmen Volume 45 · Number 6 · 2016 · 456 –462

pigments like water-based ones (Zhang et al., 2011; Kiehl, metal surfaces, thereby decreasing air and water contact and
1999) and pigments used in powder coating (Jostein et al., preventing corrosion. These paints have a metallic decorative
2008) are produced by applying the silica coating method on effect. This study investigates the most suitable silicone
ordinary aluminium pigments. amount, mixing rate and mixing duration for pattern
High-quality metal coating powder paints are metallic formation using different pigments. The purpose is to prevent
finishing paints and include two coats: a decorative base coat raw material, labour and time loss in hammertone paint
with aluminium pigments and a glazy protective top coat on production.
flooring. Coatings with aluminium pigments cause hydrogen
evolution in high-alkaline and high-acidic environments, and
Materials and methods
this phenomenon is a serious problem for corrosion (Barletta,
2011; Oliveira et al., 2000). Al non-leafing paste, styrene alkyd resin, pigments, silicone,
The major component causing pattern formation is silicone solvent and dryers were supplied by Margub Kimya.
oils, called silicone polymers (polysiloxane). Polysiloxanes Properties of all materials used in paint production are
draw great interest from such industries as construction, presented in Tables I-III and V. Paint composition is given
ceramic and glass, metal-working and anti-corrosion, paint in Table IV. The paint formulation used in the study is a
and lacquer, textiles and detergents thanks to their having commercial one released to the market by ERBOSAN
good durability against heat, weather and ozone, and also Boya A.Ş.
having thermal stability, good dielectric properties, film ● Only the patterns formed by adding silicone polymer in
different proportions into the paint prepared by Al
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formation capability and hydrophobic behaviours (Ispir and

Serin, 2006). Polysiloxanes are unique among inorganic and non-leafing and the effects of silicone polymer on these
half-inorganic polymers. They have been much more studied patterns were investigated.
than other polymers in the literature and they are ● Standard paint was coloured by black, red and yellow iron
commercially important structures. Therefore, it is no surprise oxide, and yellow and green chrome pigments. Then, the
that written materials on the properties, synthesis and required silicone polymer amount was determined for each
practices of these compounds are extensive (Rochow, 1987). pigment, respectively. Thus, both the effects of pigment
The Si–O skeleton imparts many attractive properties to this and paint densities on silicone polymer proportion were
polymer class. For instance, the length of the Si–O bond investigated.
imparts thermal stability to siloxane polymers; thus, they can ● The paint of specified amount was mixed for different
be used in thermal practices. The word “silicone” is mostly periods to determine the most suitable mixing rate and
used to refer to silicon organic polymers, including Si–O–Si duration.
bonding; however, there are also different definitions. In some
● Surface brightness measurements for each silicone amount
sources, the word “silicone” is used to indicate the class of all were conducted to investigate the effect of silicone polymer
monomer and polymer silicon organic compounds, including on paint brightness.
Si–C bonding, while in other sources, it is used as the silicon Paints were produced within paint tanks of 100 kg and stirred
organic polymer group name. The properties of polysiloxane with a paddle drill of 201 mm diameter. All paint films were
are as follows: conformational and spatial configurations, photographed by using a Coolpix L310 Digital Nikon camera.
flexibility of polymer chains, equilibrium flexibility, dynamic Surface brightness was measured by using a Novo-Gloss
flexibility, permeability, stability/reliability and environmental glossmeter at 60° geometry.
impact, thermal durability/stability, durability against cold, First, the paint was thoroughly mixed prior to reducing.
weather conditions and ozone, steady physical constants Then, the spray painting method was applied from a distance
against temperature, good dielectric property, film formation of 25 cm at 2.5 atm pressure. Chrome plates of 10 cm ⫻ 10
capability, hydrophobic behaviour and surface activities. cm were used as spraying flooring.
Another significant use of siloxanes is as surface coatings.
Using siloxane increases the hardness and lifetime of the
surface and durability against moisture, chemicals and UV, Results and discussion
and decreases carbon dioxide and oxygen permeability The effects of silicone proportion on the pattern
(Bongiovanni et al., 2004). Siloxane polymers are used for formation
hydrophilic walls and mineral-based art pieces against The pattern in hammertone paints is usually formed by mixing
corrosive effects and acid rains in the atmosphere (Dworak two immiscible polymers. Styrene alkyd reaction and chemical
and Soucek, 2003). structure of silicone are shown in Figure 1.
Hammertone paints are usually used on metal surfaces as a The reason these two polymers do not dissolve in each other
decorative and protector. Alkyd and metal pigments in paints is that their solubility parameters are different. This parameter
increase the water durability on a metal surface. However, is defined as solubility, swelling, balance and molecular
they are not effective in some cases, such as where friction and structure of the material, i.e. thermodynamic properties
abrasion are prevalent (Dubowski and Winiarski, 2000). The (Kasaai, 2008; Marzocca, 2007; Li and Jang, 2000;
paint prevents contact between metal surfaces and the air, Etxabarren et al., 2004). Solubility parameter is appropriate
thus preventing corrosion. In addition, Al non-leafing for calculating the mixture energy of only solvents and
pigments and silicone oil inside the paint impart decorative polymers (Tantishaiyakul et al., 2006). There has been much
effects, such as that of a wrought metal surface. Paints with progress on this issue using the methods based on the
styrene-modified alkyd resin increase the water resistance of solubility parameter proposed by Hansen (2000).

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Jülide Erkmen Volume 45 · Number 6 · 2016 · 456 –462

Table I Properties of Al non-leafing paste

Amount of non-volatile
Non-leafing Solvent content (%) Water spill cm2/g Min leafing value (%) Particle size Grain size distribution
AL.PA 7NL Solvent naphtha 80.00 – – 99.9 9

Table II Properties of the styrenic alkyd Examining the structures of both resins separately, in the
Brand Penguin coating industry, copolymerization of oils with vinyl
monomers is widely preferred, intended for improving the film
Product Styrene-modified alkyd rapid properties of product. Styrene is one of the vinyl monomers
Oil type Special fatty acids widely used. Modification of oils by styrene imparts rapid
The oil length 48% drying, high saponification resistance and adhesion character
Solid content 60% ⫾ 2 to the film product, while urethane modification provides
Acid Max. 10 mg KOH/g rapid drying, good elasticity and adhesion and durability
Viscosity (25°C) Y - Z (G.H.) against abrasion, water and chemicals.
Colour Max. 7 (G.H.) Silicone resins are polymer compounds formed by the
Density (20°C) 0.96 ⫾ 0.1 g/ml bonding of silicon atoms to each other through oxygen atoms
Flammability 23°C via at least one valence. Remaining valences are saturated by at
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Resolution Rapid thinner, oven thinner, butyl acetate least one organic group. The silicon definition “Si–O–Si–O–
Si–R–R–R–R–R–R” has been used since its evolution without
being changed (Gürel and Kuleli, 2002). These bonds are so
strong that they impart a considerable amount of thermal
Table III Properties of the silicone oil stability to siloxane polymers, and this property in high-
Appearance Clear viscous liquid performance elastomers is significant for high-temperature
°C
practices through heat transfer. Moreover, bonding structure
Density at 20 0.96-0.98 g/cm3 and chemical properties of side groups result in very low
Non-volatile content %100 SEM METHOD 130
surface free energy of polymeric structure; thus, siloxane has
Chemical structure Methyl silicone oil SEM METHOD 110 very different and attractive surface properties. Improved
thermal durability for wide temperature ranges and physical
properties of siloxane make it superior compared to synthetic
polymers (Bongiovanni et al., 2004). Silicone oils are liquid
Table IV The content of the paint siloxane polymers including organic side chains. In this study,
Name of the raw material (%) hexamethyldisiloxane was used. Ternary methyl groups hold
onto silicon atoms to form the Si(CH3)3OSi(CH3)3 structure.
Styrenic alkyd 70
Ternary methyl groups will form 2,2,4,4-tetramethylpentane
Anti-collapse agent 0.2
C(CH3)3CH2C(CH3)3 (Miyahara et al., 2006).
Bentone 33% 0.2
The majority of solvents and polymers are polar, i.e. they
Toluene 25
have dipole moment capacity for hydrogen bonding. Solubility
Silicon resinous 20% 0.18 of polymers in various solvents is identified by their molecular
Al non-leafing paste 4 structures. Thermodynamically, solubility of an amorphous
Drier 0.48 polymer in a solvent is determined by free energy of the
Anti-crusting MEKO 0.28 mixture (John, 2004).
Viscosity 80 ⫾ 5sn ford cup (25°C)
Density 0.85 ⫾ 0.01 gr/cm3 ⌬Gm ⫽ ⌬Hm ⫺ T⌬Sm (1)
Drying time First drying 15 min last
drying 2 h Where ⌬Gm is Gibbs free energy change, ⌬Hm is enthalpy
change, T is temperature and ⌬Sm is the entropy change of the
mixture.
Figure 1 Reaction scheme for styrene modified alkyd resin and Hammertone paint solvent is toluene. Solubility parameters
chemical structure of methyl silicone oil of toluene and styrene modified alkyd resin are very close to
each other, and thus, they are miscible. Solubility parameters
are 8.82, 9.09 and 3.11 (cal/cm3)1/2 for toluene, styrene
modified alkyd resin, and silicone polymer, respectively
(Etxabarren et al., 2004). Based on solubility parameters,
silicone polymer is the insoluble component. Schematic views
of paint box and silicone particles inside paint film are shown
in Figure 2.
Insoluble silicone polymer forms emulsion by paint.
Numerous studies have shown that the molecular weight of a
polymer has significant effects on solubility (Mohammad,

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 Patterns in hammertone paints Pigment & Resin Technology
Jülide Erkmen Volume 45 · Number 6 · 2016 · 456 –462

Figure 2 Schematic view of silicone inside the paint properties, hiding power/transparency, ultraviolet resistance,
desorption resistance (especially in organic yellow and red
colours), thermal resistance (⬍200°C), chemical resistance in
organic reds, name, concentration, time, temperature and test
results of the chemical. Aluminium and pearl components also
influence the colour as solid colour components. Grain sizes
and colours of these components have different effects. If
aluminium grains are fine, the colour will be dirty. Colour will
be cleaner with coarser aluminium grains. Therefore, all
properties of colour components should be considered when
producing colour formulations. Colour components in the
formula should certainly be used during colour arrangement.
Paints with different silicone proportions were produced,
and photographs of them were taken to see the effect of
silicone on the pattern formed within hammertone paints,
as shown in Figure 3. Pattern formation becomes strong up
2008; Etxabarren et al., 2004; Ueberreiter, 1968). Chemicals, to a certain amount of silicone, and it starts to decay after
whose solubility parameters are used in the industry, are used maximum silicone amount in a negative way. Silicone,
to determined polymers’ resistance (Grulke, 1999; Bicerano, whose density is very low compared to paint, tends to rise to
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1993; Hansen, 2000). Improved solubility parameters of the paint surface. When silicone amount is excessive,
molecules are determined using the following three interactive silicone particles move as a separate layer, combining with
equations (Hansen, 2000): each other on the surface. That is, silicone coats the paint

E ⫽ ED ⫹ Ep ⫹ EH (2)
Figure 3 Paint patterns formed using different silicone proportions
E/V ⫽ ED /V ⫹ Ep /V ⫹ EH /V (3)

␦2 ⫽ ␦2D ⫹ ␦2P ⫹ ␦H2 (4)

where subscripts D, P and H define dispersion, polar and

hydrogen binder, respectively; ␦ is the solubility parameter;
and E is cohesive energy.
When the paint, because of its surface tension property
provided by the coating, is applied, all pigment inside it
stays at the top of the paint film (stove paint, tube paint).
Reflection property in these types of paints including
aluminium is very good; however, their friction resistance is
very low (Barletta, 2011; Oliveira et al., 2000). Therefore,
they are used in materials subjected to low friction. Resins
of the paints, including rapid-drying aluminium pigment
such as stove and tube paints, are rapid-drying hydrocarbon
resins with low strength. In hammertone paints, on the
other hand, alkyd resins having high friction and adhesion
strength are used. The strength of the resin keeps the
pigment in the paint and not easily washed out. Thus,
hammertone paints are much more durable than aluminium
paints, which use resins. Practically, it is not easy to keep
aluminium on the surface. To facilitate this issue, solvents
used in paint are very important. A paint quality of showing
a mirror image when looked at frontally but a dark colour
when looked at a low angle is basically formed by the
parallel orientation of aluminium or pearl flakes on the
article’s surface. A transparent film formation of paint
binders increases the magnitude of this effect. In pigment
tests, the following parameters are important: colour tone,
colour intensity, crushing magnitude of pigment, stability
(durability) control (effect on viscosity increase,
precipitation, dispersion deterioration), effect of pigment
on practice properties of the paint (diffusion, floatation,
decomposition), effect of pigment on other wet paint

459
 Patterns in hammertone paints Pigment & Resin Technology
Jülide Erkmen Volume 45 · Number 6 · 2016 · 456 –462

surface. This phenomenon both affects pattern formation The surface-reaching rate of silicone decreases with
negatively and decreases paint brightness. This is because increasing paint density, so the silicone proportion should
hammertone paints are top-layer coats with high brightness. be increased to obtain the desired pattern within the drying
Alkyd brightness, used as a binder in hammertone paint time of the paint. Comparing Table V and Figure 5 shows
production, is preferred to be high and clear. Oxidation of that silicone proportion increases with increasing pigment
fatty acids in styrene alkyd accelerates with increasing density.
temperature. Unsaturated fatty and fatty acid alkyd resins
rapidly cure in a temperature range of 120-160°C. Under The effects of mixing on pattern formation
these circumstances, the majority of crosslinks are in the When the required silicone proportion for desired pattern
form of C–C bonds. The produced film is more durable and formation is obtained in hammertone paints, another
stronger than that formed as C–O–O–C crosslinks. Rapid important parameter is mixing ratio. Insoluble silicone in the
curing means that shorter fatty lengths are used, thus paint dissolves into silicone particles. Pattern is disrupted
imparting durability, brightness and colour permanence to when the required silicone proportion changes. Dissolution of
the product. Paints produced using these types of binders silicone into particles causes the silicone to move towards the
have higher brightness. surface in pieces, not forming a single layer. Aluminium
As shown in Figure 3, the most suitable silicone proportion pigment has a tendency to stay at the top and silicone oil tends
was found to be 0.034-0.038 g/kg paint. It was observed that to rise to the surface because of its density. As a result, the
paint images of 0.07 and 0.04 g/kg paint were very close to pattern resembles a surface that has been hammered. To
each other. While there was a deformity caused by the lower obtain a nice pattern, silicone particles should have a certain
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silicone amount, the higher silicone one was formed due to size.
excessive silicone use. These two paints can be differentiated Figure 6 shows large holes on the surface, which is not
from brightness. desired. When required mixing is not done, silicone with large
When these deformities are transferred into a graph and pieces form large independent craters on the paint because
ranked, Figure 4 is obtained. The paint with the lowest flooring under the paint is seen due to the transparency of
brightness is the one with the highest silicone amount. silicone. This decreases the coating strength of the paint,
Brightness is 86 GU when the silicone amount is 0.07 g/kg which is one of the important parameters determining paint
paint and decreases to 83 GU when it is 0.04 g/kg paint. properties. When excess mixing is done, silicone polymers stay
Brightness is a desired property among parameters of in the paint as very little pieces. These little particles form a
top-coat synthetic paints. Brightness increases both alkyd needle pattern rather than a hammered one. This problem can
and paint quality. Brightness of alkyd combined with Al be eliminated only by a suitable silicone proportion and
pigment forms a very nice image. In addition, excessive mixing rate. Photographs of paints produced using excessive
silicone use, which increases paint cost, is not economically
desired.
Table V Properties of the pigments

The effect of paint density on silicone proportion Size of the

Practices on colourful hammertone paints were also Density pieces (Micron d
studied. Required silicone proportions to be used in Pigment (g/cm3) 90 max %) Colour indices
hammertone paints coloured by pigments having different Black iron oxide 4.5 2.0 PBI.11/77499
colours and properties were determined. It was observed Red iron oxide 5.2 2.0 PR.101/77491
that an increase in pigment density, and thus paint density, Yellow iron oxide 3.5 2.0 ASY-29-MG
should increase the silicone proportion to be used. Chrome oxide green 5.7 2.0 PG17/77288
Although hammertone paints dry rapidly, silicone tends to Chrome yellow 5.6 2.0 PY34/77603
rise to the surface. Thus, for the pattern to be constant,
these two actions should occur in the same time interval.
Figure 5 Suitable silicone ratios depending on different colour
Figure 4 Effect of silicone amount on pattern formation (1 – the pigments
worst, 4 – the best)

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 Patterns in hammertone paints Pigment & Resin Technology
Jülide Erkmen Volume 45 · Number 6 · 2016 · 456 –462

Figure 6 The effect of mixing rate on pattern formation (at 200 efficiency of the Hammerite paint as a protection of metal
rpm) structures and their parts”, Prace Przemyslowego Instytutu
Maszyn Rolniczych, Vol. 45 No. 1, pp. 11-13.
Dworak, D.P. and Soucek, M.D. (2003), “Protective space
coatings: a ceramer approach for nanoscale materials”,
Progress in Organic Coatings, Vol. 47 Nos 3/4, pp. 448-457.
Etxabarren, C., Iriarte, M., Uriarte, C., Etxeberrıa, A. and
Iruin, J.J. (2004), “Polymer–solvent interaction parameters
in polymer solutions at high polymer concentrations”,
Journal of Chromatography A, Vol. 969, pp. 245-254.
Grulke, E.A. (1999), “Solubility parameter values”, Polymer
handbook, 4th ed., Wiley, New York, NY, Vol. 7,
pp. 675-714.
Gürel, O. and Kuleli, Ö. (2002), Kimya Güzeldir, Pan
Yayınevi, Istanbul, p. 124.
Hansen, C.M. (2000), Hanson Solubility Parameters: A User’s
and low mixing rates were taken, as shown in Figure 6. The
Handbook, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.
most suitable mixing rate for the paint used in experiments
Hirth, U.A. (2005), “Aluminium pigments for powder coating
was found to be 200 rpm for 5 s. Pattern deformation with a
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applications”, Focus on Powder Coatings, Vol. 6, pp. 2-3.

1 min mixing rate is clearly seen in Figure 6. Pattern control
Ispir, E. and Serin, S. (2006), “Polysiloxanes and their
becomes much more difficult when the mixing rate exceeds
applications”, K.S.U. Journal of Science and Engineering,
200 rpm. An excessive mixing rate is not economically desired
Vol. 9 No. 2, pp. 46-51.
because it results in time, labour and energy loss. As a result,
John, M.P. (2004), in Letcher, T.M. (Ed.), Chemical
all these affect the paint cost negatively.
Thermodynamics for Industry, University of Oxford.
Jostein, M., John, E.L., Helene, B., Merete, H. and Volker, R.
Conclusion (2008), “Time and cost effective methods for testing
In the present study, the effects of silicone proportion, paint chemical resistance of aluminium metallic pigmented
and pigment density/silicone proportion and mixing rate on powder coatings”, Progress in Organic Coatings, Vol. 63
pattern formation in hammertone paints, and effects of silicon No. 1, pp. 9-54.
proportion on paint brightness were investigated. Ideal Karlsson, P., Palmqvist, A.E.C. and Holmberg, K. (2006),
conditions for the paint used were identified. The results of “Surface modification for aluminium pigment inhibition”,
these experiments and trials showed: Advances in Colloid and Interface Science, Vol. 121 No. 34,
● The most important parameter for pattern formation in pp. 128-130.
hammertone paints was silicone polymer proportion. Kasaai, M.R. (2008), “Calculation of viscometric constants,
● The required silicone polymer amount for pattern hydrodynamic volume, polymer–solvent interaction parameter,
formation increased with increasing pigment and paint and expansion factor for three polysaccharides with different
density. chain conformations”, Carbohydrate Research, Vol. 343,
● The mixing duration and rate is the second significant pp. 2266-2277.
parameter for pattern formation. Kiehl, A. and Greiwe, K. (1999), “Encapsulated aluminium
● Excessive silicone polymer use decreased surface pigments”, Progress in Organic Coatings, Vol. 37, pp. 179-183.
brightness. Li, L., Pi, P., Wen, X., Cheng, J. and Yang, Z. (2008),
“Optimization of sol– gel coatings on the surface of
In conclusion, raw material, production time and labour losses
aluminium pigments for corrosion protection”, Corrosion
can be minimized by taking the results of this study into
Science, Vol. 50, pp. 795-803.
consideration. This phenomenon is crucial for obtaining
Li, Z. and Jang, C. (2000), “Determination of the nonsolvent–
cost-effective paint.
polymer interaction parameter ␹13 in the casting solutions”,
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Jülide Erkmen Volume 45 · Number 6 · 2016 · 456 –462

Pi, P.H., Chen, J., Chen, K., Cai, Z.Q., Zheng, D.F., Zhang, Y.C., Ye, H.Q., Liu, H., Han, K. (2011),
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Tantishaiyakul, V., Worakul, N., Wongpoowarak, W. (2006),
Durkee, J.B. (2014), “Chapter 2: Solubility scales (Parameters)”,
“Prediction of solubility parameters using partial least
Science and Technology, Cleaning with Solvents, pp. 29-55.
square regression”, International Journal of Pharmaceutics,
Vol. 325 Nos 1/2, pp. 8-14.
Ueberreiter, K. (1968), The Solution Process, Diffusion in Corresponding author
Polymers, Academic Press, New York, NY, pp. 219-257. Jülide Erkmen can be contacted at: [email protected]
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