Psychology
Key Areas
Biological:
Focuses on the physiological and genetic underpinnings of behavior.
Key components: Brain, nervous system, genetics, hormones, and their interactions.
Cognitive:
Examines mental processes.
Key areas: Memory, thinking, problem-solving, language, and decision-making.
Developmental:
Studies how individuals change across the lifespan.
Encompasses physical, cognitive, and social changes from infancy to old age.
Social:
Investigates how individuals think about, influence, and relate to one another.
Topics include attitudes, prejudice, persuasion, conformity, and group dynamics.
Clinical:
Focuses on the study, diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of mental disorders.
Research Methods
Experiments:
Used to determine cause-and-effect relationships.
Involves manipulating an independent variable (IV) to observe its effect on a dependent
variable (DV).
Example: Testing if a new drug (IV) reduces anxiety levels (DV).
Correlational Studies:
Examine the relationships between two or more variables without manipulating them.
Correlation does not equal causation. A correlation simply indicates that two variables
tend to vary together.
Example: Observing the relationship between hours of sleep and exam scores.
Descriptive Studies:
Aim to observe and record behavior.
Common methods include:
Surveys: Collecting data through questionnaires.
Case Studies: In-depth analysis of an individual or group.
Naturalistic Observation: Observing behavior in a natural setting.
Key Concepts
Nature vs. Nurture:
Debate over the relative contributions of genes (nature) and environment (nurture) in
shaping behavior and traits.
Most psychologists believe both nature and nurture interact to influence development.
Consciousness:
Awareness of oneself and one's environment.
Ranges from alertness to sleep and altered states.
Learning:
Relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience.
Two major types:
Classical Conditioning: Learning through association (e.g., Pavlov's dogs).
Operant Conditioning: Learning through consequences (reinforcement and
punishment).
Memory:
The process of encoding, storing, and retrieving information.
Encoding: Getting information into memory.
Storage: Retaining information over time.
Retrieval: Accessing stored information.
Motivation:
The process that initiates, guides, and maintains goal-oriented behaviors.
Driven by needs (e.g., hunger, thirst) and drives (e.g., desire for achievement).
Emotion:
A complex state of feeling that results in physical and psychological changes that
influence thought and behavior.
Involves physiological responses (e.g., heart rate), cognitive appraisal, and subjective
feelings.
Personality:
An individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting.
Often described in terms of traits or patterns of behavior.
Stress:
The body's response to challenging or threatening events.
Can have both psychological and physiological effects.
Important Figures
Wilhelm Wundt:
Considered the "father of psychology."
Established the first psychology laboratory in Leipzig, Germany.
William James:
A key figure in the development of functionalism.
Emphasized the purpose and function of consciousness and behavior.
Sigmund Freud:
Developed psychoanalysis, a theory of personality and a method of psychotherapy.
Emphasized the role of the unconscious mind.
B.F. Skinner:
A major figure in behaviorism.
Known for his work on operant conditioning.
Ivan Pavlov:
Discovered classical conditioning through his experiments with dogs.
