DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY:

PRINCIPLES, STAGES, AND THEORIES

DEVELOPMENTAL PROCESS – NATURE AND
PRINCIPLES
WHAT IS DEVELOPMENT?

Development is the systematic and continuous process by which individuals

grow and change throughout the lifespan — from conception to death. It
includes physical, cognitive, emotional, social, and moral changes.

Development differs from growth:

• Growth: Quantitative (increase in size, height, weight).

• Development: Qualitative (improvement in functioning and capability).

NATURE OF DEVELOPMENT

Development is influenced by both heredity (nature) and environment

(nurture). It includes changes in:

• Structure (e.g., the brain, body)

• Function (e.g., reasoning, language, emotion)
• Abilities (e.g., motor coordination, memory)

It is characterized as:

• Cumulative: Builds on previous skills and abilities.

• Directional: Has a typical path (e.g., crawling → standing → walking).
• Individualized: Varies from person to person due to genetic and
environmental influences.

MAJOR DOMAINS OF DEVELOPMENT

These areas interact with each other throughout the lifespan:

• Physical development: Body growth, brain development, motor skills.

• Cognitive development: Thinking, memory, language, learning.
 • Emotional development: Emotional awareness and regulation.
• Social development: Relationships, social skills, identity.
• Moral development: Understanding right vs. wrong, ethical reasoning.

PRINCIPLES OF DEVELOPMENT

These are foundational ideas about how development typically unfolds:

1. Development is Lifelong

It begins at conception and continues until death. No single stage is

more important than another.

2. Development is Multidimensional

Affected by biological, cognitive, and socioemotional factors. For

example, emotional stress can affect physical growth or learning.

3. Development is Multidirectional

Some abilities improve while others decline. For example, vocabulary

might increase in old age, but processing speed might slow down.

4. Development is Plastic

Capacity for change; for example, a child who is shy can become
outgoing with the right environment. Brain plasticity is highest in early
childhood but continues throughout life.

5. Development is Contextual

Influenced by environment, culture, family, school, society. Contexts

include:

◦ Normative age-graded influences: Similar for individuals in a

particular age group (e.g., puberty, retirement).
◦ Normative history-graded influences: Common to people of a
generation (e.g., COVID-19 pandemic).
◦ Non-normative life events: Unique to an individual (e.g., losing a
parent young).
6. Development Involves Growth, Maintenance, and Regulation of Loss

As we age, some functions grow, some are maintained, and others are
lost and regulated.
 7. Development Follows Predictable Patterns

Includes trends such as:

◦ Cephalocaudal Trend: Development proceeds from head to toe.

◦ Proximodistal Trend: Development moves from the center of the
body outward.
8. Development is Sequential

Children must develop foundational skills before complex ones (e.g.,

babbling → words → sentences).

9. Rate of Development Varies

Each child develops at their own pace; delays in one area don’t
necessarily indicate a disorder.

10. Development is Influenced by Maturation and Learning

Maturation: Biological unfolding of genetic potential.

Learning: Changes due to experience and environment.

FACTORS INFLUENCING DEVELOPMENT: BIOGENIC,

SOCIOGENIC, PSYCHOGENIC
Human development is shaped by a complex interplay of multiple influences
that can be broadly categorized into three major groups: biogenic,
sociogenic, and psychogenic factors. Each category contributes uniquely to
how individuals grow, learn, and adapt throughout life.

1. BIOGENIC FACTORS (BIOLOGICAL / HEREDITARY INFLUENCES)

Biogenic factors comprise internal, genetic, and physiological influences that

provide the foundation for development. These factors form the biological
limits and raw material upon which other influences act.

• Genetic inheritance: Traits passed from parents to offspring, such as eye

color, intelligence potential, and temperament, are genetically
determined and affect predispositions for various abilities and
behaviors.
 • Maturation: The biological growth processes unfold in an orderly
manner relatively uninfluenced by experience. This includes the natural
development of organs and bodily systems.
• Neurophysiological factors: Brain development, including myelination
and the formation of neural circuits, influences motor skills, cognitive
processing, and emotional regulation.
• Hormonal influences: Changes such as those during puberty or aging
impact physical development and emotional states.
• Prenatal conditions: The health and environment experienced by the
fetus—including maternal nutrition, exposure to toxins, or infections—
play critical roles in shaping fetal development.
• Genetic disorders or congenital anomalies: Conditions such as Down
syndrome, phenylketonuria (PKU), and Fragile X syndrome demonstrate
biological constraints or challenges to typical development.

2. SOCIOGENIC FACTORS (ENVIRONMENTAL / SOCIAL

INFLUENCES)

Sociogenic factors encompass external, cultural, and interpersonal influences

that profoundly impact behavior and development through environmental
context.

• Family environment: Parenting styles, emotional support, and quality of

attachment influence social skills and emotional health.
• Socioeconomic status (SES): Access to resources such as healthcare,
education, nutritious food, and safe housing affects developmental
opportunities.
• Education: The quality and type of schooling impart knowledge,
language skills, and social norms.
• Cultural norms and values: These shape beliefs, expectations, moral
reasoning, and gender roles within societies.
• Peers and social interaction: Peer groups provide essential socialization
experiences including cooperation, conflict resolution, and identity
formation.
• Nutrition and physical environment: Adequate food, clean water, and
secure housing support physical health and cognitive functioning.
• Media and technology: Exposure influences attitudes, learning styles,
and behavioral patterns across developmental stages.
3. PSYCHOGENIC FACTORS (PSYCHOLOGICAL / INTRINSIC
INFLUENCES)

Psychogenic factors refer to internal psychological processes related to

personality, emotions, cognition, and self-perception that intrinsically drive
development.

• Personality traits: Characteristics such as introversion, extroversion,

emotional reactivity, and openness to experience affect behavior and
social relationships.
• Emotional development: The ability to understand and regulate
emotions influences learning, social interactions, and mental health.
• Motivation and interests: These internal drives determine engagement
with the environment and persistence in developmental tasks.
• Cognitive style: Individual differences in processing, organizing, and
retrieving information shape learning strategies and problem-solving
approaches.
• Resilience and coping mechanisms: How one manages stress and
adversity affects psychological adjustment and developmental
outcomes.
• Self-concept and identity: A person’s sense of self, self-esteem, and
perceived competence guide choices, behaviors, and interpersonal
relationships.

INTERPLAY OF BIOGENIC, SOCIOGENIC, AND PSYCHOGENIC

FACTORS

These three categories do not operate in isolation but interact dynamically to

influence individual development. For example, a child with a genetic
predisposition for high intelligence (a biogenic factor), nurtured in a
stimulating and supportive home environment (a sociogenic factor), and
motivated by curiosity and persistence (a psychogenic factor) is likely to
achieve optimal cognitive growth.

Conversely, a nurturing environment may buffer genetic or psychological

vulnerabilities, illustrating the powerful role of context. This
interconnectedness underscores the importance of viewing human
development as a product of biological, social, and psychological systems
working together.
STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT
Human development is understood as a lifelong process that unfolds through
a sequence of distinct periods or stages. While development is continuous,
dividing it into stages helps in studying and understanding the characteristic
physical, cognitive, emotional, social, and moral changes that individuals
typically undergo within approximate age ranges. These stages represent a
general pattern, though the exact timing and specific experiences can vary
significantly among individuals due to biological, environmental, and
psychological factors.

PRENATAL STAGE (CONCEPTION TO BIRTH)

This initial stage encompasses the period from fertilization to birth and is one
of rapid and fundamental development.

• Stages of Prenatal Development: The prenatal period is typically divided

into three phases:
◦ Germinal Stage (0–2 weeks): Begins with the formation of the
zygote and includes rapid cell division and implantation in the
uterine wall.
◦ Embryonic Stage (2–8 weeks): Major organs and body systems
begin to form (organogenesis). The embryo is highly vulnerable to
environmental influences, known as teratogens. Limb buds and
primitive reflexes emerge.
◦ Fetal Stage (9 weeks to Birth): Marked by significant growth and
refinement of organs and body structures. The brain develops
rapidly, and the fetus begins to show movement. Sex
differentiation occurs around 12 weeks, and viability outside the
womb becomes possible around 24 weeks with intensive care.
• Influences: Maternal health, nutrition, stress, illness, and exposure to
substances (e.g., drugs, alcohol, toxins) can profoundly affect fetal
development and potentially cause congenital disabilities. Growth is a
primary focus during the fetal stage.

INFANCY AND TODDLERHOOD (BIRTH TO 2 YEARS)

A period of tremendous growth and the foundational development of motor

skills, cognition, and social bonding.

• Physical Development: Characterized by rapid brain and body growth.

Infants develop reflexes (e.g., sucking, grasping) and progress to
 voluntary motor skills such as sitting, crawling, standing, and eventually
walking. Rapid development of neural connections (synapses) occurs in
the brain, crucial for later cognitive development.
• Cognitive Development: According to Jean Piaget's Sensorimotor stage,
infants explore the world primarily through their senses and motor
actions. A key achievement is the development of object permanence—
the understanding that objects continue to exist even when they are out
of sight.
• Emotional and Social Development: This period is critical for attachment
formation, the emotional bond developed with caregivers (e.g., secure
attachment). Infants begin to express a range of basic emotions,
including happiness, anger, fear, and surprise.
• Important Milestones: Significant motor milestones include holding the
head up (around 2 months), sitting without support (around 6–7
months), crawling (around 9–10 months), walking (around 12 months),
and the emergence of running and climbing skills (around 18–24
months).

EARLY CHILDHOOD (2 TO 6 YEARS)

Often referred to as the preschool years, marked by significant advances in

language, cognitive abilities, and social understanding.

• Physical Development: Growth rate slows compared to infancy, but

children continue to refine their fine and gross motor skills, gaining
better coordination and control over their movements.
• Cognitive Development: Corresponds to Piaget's Preoperational stage.
Children develop symbolic thought, enabling them to use words,
images, and objects to represent other things. However, their thinking is
often characterized by egocentrism (difficulty seeing from others'
perspectives) and centration (focusing on only one aspect of a situation).
Imagination and pretend play are prominent.
• Language Development: This is a period of rapid language acquisition.
Vocabulary grows exponentially, and children begin to use complete
sentences, becoming increasingly effective communicators.
• Emotional and Social Development: Emotional regulation is still
developing, leading to occasional outbursts. Children start forming a
sense of self and gender identity. Interaction with peers becomes more
significant, and play transitions from solitary to more social forms.
MIDDLE CHILDHOOD (6 TO 12 YEARS)

The elementary school years, characterized by more logical thought

processes and expanding social worlds.

• Physical Development: Growth continues steadily. Children gain

improved coordination and strength, leading to greater proficiency in
motor skills involved in sports and activities. The beginning of puberty
may occur towards the end of this stage.
• Cognitive Development: Matches Piaget's Concrete Operational stage.
Children develop the ability to think logically about concrete events.
They master concepts such as conservation (understanding that
quantity remains constant despite changes in appearance) and
reversibility. Their reasoning becomes more complex, and they begin to
understand cause-and-effect relationships more clearly.
• Emotional and Social Development: Peer relationships become
increasingly central to development, influencing a child's self-esteem
through social comparison. Children learn social rules, develop
friendships based on shared interests, and participate more in group
activities and team sports. Emotional regulation abilities improve
significantly.

ADOLESCENCE (12 TO 18 YEARS)

A transitional period marked by significant physical maturation, abstract

thinking, and the quest for identity.

• Physical Development: This stage begins with puberty, leading to rapid

growth spurts and sexual maturation. Secondary sexual characteristics
develop. Changes in body image and physical appearance are
prominent.
• Cognitive Development: Aligns with Piaget's Formal Operational stage.
Adolescents develop the capacity for abstract reasoning and
hypothetical thinking. They can consider multiple possibilities, think
about the future, and engage in metacognition (thinking about one's
own thinking).
• Emotional and Social Development: A primary psychosocial task, as
described by Erik Erikson, is identity formation (Identity vs. Role
Confusion). Adolescents explore different roles and beliefs to establish a
sense of self. Peer relationships are highly influential, impacting self-
concept and emotional well-being. Romantic relationships and sexual
 exploration become more prominent. Risk-taking behavior may also
increase during this period.

EARLY ADULTHOOD (18 TO 40 YEARS)

A phase focused on establishing independence, forming intimate

relationships, and pursuing career paths.

• Physical Development: Physical health, strength, endurance, and fertility

typically peak during this period. While often not noticeable, a gradual
physical decline begins in the late 20s.
• Cognitive Development: Thinking becomes more practical, flexible, and
relativistic, often described as post-formal thought. Adults apply their
knowledge and problem-solving skills to real-life situations and
decisions related to career and personal life.
• Emotional and Social Development: According to Erikson, the central
conflict is Intimacy vs. Isolation, focusing on forming close, committed
relationships. This period often involves marriage or long-term
partnerships, career development, and potentially parenthood.
Establishing independence from family of origin is also a key task.

MIDDLE ADULTHOOD (40 TO 65 YEARS)

Characterized by contributing to the next generation, career progression, and

navigating physical changes associated with aging.

• Physical Development: Gradual physical declines become more

noticeable, including changes in vision, hearing, muscle mass, and
metabolism. Women experience menopause, and men may experience
andropause. Health concerns may increase.
• Cognitive Development: While processing speed may slow slightly,
cognitive abilities generally remain strong. Crystallized intelligence
(accumulated knowledge and skills) may be at its peak, while fluid
intelligence (ability to solve new problems) may begin a slight decline.
• Emotional and Social Development: Erikson's stage of Generativity vs.
Stagnation highlights the focus on contributing to society, often through
parenting, mentoring, or community involvement. Individuals may
reflect on their life goals and achievements. This period can involve peak
career status or significant career changes, as well as navigating
relationships with aging parents and growing children.
LATE ADULTHOOD (65+ YEARS)

The final stage of life, involving reflection, adaptation to physical changes,

and maintaining social connections.

• Physical Development: Age-related physical declines continue, affecting

mobility, sensory abilities (vision, hearing), and overall health. The risk of
chronic health conditions increases.
• Cognitive Development: While there can be declines in processing
speed and short-term memory, cognitive function varies widely among
individuals. Many older adults maintain strong cognitive abilities,
though the risk of conditions like dementia and Alzheimer's disease
increases with age.
• Emotional and Social Development: Erikson's final stage, Integrity vs.
Despair, involves reflecting on one's life and finding a sense of meaning
and satisfaction. Older adults may experience loss of loved ones and
changes in social networks (e.g., due to retirement). Maintaining social
ties, engaging in leisure activities, and adapting to changes in life
circumstances are important aspects of this stage.

DOMAINS OF DEVELOPMENT
Development occurs across several interconnected domains, each influencing
the others. Understanding these domains provides a framework for studying
the multifaceted nature of human growth and change throughout the
lifespan. The major domains are:

1. SENSORY-MOTOR DEVELOPMENT

This domain refers to how an individual develops motor skills and learns to
interact with their environment through movement and senses. It involves
the coordination of sensory input and motor output.

• Key Aspects: Includes the development of reflexes, gross motor skills

(large muscle movements), fine motor skills (small movements using
hands/fingers), and the refinement of sensory development (vision,
hearing, touch, taste, smell). Infants are born with basic sensory
capacities that improve over time.
• Important Milestones: Development follows predictable patterns.
Examples include holding head up (~2 months), sitting without support
(~6–7 months), crawling (~9–10 months), walking (~12 months), and
 running, climbing (~18–24 months). As children grow, they gain
improved coordination and strength, refining motor skills like riding a
bike or playing sports.
• Relevant Theories & Concepts: Piaget's Sensorimotor stage describes
how infants explore the world through senses and motor actions,
leading to concepts like object permanence—understanding that
objects continue to exist even when not visible. Development involves
the biological unfolding of motor capabilities and learning through
experience.

2. COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

Cognitive development encompasses mental processes such as thinking,

learning, memory, reasoning, and problem-solving. It involves how
individuals acquire, process, store, and use information.

• Key Aspects: Focuses on the development of mental abilities and

thought processes from simple to complex. Changes occur in how
individuals attend to information, encode it, store it, and retrieve it
(Information Processing Approach). Executive functions like planning,
impulse control, and flexible thinking develop gradually.
• Relevant Theories & Concepts:
◦ Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development: Proposes four
universal, sequential stages:
▪ Sensorimotor (0–2 yrs): Learning through senses and actions;
key concept is object permanence.
▪ Preoperational (2–7 yrs): Marked by symbolic thinking,
imagination, and language development, but limitations
include egocentrism and centration.
▪ Concrete Operational (7–11 yrs): Logical thinking about
concrete events emerges; mastery of conservation,
reversibility, and classification occurs.
▪ Formal Operational (12+ yrs): Development of abstract
reasoning, hypothetical thinking, and metacognition.
◦ Information Processing Approach: Views cognitive development as
gradual improvements in memory, attention, and problem-solving
skills, focusing on processes like encoding, storage, and retrieval.
◦ Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory: Highlights the role of social
interaction and culture in cognitive growth, introducing concepts
like the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) and scaffolding,
which help children master tasks with assistance.
 • Development Across Stages: Cognitive abilities change throughout life.
Thinking becomes more practical and flexible in Early Adulthood (post-
formal thought). Cognitive abilities remain strong but processing speed
may slow in Middle Adulthood, with crystallized intelligence peaking.
Decline in processing speed and short-term memory can occur in Late
Adulthood, though many maintain good cognitive function.

3. LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT

Language development is the process by which individuals learn to

communicate through words, both spoken and written. It is closely linked to
cognitive and social development.

• Key Aspects: Involves acquiring vocabulary, grammar, syntax, and

pragmatic rules of communication. It enables complex thought and
social interaction.
• Developmental Stages: Follows a typical sequence: cooing (~6 weeks),
babbling (~6 months), first words (~12 months), two-word sentences
(~18–24 months), and complex sentences (~3–4 years). Vocabulary grows
rapidly in early childhood.
• Relevant Theories:
◦ Skinner (Behaviorist): Proposed language is learned through
reinforcement and imitation.
◦ Chomsky (Nativist): Argued for an inborn Language Acquisition
Device (LAD) that enables children to acquire language naturally.
◦ Vygotsky (Social Interactionist): Emphasized the role of social
context and scaffolding in language growth, where interactions
with more skilled individuals facilitate learning.

4. EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT

Emotional development concerns how individuals understand, express, and

regulate their emotions over time. It is fundamental to mental health and
social relationships.

• Key Aspects: Includes the development of basic and complex emotions,

emotional awareness, the ability to manage feelings (emotion
regulation), and understanding the emotions of others (empathy).
• Relevant Theories & Concepts:
◦ Attachment: The formation of an emotional bond with a primary
caregiver, crucial in infancy (Bowlby’s theory describes different
attachment styles like secure and insecure).
 ◦ Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory: Highlights the importance of
resolving psychosocial conflicts across the lifespan, many of which
have strong emotional components (e.g., Trust vs. Mistrust in
infancy related to feeling secure; Identity vs. Role Confusion in
adolescence related to self-concept and emotional highs/lows;
Intimacy vs. Isolation in early adulthood related to forming close
bonds; Integrity vs. Despair in late adulthood related to life
reflection).
◦ Freud’s Psychosexual Theory: Suggests personality and emotional
development are linked to the gratification of urges at different
psychosexual stages (Oral, Anal, Phallic, Latency, Genital), with
unresolved conflicts leading to fixation.
• Development Across Stages: Infants express basic emotions. Toddlers
begin showing complex emotions like guilt and shame. Preschoolers
learn emotion vocabulary. Emotional regulation improves with age but is
still maturing in early childhood. Adolescents experience emotional
highs/lows, and their developing identity affects regulation. Adults focus
on managing emotions within relationships and life challenges.

5. SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

Social development refers to how individuals form relationships, interact with

others, and navigate social contexts and societal norms. It involves learning
social skills and behaviors.

• Key Aspects: Includes socialization (learning norms, values, roles),

developing social skills, forming friendships, understanding social rules,
and navigating group dynamics. Peer interactions become increasingly
important from early childhood onward, teaching cooperation, conflict
resolution, and influencing self-esteem.
• Relevant Theories & Concepts:
◦ Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory: Each stage involves navigating
social relationships and developing a sense of self within social
contexts (e.g., Trust, Autonomy, Initiative, Industry in childhood
stages; Identity vs. Role Confusion in adolescence; Intimacy vs.
Isolation in early adulthood; Generativity vs. Stagnation in middle
adulthood; Integrity vs. Despair in late adulthood).
◦ Parenting Styles (Baumrind): Different parenting approaches
(Authoritative, Authoritarian, Permissive, Neglectful) significantly
influence a child's social competence, emotional regulation, and
 self-concept. Authoritative parenting is often associated with best
outcomes.
◦ Bandura’s Social Learning Theory: Emphasizes learning by
observing and imitating others (observational learning/modeling).
Concepts like the Bobo Doll Experiment illustrate how children
learn social behaviors. Reciprocal determinism highlights the
interaction between a person, their behavior, and the environment.
◦ Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory: Posits that
development is shaped by multiple levels of the environment, from
immediate interactions (Microsystem) to broader cultural contexts
(Macrosystem) and changes over time (Chronosystem).
Interactions between these systems (Mesosystem, Exosystem) also
influence development.
• Development Across Stages: Attachment (social bond) forms in infancy.
Peer play and self-concept develop in early childhood. Peer groups and
friendships become central in middle childhood and adolescence,
influencing identity. Adults focus on intimacy, career, parenthood, and
contributing to society. Social networks change across adulthood and
late adulthood.

6. MORAL DEVELOPMENT

Moral development involves the growth of a sense of right and wrong, the
formation of conscience, and the ability to engage in ethical reasoning and
behavior.

• Key Aspects: Focuses on understanding rules, developing moral

principles, and making judgments about ethical dilemmas.
• Relevant Theories:
◦ Piaget’s Stages of Moral Development: Proposed a shift from
Heteronomous morality (rules fixed by authority, judgment based
on consequences, in younger children) to Autonomous morality
(rules based on mutual respect, intentions considered, in older
children/adolescents).
◦ Kohlberg’s Levels of Moral Development: Expanded on Piaget,
describing three levels—Preconventional (focus on punishment/
reward), Conventional (focus on upholding laws/social rules), and
Postconventional (focus on internal ethical principles)—each with
two stages.
THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT
Understanding how and why individuals change over time is central to
developmental psychology. Various foundational theories provide
frameworks for explaining the processes of growth, learning, and adaptation
across the lifespan. These theories highlight different aspects of
development, focusing on cognitive processes, social interactions, personality
formation, learning mechanisms, and environmental influences. For
comprehensive understanding, it is important to know the key theorists, their
core ideas, proposed stages (where applicable), and essential terminology
associated with each perspective.

JEAN PIAGET’S THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

Jean Piaget's theory is a cornerstone of developmental psychology, focusing

on how children construct knowledge as they interact with the world. His core
idea is that cognitive development occurs in a sequence of four universal,
qualitatively distinct stages, each characterized by specific ways of thinking.

• Core Idea: Children are active learners who build their understanding of
the world through interaction and exploration. Cognitive development
proceeds through discrete stages marked by qualitative changes in
thinking.
• Stages:
◦ Sensorimotor Stage (0–2 years): Infants learn about the world
through their senses and motor activities. A major achievement is
the development of object permanence, the understanding that
objects continue to exist even when they are not visible.
◦ Preoperational Stage (2–7 years): Children develop symbolic
thinking, enabling the use of language, images, and pretend play.
However, thinking is often characterized by egocentrism (difficulty
seeing things from others' perspectives), centration (focusing on
only one aspect of a situation), and a lack of understanding of
conservation.
◦ Concrete Operational Stage (7–11 years): Children begin to think
logically about concrete events and objects. They develop an
understanding of conservation (e.g., that quantity remains the
same despite changes in shape), reversibility, and classification.
Reasoning becomes more organized and logical when dealing with
tangible information.
 ◦ Formal Operational Stage (12+ years): Adolescents and adults gain
the capacity for abstract reasoning, hypothetical thinking, and
deductive logic. They can consider multiple possibilities, think
about the future, and engage in metacognition (thinking about
one's own thinking).
• Key Terminology: Object permanence, Egocentrism, Centration,
Conservation, Reversibility, Classification, Symbolic thought, Abstract
reasoning, Hypothetical thinking, Metacognition.

LEV VYGOTSKY’S SOCIOCULTURAL THEORY

Lev Vygotsky's theory emphasizes the profound impact of social interaction

and culture on cognitive development. Unlike Piaget, Vygotsky argued that
learning precedes development, as children acquire cognitive tools and
understanding from their social environments.

• Core Idea: Development is a socially mediated process. Children learn

through interaction with more knowledgeable individuals (adults or
more capable peers) within their cultural context. Language is seen as a
crucial tool for thought.
• Key Concepts:
◦ Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): This is the gap between
what a child can do independently and what they can achieve with
the guidance and support of a more skilled person. Learning is
most effective when it occurs within this zone.
◦ Scaffolding: Refers to the temporary support provided by a more
knowledgeable person to help a child master a task within their
ZPD. This support is gradually withdrawn as the child becomes
more competent.
◦ Private speech: Children often talk to themselves while performing
tasks. Vygotsky viewed this "private speech" not as egocentric (like
Piaget did) but as a tool for self-regulation and guiding one's own
thinking and actions.

ERIK ERIKSON’S PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY

Erik Erikson's theory provides a lifespan perspective on personality

development, proposing that individuals navigate eight sequential
psychosocial stages. Each stage is marked by a unique psychosocial conflict
or crisis that must be resolved to achieve healthy development and acquire a
basic virtue.

• Core Idea: Personality develops through the resolution of social crises

encountered at different ages. Successful resolution leads to a healthy
ego and the development of specific psychological strengths.
• Important Stages and Conflicts:
◦ Trust vs. Mistrust (0–1 year): Infants develop a sense of trust in
caregivers based on consistent and responsive care. Failure leads
to mistrust.
◦ Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (1–3 years): Toddlers strive for
independence in actions like walking, dressing, and toileting.
Support fosters a sense of autonomy; excessive restriction or
criticism leads to shame and doubt.
◦ Initiative vs. Guilt (3–6 years): Preschoolers explore their
environment and initiate activities. Encouragement of initiative
promotes a sense of purpose; criticism or overcontrol can lead to
guilt.
◦ Industry vs. Inferiority (6–12 years): School-aged children focus on
mastering academic and social skills. Success leads to a sense of
competence (industry); failure can result in feelings of inferiority.
◦ Identity vs. Role Confusion (Adolescence): Adolescents explore
various roles and beliefs to form a coherent sense of self and
identity. Failure to resolve this conflict leads to role confusion.
◦ Other stages include: Intimacy vs. Isolation (Early Adulthood),
Generativity vs. Stagnation (Middle Adulthood), and Integrity vs.
Despair (Late Adulthood).
• Key Terminology: Psychosocial crisis, Ego strength, Trust, Autonomy,
Initiative, Industry, Identity, Intimacy, Generativity, Integrity.

FREUD’S PSYCHOSEXUAL THEORY

Sigmund Freud's psychosexual theory proposes that personality development

occurs through a sequence of five stages, each centered on a specific
erogenous zone. Freud believed that unresolved conflicts at any stage could
lead to fixation, influencing adult personality and behavior.

• Core Idea: Development is driven by instinctual biological forces,

particularly the libido (sexual energy). Personality is shaped by how
individuals manage these urges during childhood stages.
 • Stages:
◦ Oral Stage (0–1 year): Focus is on the mouth (sucking, biting,
chewing). Pleasure is derived from oral activities. Fixation can lead
to oral habits or personality traits related to dependence or
aggression.
◦ Anal Stage (1–3 years): Focus is on the anus. Pleasure relates to
bowel and bladder control. Conflict arises around toilet training.
Fixation can result in issues with control, orderliness, or messiness.
◦ Phallic Stage (3–6 years): Focus is on the genitals. Children become
aware of sex differences. Key conflicts include the Oedipus complex
(boys' desires for their mothers and rivalry with fathers) and the
Electra complex (girls' desires for their fathers and rivalry with
mothers), leading to identification with the same-sex parent.
◦ Latency Stage (6–12 years): A period of dormant sexual feelings.
Energy is channeled into social and intellectual pursuits, such as
school and peer relationships.
◦ Genital Stage (12+ years): Sexual impulses re-emerge and mature.
The focus shifts to developing romantic relationships and finding
satisfaction in mature sexual intimacy.
• Key Terminology: Libido, Erogenous zone, Fixation, Oedipus complex,
Electra complex.

BEHAVIORIST THEORIES (SKINNER, WATSON)

Behaviorist theories, notably associated with B.F. Skinner and John B. Watson,
propose that development is primarily a result of learning from the
environment through conditioning. They focus on observable behaviors and
the external stimuli that shape them.

• Core Idea: Behavior is learned through interaction with the environment

via processes like classical and operant conditioning. Development is
seen as continuous, driven by environmental influences rather than
internal stages.
• Key Concepts:
◦ Classical Conditioning (Ivan Pavlov, applied by Watson): Learning
occurs when a neutral stimulus becomes associated with an
unconditioned stimulus that naturally elicits a response. The
neutral stimulus then gains the power to elicit a conditioned
response.
◦ Operant Conditioning (B.F. Skinner): Behavior is shaped by its
consequences. Behaviors followed by reinforcement are more
 likely to occur, while behaviors followed by punishment are less
likely. Reinforcement can be positive (adding a desirable stimulus)
or negative (removing an undesirable stimulus). Punishment
involves adding an undesirable stimulus or removing a desirable
one.
◦ John B. Watson: A radical behaviorist who famously claimed he
could train any healthy infant to become any type of specialist,
regardless of their background, solely through environmental
control.
• Key Terminology: Classical conditioning, Operant conditioning, Stimulus,
Response, Reinforcement, Punishment, Association.

ALBERT BANDURA’S SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY

Albert Bandura's Social Learning Theory extends behaviorism by emphasizing

the role of observation and imitation in learning. He proposed that individuals
can learn new behaviors by observing others, without necessarily
experiencing direct reinforcement or punishment themselves.

• Core Idea: Children learn by observing and imitating the behavior of

others (models). Learning can occur simply by watching, though
performance of the learned behavior may depend on reinforcement.
• Key Concepts:
◦ Observational Learning / Modeling: The process of learning by
watching and imitating a model. This involves attention, retention,
reproduction, and motivation.
◦ Bobo Doll Experiment: Bandura's famous experiment
demonstrated that children exposed to aggressive adult models
were more likely to imitate aggressive behaviors towards a Bobo
doll compared to children who observed non-aggressive models.
◦ Reciprocal Determinism: Bandura proposed that development
involves a continuous interaction among an individual's behavior,
cognitive factors (thoughts, beliefs, expectations), and
environmental influences. These three factors mutually influence
each other.
• Key Terminology: Observational learning, Modeling, Imitation, Bobo
Doll Experiment, Reciprocal determinism.

BRONFENBRENNER’S ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS THEORY

Urie Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Systems Theory views development as a

complex system of relationships affected by multiple levels of the
surrounding environment. It highlights the importance of context and how
different environmental layers interact to influence an individual's growth.

• Core Idea: Development is shaped by a series of nested environmental

systems that interact with one another and with the individual.
• Systems:
◦ Microsystem: The individual's immediate environment, including
face-to-face relationships and settings such as family, school, peer
group, and neighborhood.
◦ Mesosystem: Connections and interactions between different
microsystems in a person's life. For example, the link between a
child's home and school experiences.
◦ Exosystem: External settings that the individual is not directly
involved in but which nonetheless affect them. Examples include a
parent's workplace, community health services, or local
government policies.
◦ Macrosystem: The broadest level, encompassing the cultural
values, customs, laws, ideologies, and social conditions of the
society in which the individual lives.
◦ Chronosystem: The dimension of time, including socio-historical
circumstances and transitions over the life course. It accounts for
how changes in a person's environment or major life events (e.g.,
divorce, pandemic) occurring over time affect development.
• Key Terminology: Ecological systems, Microsystem, Mesosystem,
Exosystem, Macrosystem, Chronosystem, Contextual influences.

KOHLBERG’S THEORY OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT

Lawrence Kohlberg's theory, building on Piaget's work, describes the

development of moral reasoning. He proposed that individuals progress
through three levels of moral thinking, each with two stages, moving from a
focus on external consequences to upholding social rules and eventually
internal ethical principles.

• Core Idea: Moral development is primarily concerned with justice and

involves the process of reasoning about moral dilemmas. Individuals
progress through a fixed sequence of stages in their capacity for moral
judgment.
 • Levels and Stages:
◦ Level 1: Pre-conventional Morality (typically up to age 9): Moral
reasoning is based on external consequences and personal gain.
▪ Stage 1: Obedience and Punishment Orientation: Morality is
based on avoiding punishment. Rules are seen as fixed and
absolute.
▪ Stage 2: Individualism and Exchange: Morality is based on
self-interest and quid pro quo. What is right is what benefits
oneself or leads to a reward.
◦ Level 2: Conventional Morality (typically adolescence and
adulthood): Moral reasoning is based on upholding social rules
and expectations.
▪ Stage 3: Good Interpersonal Relationships: Morality is based
on living up to social expectations and roles, being seen as
"good" by others.
▪ Stage 4: Maintaining the Social Order: Morality is based on
upholding laws and rules to maintain social order and avoid
guilt. Duty and respect for authority are central.
◦ Level 3: Post-conventional Morality (typically adulthood, not
reached by all): Moral reasoning is based on abstract ethical
principles and personal values.
▪ Stage 5: Social Contract and Individual Rights: Morality is
based on the idea of a social contract; laws are viewed as
flexible instruments that can be changed if they infringe upon
fundamental rights or the common good.
▪ Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principles: Morality is based on
universal ethical principles (e.g., justice, dignity, equality) that
transcend conventional laws. Individuals act according to
their internalized moral code.
• Key Terminology: Moral reasoning, Pre-conventional level, Conventional
level, Post-conventional level, Justice, Ethical principles.

INFORMATION PROCESSING APPROACH

The Information Processing Approach views the human mind as a system for
processing information, similar to a computer. It focuses on how individuals
attend to, encode, store, and retrieve information, and how these processes
change developmentally.

• Core Idea: Cognitive development involves gradual, quantitative

improvements in the efficiency and capacity of information processing
abilities, rather than distinct qualitative stages (as in Piaget's theory).
• Key Concepts:
◦ Encoding: The process of taking in information and converting it
into a usable form that can be stored in memory.
◦ Storage: Holding information in memory over time. This includes
sensory memory, working memory (short-term memory), and long-
term memory.
◦ Retrieval: Accessing and recalling stored information from
memory.
◦ Working Memory: A system that holds and manipulates
information for immediate use; it has limited capacity and
duration.
◦ Executive Functions: A set of higher-level cognitive processes that
control and manage other cognitive functions. These include
planning, organization, impulse control, attention regulation,
cognitive flexibility, and problem-solving strategies. Executive
functions develop gradually throughout childhood and
adolescence.
• Developmental Changes: According to this approach, development is
characterized by improvements in attention span, memory capacity and
strategies, processing speed, and the sophistication of executive
functions.

PERIODS OF DEVELOPMENT
This section of developmental psychology explains the various stages from
conception to death, and how each period influences growth, behavior, and
capabilities. The key here is understanding age-specific characteristics and
the associated physical, cognitive, and emotional developments. This will also
help in answering related MCQs that test your understanding of human
development over time.

Human development is a lifelong process occurring in sequential stages, each

characterized by specific physical, cognitive, emotional, and social changes.
These stages represent a universal pattern, though timing may vary across
individuals. While development is continuous, dividing it into stages helps in
studying and understanding the characteristic physical, cognitive, emotional,
social, and moral changes that individuals typically undergo within
approximate age ranges. These stages represent a general pattern, though
the exact timing and specific experiences can vary significantly among
individuals due to biological, environmental, and psychological factors.

PRENATAL PERIOD (CONCEPTION TO BIRTH)

This initial stage encompasses the period from fertilization to birth and is one
of rapid and fundamental development, laying the biological foundation for
the entire lifespan.

• Stages of Prenatal Development: The prenatal period is typically divided

into three distinct phases, each with critical developmental events:
◦ Germinal Stage (0–2 weeks): Begins with the formation of the
zygote through fertilization in the fallopian tube. The zygote
undergoes rapid cell division (cleavage) while traveling towards the
uterus. By about 5-7 days, it forms a blastocyst, a hollow ball of
cells. The stage culminates with implantation of the blastocyst into
the uterine wall, a process that begins around day 6-10 and is
typically complete by the end of the second week. Initial
development of the placenta begins during this phase, establishing
the vital connection between mother and developing organism.
◦ Embryonic Stage (2–8 weeks): Following implantation, the
blastocyst is now called an embryo. This is a period of intense
organogenesis, meaning the formation of major organs and body
systems (nervous system, circulatory system, digestive system,
skeletal system, etc.). Three distinct cell layers form: the ectoderm
(which develops into the skin, nervous system, sensory organs), the
mesoderm (muscles, bones, circulatory system, internal organs),
and the endoderm (digestive system, respiratory system). The
neural tube, which will become the brain and spinal cord, forms
early in this stage. Limb buds appear and develop into arms and
legs. The heart begins beating around 4 weeks. The embryo is
highly vulnerable to environmental influences, known as
teratogens (such as certain drugs, alcohol, infections, radiation,
and environmental toxins). Exposure during this critical period can
cause significant congenital disabilities because organ systems are
rapidly differentiating. By the end of the embryonic stage (around
8 weeks), the organism is clearly recognizable as a human and
begins to show primitive reflexes.
 ◦ Fetal Stage (9 weeks to Birth): The longest prenatal stage,
characterized by significant growth and refinement of organs and
body structures. The fetus grows rapidly in size and weight. All
major organs continue to develop and become functional. Brain
development accelerates dramatically, including the formation of
new neurons (neurogenesis) and the connections between them
(synaptogenesis). At around 12 weeks, sex differentiation occurs,
and external genitalia are formed. By the second trimester (around
24 weeks), the fetus has developed enough respiratory and brain
function to potentially survive outside the womb with intensive
medical care (age of viability). The third trimester sees rapid weight
gain, maturation of the lungs, and further development of the
brain. Sensory abilities like hearing develop, and the fetus
responds to sounds. Motor activity increases, and the fetus can
suck its thumb, hiccup, and kick.
• Influences and Vulnerabilities: Maternal health, nutrition, stress levels,
illness, and exposure to substances (e.g., drugs, alcohol, smoking,
prescription medications, environmental toxins) can profoundly affect
fetal development throughout the prenatal period, with the embryonic
stage being particularly sensitive to teratogens. Adequate maternal
nutrition is crucial for healthy brain and body growth. Stress hormones
can impact fetal development. Infections can cross the placental barrier
and cause damage. Growth is a primary focus during the fetal stage,
requiring sufficient nutrients. Genetic factors also play a role; genetic
disorders or congenital anomalies can impact prenatal development.

INFANCY AND TODDLERHOOD (BIRTH TO 2 YEARS)

A period of tremendous growth and the foundational development of motor

skills, cognition, language, and social bonding. This phase is marked by rapid
biological changes and initial interactions with the environment.

• Physical Development: Characterized by the most rapid period of

physical growth after the prenatal stage. Brain development is explosive,
with a dramatic increase in synapses (connections between neurons) in
areas responsible for sensory, motor, and language skills. Myelination,
the process that insulates nerve fibers, begins, leading to faster neural
communication. Infants are born with involuntary reflexes (e.g., sucking,
rooting, grasping, Moro reflex) that gradually give way to voluntary
control over movements. Motor skills develop rapidly, following the
cephalocaudal (head-to-toe) and proximodistal (center-outward) trends.
 Gross motor skills progress from holding the head up, rolling over,
sitting without support, crawling, standing, and eventually walking
(typically around 12 months). Fine motor skills develop concurrently,
starting with reflexive grasping and progressing to voluntary reaching,
transferring objects, and the pincer grasp (using thumb and forefinger).
• Cognitive Development: According to Jean Piaget's Sensorimotor stage,
infants explore the world primarily through their senses and motor
actions, learning by doing. They coordinate sensory input (seeing,
hearing) with motor output (grasping, moving). A key cognitive
achievement is the development of object permanence—the
understanding that objects continue to exist even when they are out of
sight. This typically develops gradually between 4 and 8 months and is
solidified by the end of this stage. Early problem-solving skills emerge
through trial and error. Memory abilities improve, allowing infants to
recognize familiar people and objects. Early language comprehension
develops before production.
• Language Development: While early language production is limited,
infants are highly attuned to language from birth. Cooing (vowel
sounds) begins around 6 weeks, followed by babbling (consonant-vowel
combinations like "ba," "ma") around 6 months. Babbling becomes more
complex and takes on the sounds of the native language by the end of
the first year. First words typically appear around 12 months, often
nouns related to important people or objects. By 18-24 months, toddlers
begin combining words into simple two-word sentences ("more milk,"
"daddy go"), known as telegraphic speech. Vocabulary grows rapidly
during the second year.
• Emotional and Social Development: This period is critical for attachment
formation, the deep emotional bond that forms between an infant and
their primary caregiver(s). Secure attachment provides a sense of safety
and allows the infant to explore the world confidently. Insecure
attachment styles can develop based on inconsistent or unresponsive
caregiving. Infants begin to express a range of basic emotions, including
joy, anger, fear, surprise, sadness, and disgust, through facial
expressions, crying, and vocalizations. Social smiling emerges around 2
months. Stranger anxiety and separation anxiety may appear later in the
first year as object permanence develops and infants can differentiate
caregivers from others. Toddlers begin to develop a sense of self-
awareness, often demonstrated by recognizing themselves in a mirror
(around 18 months). They start showing complex emotions like guilt and
shame and assert their independence ("no!") as autonomy develops
(linking to Erikson's Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt stage). Early social
 interactions involve simple imitation and parallel play (playing alongside
others without significant interaction).
• Significant Milestones:
◦ 2 months: Holds head up, social smile.
◦ 4-6 months: Rolls over, sits with support, reaches for objects.
◦ 6-7 months: Sits without support.
◦ 9-10 months: Crawling, pincer grasp, stranger anxiety.
◦ 12 months: First steps (walking), first words, object permanence
solidified.
◦ 18 months: Walks independently, says several words, recognizes
self in mirror.
◦ 18-24 months: Runs, climbs, speaks two-word sentences,
increasing autonomy.

EARLY CHILDHOOD (2 TO 6 YEARS)

Often referred to as the preschool years, marked by significant advances in

language, cognitive abilities, imagination, and expanding social
understanding beyond the immediate family.

• Physical Development: Growth rate slows compared to infancy but

remains steady. Children continue to develop and refine their fine and
gross motor skills, gaining better coordination, balance, and control
over their movements. Gross motor skills improve, enabling running,
jumping, hopping, throwing, and catching. Fine motor skills advance
significantly, allowing for activities like drawing, cutting with scissors,
dressing themselves, and manipulating small objects. Brain
development continues, with increasing myelination and growth in
areas associated with language and spatial skills.
• Cognitive Development: Corresponds to Jean Piaget's Preoperational
stage. A major development is the emergence of symbolic thought,
enabling children to use words, images, and objects to represent other
things (e.g., using a box as a car during play). Language becomes a
powerful tool for thinking and communication. Imagination and pretend
play (sociodramatic play) flourish, allowing children to explore roles and
ideas. However, their thinking is often characterized by cognitive
limitations:
◦ Egocentrism: Difficulty seeing the world from another person's
perspective.
 ◦ Centration: Focusing on only one salient aspect of a situation or
object, neglecting other important features (e.g., in conservation
tasks).
◦ Lack of Conservation: Not understanding that properties like
quantity, mass, or volume remain the same despite changes in
appearance.
◦ Animism: Believing inanimate objects have feelings or intentions.
Thinking is intuitive rather than logical. Attention span is still relatively
short. Memory improves but is often focused on salient or personally
relevant events.
• Language Development: This is a period of rapid and dramatic language
acquisition, often referred to as a "language explosion." Vocabulary
grows exponentially, expanding from hundreds of words at age 2 to
thousands by age 6. Children quickly master the basic grammar and
syntax of their native language, moving from telegraphic speech to
using complex sentences with correct word order and grammatical
markers (though they may make overregularization errors, like saying
"goed" instead of "went"). They become increasingly effective
communicators, able to hold simple conversations, ask questions, and
express needs and ideas.
• Emotional and Social Development: Emotional regulation is still
developing, leading to occasional outbursts, temper tantrums, and
difficulty managing frustration, especially early in this stage. Children
start forming a stronger sense of self-concept, often describing
themselves based on physical characteristics or simple abilities. Gender
identity formation is a key aspect, as children become aware of gender
categories and begin to identify with one. Play becomes more social,
progressing from parallel play to associative play (playing separately but
interacting) and eventually cooperative play (playing together towards a
common goal). Interaction with peers becomes more significant,
teaching sharing, cooperation, and conflict resolution, although conflicts
are frequent due to egocentrism and developing social skills. They begin
to understand basic social rules and expectations. According to Erikson's
stage of Initiative vs. Guilt, children actively explore their environment
and initiate activities; support encourages initiative, while criticism can
lead to guilt.
MIDDLE CHILDHOOD (6 TO 12 YEARS)

The elementary school years, characterized by more logical thought

processes, increasing independence, expanding social worlds dominated by
peers, and formal schooling.

• Physical Development: Growth continues steadily, but slower than in

early childhood. Children gain improved coordination, strength, and
balance, leading to greater proficiency in both gross and fine motor
skills. They become more skilled in activities like running, jumping,
swimming, and playing organized sports. Fine motor skills are refined,
crucial for handwriting, drawing intricate designs, and using tools. While
puberty typically begins later, some physical changes associated with the
onset of puberty may occur towards the end of this stage, particularly in
girls.
• Cognitive Development: Matches Jean Piaget's Concrete Operational
stage. Children develop the ability to think logically about concrete
events and objects, but still struggle with abstract or hypothetical
concepts. They master key logical concepts:
◦ Conservation: Understanding that quantity (e.g., number, volume,
mass) remains constant despite changes in appearance (e.g.,
understanding that the amount of liquid is the same regardless of
the shape of the container).
◦ Reversibility: The ability to mentally reverse an action (e.g.,
understanding that if you pour liquid from container A to container
B, you can pour it back to A and have the same amount).
◦ Classification: The ability to group objects based on common
properties and understand hierarchical relationships between
categories.
◦ Seriation: The ability to arrange items in a sequence based on a
quantitative property (e.g., ordering sticks by length).
Their reasoning becomes more systematic and less influenced by
appearances. Memory capacity and strategies improve significantly (e.g.,
using rehearsal or organization). Attention span increases, allowing for
more focused learning. The Information Processing approach suggests
gradual improvements in processing speed and executive functions like
planning and problem-solving.
• Emotional and Social Development: Peer relationships become
increasingly central to development, often more influential than family
in shaping social skills and self-esteem. Children form stable friendships,
often based on shared interests and loyalty. Peer groups and cliques
 become important social structures. Children engage in social
comparison, evaluating their abilities and worth based on how they
measure up against peers, which significantly influences self-esteem.
Emotional regulation abilities improve substantially; children are better
able to understand and manage their feelings and understand the
emotions of others (empathy). They learn more complex social rules,
norms, and expectations within peer groups and school. According to
Erikson's stage of Industry vs. Inferiority, children focus on mastering
academic and social skills valued by their culture; success in these areas
leads to a sense of competence (industry), while difficulties can result in
feelings of inferiority. Moral development, according to Kohlberg, is
typically at the Pre-conventional or beginning of the Conventional level
during this stage.

ADOLESCENCE (12 TO 18 YEARS)

A transitional period bridging childhood and adulthood, marked by significant

physical maturation, the development of abstract thinking, intense focus on
identity formation, and shifting social relationships.

• Physical Development: This stage begins with puberty, a period of rapid

biological maturation that leads to sexual maturity. Puberty involves
significant hormonal changes (gonadotropins, estrogens, androgens)
that trigger growth spurts in height and weight and the development of
primary (gonads) and secondary sexual characteristics (e.g., body hair,
deepening voice in males, breast development and menstruation in
females). Brain development continues, particularly in the prefrontal
cortex, which is responsible for executive functions, decision-making,
and impulse control, although this area matures later than the limbic
system (associated with emotions and reward), contributing to risk-
taking behavior. Changes in body image and physical appearance are
prominent and can significantly impact self-esteem.
• Cognitive Development: Aligns with Jean Piaget's Formal Operational
stage, although not all adolescents or adults consistently reach or use
this level of thinking. Adolescents develop the capacity for abstract
reasoning, hypothetical thinking, and deductive logic. They can think
about possibilities, consequences, and complex concepts that are not
tied to concrete reality. They can engage in systematic planning and
problem-solving, considering multiple variables. Metacognition
develops—the ability to think about one's own thinking process. They
can reflect on their thoughts, beliefs, and values. This advanced
 cognitive ability underlies the development of identity and the ability to
engage in complex moral reasoning.
• Emotional and Social Development: A primary psychosocial task, as
described by Erik Erikson, is identity formation (Identity vs. Role
Confusion). Adolescents explore different roles, beliefs, values, and
future possibilities (in areas like career, relationships, ideology) to
develop a coherent sense of self. Failure to explore or integrate these
aspects can lead to role confusion. Peer relationships are highly
influential, serving as a crucial source of social support, identity
exploration, and validation. Friendships become more intimate and
based on loyalty and shared values. Dating and romantic relationships
typically emerge. The search for independence from parents is common,
though family relationships remain important. Emotional intensity can
increase during adolescence, with mood swings and heightened
sensitivity, partly due to hormonal changes and brain development
patterns. Risk-taking behavior may increase due to the interplay
between a still-developing prefrontal cortex and a more reactive limbic
system. Moral reasoning progresses, often reaching Kohlberg's
Conventional level, with a focus on social rules and order.
• Key Points: Puberty marks the biological start, formal operational
thought emerges, and identity formation is the central psychosocial
challenge. Brain development continues, particularly in executive
functions, but lags behind emotional centers, potentially contributing to
vulnerabilities like risk-taking.

EARLY ADULTHOOD (18 TO 40 YEARS)

A phase focused on establishing independence, forming intimate

relationships, pursuing career paths, and navigating the complexities of adult
responsibilities.

• Physical Development: Physical health, strength, endurance, and fertility

typically peak during the early to mid-20s. This period represents the
height of physical capability. While often not outwardly noticeable, a
gradual, subtle physical decline begins around the late 20s or early 30s
(e.g., slight decreases in metabolic rate, sensory acuity). Maintaining
healthy habits during this period can significantly impact health later in
life.
• Cognitive Development: Thinking becomes more practical, flexible, and
relativistic, often described as post-formal thought. Adults apply their
knowledge and problem-solving skills to real-life, ill-defined situations,
 recognizing that solutions are often not clear-cut. Decision-making is
influenced by experience, context, and integration of logic with emotion.
Cognitive abilities generally remain stable, with peak performance in
areas requiring crystallized intelligence (accumulated knowledge and
skills). Planning, problem-solving, and judgment are crucial for
navigating career choices, financial management, and personal
relationships.
• Emotional and Social Development: According to Erik Erikson, the
central conflict is Intimacy vs. Isolation, focusing on forming close,
committed relationships with others (romantic partners, friends).
Successful resolution leads to the virtue of love. This period often
involves significant life transitions such as leaving home, completing
education, starting a career, forming long-term partnerships, marriage,
and potentially becoming parents. Establishing financial and personal
independence from the family of origin is a key task. Social networks
may expand or change based on career and relationship choices.
Individuals solidify their adult identity forged in adolescence and
integrate it with shared identities within relationships and roles.
• Key Points: Peak physical functioning, development of post-formal
thought, and the psychosocial task of establishing intimacy are central.

MIDDLE ADULTHOOD (40 TO 65 YEARS)

Characterized by contributing to the next generation, career progression, and

navigating physical changes associated with aging, often referred to as the
prime of life mixed with increasing awareness of mortality and age-related
transitions.

• Physical Development: Gradual physical declines become more

noticeable. These include changes in vision (presbyopia), hearing
(presbycusis), muscle mass, bone density, and metabolism. The immune
system may become less efficient. For women, menopause (cessation of
menstruation) is a significant biological transition, often occurring
between 45 and 55, accompanied by hormonal changes that can affect
physical and emotional well-being. Men may experience andropause, a
more gradual decline in testosterone levels. The risk of developing
chronic health conditions (e.g., heart disease, type 2 diabetes,
hypertension) increases.
• Cognitive Development: While processing speed and fluid intelligence
(ability to solve new problems) may show a slight decline, cognitive
abilities generally remain strong, particularly in areas of crystallized
 intelligence (accumulated knowledge, vocabulary, general information)
which may reach its peak. Expertise in specific domains often deepens.
Problem-solving skills are well-developed and often based on
accumulated experience. Memory function remains largely intact for
most individuals, though recall of new information may require more
effort or strategy compared to earlier adulthood. Executive functions are
typically stable. Cognitive engagement through work, hobbies, and
social interaction is important for maintaining cognitive vitality.
• Emotional and Social Development: Erikson's stage of Generativity vs.
Stagnation is central. Generativity involves contributing to the well-
being of the next generation, often through parenting, grandparenting,
mentoring, teaching, or community involvement. Failure to find ways to
contribute can lead to feelings of stagnation or lack of purpose.
Individuals may reflect on their life achievements and goals, sometimes
leading to a "midlife review" or perceived midlife crisis, though this is
not universal. Relationships with aging parents and growing or
independent children are navigated. Career peak or significant career
changes may occur. Social networks may shift as focus moves towards
family, career, and community roles. Emotional regulation is typically
well-established.
• Key Points: Physical changes associated with aging become apparent,
crystallized intelligence is strong, and the psychosocial task of
generativity is prominent.

LATE ADULTHOOD (65+ YEARS)

The final major stage of life, involving continued adaptation to physical and
cognitive changes, reflection on one's life, and maintaining meaning and
social connections despite potential losses.

• Physical Development: Age-related physical declines continue and often

become more pronounced. This includes decreases in sensory abilities
(vision, hearing, taste, smell), reduced mobility, decreased muscle
strength and bone density, and slower reaction times. The body's
systems become less efficient. The risk of chronic health conditions such
as arthritis, heart disease, stroke, osteoporosis, and some cancers
increases significantly. Health maintenance becomes a primary focus.
• Cognitive Development: Cognitive function varies widely among
individuals in late adulthood. There can be declines in areas like
processing speed, working memory capacity, and fluid intelligence.
However, many older adults maintain strong cognitive abilities,
 particularly in areas of crystallized intelligence. Learning new
information may take longer, but existing knowledge and wisdom can be
extensive. The risk of developing neurocognitive disorders such as
dementia (e.g., Alzheimer's disease, vascular dementia) increases with
age, though these are not a normal part of aging. Cognitive stimulation,
physical activity, and social engagement are associated with better
cognitive outcomes in older age.
• Emotional and Social Development: Erikson's final stage is Integrity vs.
Despair. This involves reflecting on one's life and accomplishments;
achieving a sense of integrity comes from feeling that one's life has
been meaningful and worthwhile, accepting both successes and regrets.
Failure to achieve this sense can lead to feelings of despair, regret, and
bitterness. Significant life transitions include retirement, which impacts
identity, social structure, and daily routine. Older adults may experience
the loss of loved ones (spouses, siblings, friends), which requires
significant emotional adaptation. Social networks may shrink, but close
relationships remain vital for well-being. Leisure activities and hobbies
often become more central. Maintaining autonomy and quality of life
are important goals. Emotional regulation is generally well-managed for
those with good mental health.
• Key Points: Age-related physical declines are significant, cognitive
changes vary but may include slower processing and memory issues
(distinct from dementia), and the psychosocial task involves reflecting on
life and achieving integrity. Adaptation to losses and maintaining social
connections are crucial.

Each of these periods is influenced by the complex interaction of biogenic,

sociogenic, and psychogenic factors, and development across physical,
cognitive, emotional, and social domains is interconnected throughout the
lifespan.

SUMMARY TO REMEMBER FOR EXAMS

To aid quick review, the following highlights key developmental theorists and
their core focus areas:

• Piaget: Cognition – Theory of Cognitive Development emphasizing

stages from sensorimotor to formal operational thought.
• Vygotsky: Social learning – Sociocultural Theory highlighting the role of
social interaction, Zone of Proximal Development, and scaffolding.
• Erikson: Personality – Psychosocial stages across the lifespan, each
involving key social conflicts and ego development.
• Freud: Psychosexual stages – Personality develops through five stages
focused on erogenous zones; unresolved conflicts cause fixation.
• Bandura: Modeling – Social Learning Theory stressing observational
learning, reciprocal determinism, and imitation.
• Bronfenbrenner: Environment – Ecological Systems Theory describing
nested environmental systems affecting development.
• Kohlberg: Morality – Theory of Moral Development with three levels
(pre-conventional, conventional, post-conventional) outlining stages of
moral reasoning.