FOOD COMMODITIES

Commodities are groups of food items that are used for the preparation of dishes.

MEAT:
OFFALS:
It is the name given to the edible parts taken from the inside of the carcass liver, kidney, heart,
sweet bread, stripe, brains, oxtail, tongue and head are sometimes included under this term.
Fresh offal (unfrozen) should be purchased as required and can be refrigerated under hygienic
conditions at a temperature of -1°C at a versatile humidity of 90% for upto 7 days.
Frozen offals must be kept in a deep freeze and defrosted in a refrigerator as required.

Liver
-Calf’s liver is considered the best in terms of tenderness and delicacy of flavor and colour. It is
also the most expensive. Can be grilled, fried or braised.
-Lamb’s liver is mild in flavor, light in colour and tender. Can be grilled, fried or braised.
-Sheep’s liver, being from an older animal, is firmer in substance, deeper in colour and has a
stronger flavor.
-Ox or beef liver is the cheapest and if taken from an older animal can be coarse in texture and
strong in flavor. It is usually braised, stewed or casserole
-Pig’s liver has a strong full flavor and is mainly used for pâté recipes
Quality points
-Liver should look fresh, moist and smooth with a pleasant colour and no unpleasant smell
-Liver should not be dry or contain an excessive number of tubers
Preparation
-Skin, remove the gristle and cut in thin slices on the slant.
Food value
-Liver is a good source of protein, iron, vitamin A &D and it is low in fat

Kidneys
-Lamb’s kidney is light in colour, delicate in flavour and is ideal for grilling and frying.
-Sheep’s kidney is darker in colour and has a stronger flavour than lamb’s kidney.
-Calf’s kidney is light in colour, delicate in flavour and can be used in a wide variety of dishes.
-Ox kidney is dark in colour, strong in flavour and is generally mixed with beef, for steak and
kidney pie or pudding.
-Pig’s kidney is smooth, long and flat. It has a stronger flavour.
Quality points
-Suet, which is the saturated fat in which kidneys are encased, should be left on otherwise the
kidneys will dry out. The suet should be removed when kidneys are being prepared for cooking
-Both suet and kidneys should be moist and have no unpleasant smell
-Ox kidney should be fresh and deep red in colour
Preparation
-Skin, remove the gristle and cut as required
Food value
Similar to that of liver

Hearts
-Ox or beef’s heart are the largest used for cooking. They are dark coloured solid and tend to be
dry and tough.
-Calf’s heart is lighter in colour and more tender
-Sheep’s heart is dark and solid and can be dry and tough unless cooked carefully
-Lamb’s heart is smaller and light and is normally served whole. Larger hearts are normally
sliced before serving.
Preparation
-Remove arterial tubes and excess fat
Quality points
-Hearts should not be too fatty and should not contain too many tubes.
-When cut should be moist, not sticky and with no unpleasant smell
Food value
-They have high protein content

Sweetbreads
-There are two kinds of sweetbread, unequal in shape and quality. The heart bread (thymus) is
plump and round and of much better quality than the throat or neck breads (pancreas), which are
longer and uneven in shape.
Quality points
-Heart and neck breads should be fleshly and of good size.
-They should be creamy white in colour and have no unpleasant smell.
Preparation
-Wash well, trim, blanch and refresh.
Food value
-Sweetbreads are an easily digested source of protein, which makes them valuable for invalid
diets

Tripe
It is the stomach lining or white muscle of the ox consisting of the rumen or paunch and the
honeycomb tripe which is the second compartment of the stomach is considered the best. Smooth
tripe is the first compartment of the stomach and is considered of lesser eating quality than
honeycomb tripe. Sheep tripe, darker in colour, is obtained in some areas
Quality points
-Tripe should be fresh, with no signs of stickiness or unpleasant smell
Preparation
-Wash well and soak in cold water, then cut into even pieces.
Food value
-Tripe contains protein, is low in fat and high in calcium

Brains
Calf’s brain is those normally used. They must be fresh and have no unpleasant smell. They are a
good source of protein with trace element
Tongues
-Lamb’s and ox tongue are boiled or braised.
Quality points
-Tongues must be fresh and have no unpleasant smell
-There should not be an excess of waste at the root end
Head
Can be used for stock, brawn (a cold meat preparation) and speciality dishes (calf’s head vinaigrette).
Heads should be fresh, not sticky, well fleshed and free from any unpleasant smell.

Suet
Beef suet should be creamy white, brittle and dry. It is used for suet paste. Suet and fat may be
rendered down for dripping.

Marrow
Beef marrow is obtained from the bones of the leg of beef. It should be of good size, firm,
creamy white and odourless. Can be used as a garnish.

Bones
Bones must be fresh, not sticky. They are used for stock.

Oxtail
-Oxtails should be of good size and lean with no signs of stickiness. They are usually braised or
used for soups.
-Preparation
Cut between the natural joints. Trim off excess fat. The large pieces may be split into two.

Meat is probably the most important food that is used and includes cattle, sheep, and pigs are
reared for fresh meat.

STRUCTURE OF MEAT
Meat comprises of muscles, which are numerous bundles of fibres bound by connective tissue.
The size of these fibres is extremely small especially in tender cuts or cuts of young animals and
only the coarsest fibres may be distinguished by the naked eye. The size of the fibres varies in
length, depth and thickness and this variation will affect the grain and the texture of the meat.
The quantity of connective tissue binding the fibres together will have much to do with the
tenderness and eating. Slender small fibres are associated with tender meat while large long
fibres are associated with tough meat. There are two kinds (proteins) of connective tissues:
 The yellow (elastin) – it is found in the muscles, especially in older animals or those
muscles receiving considerable exercise. It will not cook, but it must be broken up
mechanically by pounding or mincing. It is insoluble and tough.
 The white (collagen) – it can be cooked, as it decomposes in moist heat from gelatin,
which greatly increases the tenderness of connective tissue and therefore of the meat.
The amount of connective tissue in meat is determined by the age, breed, care and feed given to
the animal.
The quantity of fat and its conditions are important factors in determining eating quality. Fat is
found on the exterior and interior of the carcass and in the flesh itself. Fat deposited between
muscles or between the bundles of fibres is called marbling. If marbling is present, the meat is
likely to be tender, of better flavour and moist. Much of the flavour of meat is given by fats
found in lean or fatty tissues of the meat. Extractives in meat are also responsible for flavour.
Muscles that receive a good deal of exercise have a higher proportion of flavour extractives than
those receiving less exercise

1. BEEF
Beef is the meat obtained from domesticated cattle.

MATURING AND TENDERIZING BEEF

Compared to other types of meat, it has longer connective tissues which make it to be tougher
taking longer cooking time and also digestion period. However, beef can be made more tender
(soft) by:
1. Hanging the meat after slaughtering as in butcheries for up to 14 days at a chill
temperature of 1°C for upto 14 days has the effect of increasing tenderness and flavor.
This hanging process is essential as the animals are generally slaughtered at the age of
18-21 months and the beef can be tough. Also a short time after death an animal muscle
stiffens a condition known as rigor mortis. After a time chemical actions caused by
enzymes and increasing acidity relax the muscles and the meat becomes soft and
pliable(easy to bend). As meat continues to hang in storage rigor mortis is lost and
tenderness, flavor and moistness increase.
2. Marinating by use of vinegar, lemon juice or alcohol.
3. Use of tenderizing salts or chemicals.
4. Batting out - This is beating the meat with a cutlet bat or meat hammer so as to crush the
meat fibres and so reduce the stringiness.
5. Use of enzymes that break down the protein e.g papain from the leaves of pawpaw
tree is injected to the blood stream of the animal just before slaughtering to ensure that it
is evenly distributed. When the cooking temperature of meat reaches a certain degree, the
enzyme is activated and when the temperature reaches a high level the enzyme is
destroyed. This method is advantageous as it can reduce the hanging thus saving both
storage space and time and it can double the amount of meat from the animal that can be
grilled or roasted.

N B: Tenderness in beef is probably the most important factor taken into account when judging
the quality of beef.

PURCHASING
Beef can be purchased as a whole forequarter or hindquarter, jointed, boned and rolled, diced for
stewing or pies, minced or butchered into steaks. The hindquarter provides most of the best
quality meat for roasting, grilling or frying, whereas the forequarter is best for stewing or
braising. Most establishments purchase only those joints that they require e.g rumps, fillets etc.
Quality purchasing points for fresh beef.
1. Fat - should be firm, brittle in texture and creamy white in colour and odourless. Older
animals have fat which is softer and yellowish in colour. Should be moderate and not too
much.
2. Marbling - in lean meat is formed by small droplets of fat which should be evenly
distributed, especially in sirloin steak wing and also fore ribs.
3. Colour - the colour of the meat should be bright red. The cut surface may become dull
and sticky after it is exposed to air for some time.
4. Touch - lean beef should be firm and elastic to the touch and not flabby.
5. Fluid - any moisture on the cut surface should be watery, not thick and sticky to the
touch. The beef should not be over moist or too dry.
6. Grains - the grains should be fine. Long coarse fibres are a sign of cheaper quality cut of
beef.

STORAGE
Large sections of meat such as sides, forequarters, hindquarters, whole sirloins and rumps should
be suspended on meat hooks from racks fixed to the ceiling of the cold room.
Cuts of beef should be stored on trays at 2°c and covered to prevent drying out of the cut
surfaces. The trays need to be changed daily to prevent the meat from lying on the collected
blood.
Chilled beef should be stored at -2°c (28° F) and frozen beef at -18°c (0° F)
Vacuum packing extends the storage life of the boned joints or cuts and at the same time allows
the maturing and tenderizing process to take place within the pack.

MEAT CUTS AND JOINTS

HINDQUARTER FOREQUARTER
Joint Joint
Shin Fore-ribs
Topside Middle-ribs
Silverside Chuck ribs
Thick flank Sticking piece
Rump Plate
Sirloin Brisket
Wing rib Shank
Thin flank
Fillet

SMALL CUTS OF BEEF

Small Cut/Steak Joint where it is cut from
Chateaubriand Fillet
Fillet Steak Fillet
Tournedos Fillet
Fillet Mignon Fillet
Steak Tartare Fillet
Finger Strips Fillet
Fillet Minute Steak Fillet
Porterhouse/T-Bone steak Whole sirloin
Sirloin Steak Boned, trimmed sirloin
Double Sirloin Steak Sirloin
Minute Steak Striploin
Rump Steak Rump
Point Steak Rump
Beef Olives Thick flank/topside
Rib Steak Wing rib/fore rib
Braising Steaks Chuck ribs/middle ribs/thick flank

SPECIAL OR ALTERNATIVE CUTS OF BEEF

Cut Description
Baron - full A pair of rumps, sirloins and wing ribs joined together into one
large piece
Baron - short A pair of rumps and sirloin joined together into one piece
Baron - double sirloin A pair of sirloins joined together
Roasting rump and sirloin One half of a full baron i.e one rump, one sirloin, one wing rib
joined together
Top piece The hindquarters minus the rump, loin(sirloin & wingrib) and thin
flank
Round buttock The top piece minus shin
Short forequarter The forequarter minus fore rib and plate
Pony The chuck rib and middle rib joined together.

BEEF OFFALS
Type Uses
Tongue Pickled in brine, boiling, braising
Heart Braising
Liver Braising, frying
Kidney Skinned, trimmed, diced or slices then stewed or soup
Sweetbread Braising, frying after first braising
Tripe Stewing with milk and onions, boiling, braising
Tail Braising, ox tail soup
Suet Suet pastry and stuffing
Bones Beef stocks
Marrow Savouries, sauces
COOKING BEEF
The following are the methods which may be used in cooking beef:

Method Joint/cut
Roasting Topside, fore rib, middle rib, striploin, wing rib, whole fillet.
Poele’ cooking(pot-roast) Fillet, strip loin
Grilling Rump (point and rump steak)
Whole sirloin (T- bone and potter house steaks)
Strip loin ( sirloin and minute steaks)
Fillet (chateaubriand, fillet steak, tournedos)
Wing ribs (rib steaks)
Fore rib (rib steaks)
Shallow frying As for grilling
Boiling Silverside, thin flank, brisket, ox tongue, tripe
Stewing Shin, topside, thick flank, thin flank, chuck rib, clod and sticking,
plate, brisket, leg of mutton cut, kidneys, tripe.
Sautéing Fillet, strip loin
Braising Topside, thick flank, middle rib, chunk rib, leg of mutton cut, ox-
tail, ox tongue, ox heart, ox liver, tripe and sweet breads.
 2. VEAL

Refers to the meat obtained from young calf especially at the age of 12-25 weeks and may weigh
upto 100 kgs.

PURCHASING
Good quality veal should be:
-Pale pink and firm flesh, resilient and smooth
-It should be free from marbling
-Cut surfaces should not be dry, but moist
-Bones in young animals should be pinkish white, porous and with a small amount of blood in
their structure.
-The fat should be firm and pinkish white
-The kidney too should be firm and well covered with fat

STORAGE
Fresh veal should be stored in the refrigerator or cold room at 2-3°c, large joints suspended on
meet hooks. Small cuts should be stored on clean trays and covered.

CUTS OF VEAL
Joint Use
Leg
Knuckle Stewing
Cushion escalopes, roasting, sauté, braising
Undercushion escalopes, roasting, sauté, braising
Thick flank escalopes, roasting, sauté, braising
Loin roasting, frying, grilling
Best-end roasting, frying, grilling
Shoulder braising, stewing
Neck-end stewing
Scrag stock, stewing
Breast stewing, roasting
Rump or chump roasting, braising
Middle neck stewing

Small cuts of veal

Usually grilled or shallow fried
Cut Joint where obtained
Veal cutlet best end
Veal chop loin
Veal escalope cushion and thick flank. Also rump or loin
Veal escalopine as for escalopes
Veal medallion fillet
Veal grenadine a thick oval-shaped slice of veal larded with pork or bacon fat and braised
Veal osso-bucco knuckle
Veal paupiette thick flank or undercushion
Veal offals uses
Kidneys shallow fry
Sweetbread shallow fry or braising
Brain shallow, deep poaching
Liver frying
Bones stock
Head boiling

3. LAMB AND MUTTON

In Britain, five times as much lamb and mutton is eaten than in any other European country.
Approximately 40% of the lamb and mutton consumed is home-produced and the balance comes
from Australia and New Zealand. As the seasons in Australia and New Zealand are opposite to
those in Britain these supplies can be integrated with our own. Most lamb carcasses imported are
from animals aged between 4-6 months.
Lamb is the meat of sheep under one year old while mutton is the meat of a mature sheep and is
sold mainly for manufacturing purposes.
Mutton has a stronger flavour than lamb and is less tender, darker in colour and has a higher fat
proportion.

PURCHASING
Lamb can be purchased whole, joined, butchered into cutlets and chops or one of the special
catering cuts
a) The carcass should be compact and evenly fleshed.
b) The lean flesh of lamb and mutton ought to be firm and of a pleasing dull red colour
and of a fine texture or grain.
c) The fat should be evenly distributed, hard, brittle, flaky and clear white in colour.
d) The bones should be porous in young animals, small, pinkish in colour with blood
still showing when cut.

STORAGE
Whole carcass should be suspended by meat hooks from racks fixed to a ceiling of a cold room.
Joints and small cuts should be stored on clean stainless steel trays at a temperature of 2-3°c. The
trays must be changed daily to prevent the meat from lying in the collected blood. Frozen lamb
should be stored at a temperature of -18 °c until required.

CUTS OF LAMB
Joints Of Lamb Uses
Leg(2) Roasting
Saddle roasting, grilling, frying
Best end(2) roasting, grilling, frying
Middle neck Stewing
Neck and Scrag Stewing, broth
Shoulder(2) Roasting, stewing
Breast Roasting, stewing

Small cuts Where from Uses

Cutlet Best end Grilling and shallow frying
Double cutlet Best end Grilling
Crown chop Short end Grilling
Loin/lamb chop Short loin Grilling, braising
Chump chop Chump end Grilling
Rosettte Short loin Shallow frying, braising
Noisette Short loin/best end Saute, grilling, shallow fry

N/B: LOIN – is the saddle split into two halves

Offals
Kidney – it is skinned and the hard core removed and cut as required. It is grilled or sautéed.
Liver – Skinned, the tubes and the fatty deposits removed then cut into thin slices on the slant. It
is fried.
Sweetbreads – Soaked, blanched and trimmed then braised or fried
Tongue – Available fresh or pickled in brine. Skinned and the root end trimmed after cooking.
Can also be purchased tinned for salads and sandwiches. It is braised or boiled.
Heart – Trimmed off tubes and excess fat, stuffed and loosely tied to retain the shape before
cooking. Usually sliced after cooking to improve its presentation. Usually braised.

4. PORK

Refers to the meat obtained from pigs. In most cases, boars (wild or male uncastrated pigs) are
the main source of pork although piglets(young pigs) are also a good source of a tender meat.
The meat obtained from pig falls into two distinct categories:
Pork – that obtained from pig reared to provide flesh pig meat. They are known as porkers.
Bacon – that obtained from pig reared for purchasing into bacon (baconers)
Pigs are slaughtered by 30 weeks at the latest. Porkers are slaughtered at 3.5-4 months with an
average weigh range of 45-50kg; while baconers at 5-6 mths weighing 85-90 kg.

PURCHASING
Good quality pork should be:
 Pale pink in colour
 The fat is white, firm, smooth, and not excessive
 Bones are usually small, fine and pinkish.
 The skin or rind ought to be smooth, unbroken and with a light pinkish-brown colour.
 The cut surface should be free from stickiness, discolouration and unpleasant smell.
The keeping quality of pork is less than that of any other meat; therefore it should be handled,
prepared and cooked with great care. Pork must always be well cooked, because
Trichinellae(parasitic worms) may be present and must be destroyed by heat. If they are present
in the meat and are not destroyed in cooking they will find their way into the voluntary muscles
of those who eat pork and they will continue to live in the human body.

STORAGE
Pork does not improve with hanging after purchase so it is best used without delay. Whole sides
and joints are suspended by hooks from racks fixed to the ceiling of the cold room. Small cuts
are placed into trays, covered to prevent drying and stored at a temperature of 2°c. The trays
must be emptied and changed daily to prevent the meat from lying in the collected blood.

JOINTS OF PORK
Leg
Loin
Belly
Spare rib
Shoulder/hand and spring

Small Cuts Of Pork

Chop
Escalop
Escalopine
Spare ribs – barbecue style

Pork Offals
Kidney – Skinned, the hard fat deposits removed and cut as required
Liver – Skinned, the fat deposits and tubes removed, then cut into thin slices on the slant
Head – Washed and cleaned before boiling with aromatic vegetables
Trotter – Washed, blanched and scrapped before being used or before being stuffed and braised

Uses
Roasting – leg, loin, belly, spare-rib
Boiling/pickled – head, belly, trotter
Grilling – loin, belly, spare-rib, trotters, kidney, liver
Shallow frying - loin, belly, spare-rib, trotters, kidney, liver
Pies & sausages – spare-rib, shoulder, hand
Forcemeat – shoulder & hand, trimmings from other joint

BACON
Bacon is the cured flesh of a baconer pig. A baconer pig is the type that is specifically reared for
bacon because its shape and size yield economic bacon joints. It is produced by curing or curing
and smoking a side of pork (minus the head, kidney, fillet, chine bone, sternum, trotters and tail).
Curing is the process of using salt to preserve meat for further use. When rubbed into the cut
surface the process is known as dry curing. When they are mixed with water a brine or pickle is
produced in which the meat is immersed. This method is considerably quicker than dry curing
and produces a milder, less salty product. Bacon cured by either method is matured under cool
conditions for upto two weeks to allow the salt, salt-petre, and sugar to become more evenly
distributed thus improving both the eating qualities and the flavor. If the bacon is to be smoked,
the cured sides are first washed in cold water before cold smoking at a temperature between 21-
32°c. this type of produce is known as smoked bacon. Bacon that is not smoked is known as
green bacon.

JOINTS OF BACON

-Gammon
-Back
-Streaky
-Collar
-Hock

PURCHASING
 There should be no sign of stickiness.
 There must be no unpleasant smell and no signs of rancidity.
 The rind should be thin, smooth and free from wrinkles/blemish.
 The fat ought to be white, smooth and not excessive in proportion to the lean.
 The lean meat of bacon should be deep pink in colour and resilient to touch.

STORAGE
Vacuum packs can be stored either deep frozen or under normal refrigeration. Once open the
contents must be used within 2-3 days. Whole sides, gammons, etc should be suspended on meat
hooks from bars attached to the ceiling of the cold room.

USES
1)Boiling
Gammon (hot) - it is thinly sliced and served with a suitable sauce
(cold) - it is thinly sliced and served with a salad and a selection of mustard and pickles
Collar – served hot with pease pudding and cold as for gammons
Hock – served hot with pease pudding
2)Baking
Gammon-wrapped in common paste (flour, salt and water)
- Studded with cloves and sprinkled with brown sugar
3)Grilling
Gammon - cut into thick slices(steaks), garnished with peach halves, pineapple rings,
fried egg, etc
Back – Bacon rashers served for breakfast
-garnish
Streaky - Bacon rashers served for breakfast
-garnish
Collar - Bacon rashers served for breakfast
-garnish
4)Shallow frying
Back - Bacon rashers served for breakfast
 -garnish
Streaky - Bacon rashers served for breakfast
-garnish
Collar - Bacon rashers served for breakfast
-garnish
5)Pies, flavouring, mincing, etc
Hock
Collar
Trimmings from other joints

HAM
Ham is the hind leg of a pig cut round from the side of the pork with the aitch bone. It is
preserved by curing or pickling in brine and then dried and smoked. York, bradenham
(Wiltshire) and Suffolk are three of the most popular English hams.
Bradenham is easily distinguished by its black skin. The bradenham and Suffolk hams are
sweet and mildly cured. Imported hams include the Parma, Bayonne and Westphalia, all of
which are carved paper thin and eaten raw as hors-d`oeuvre.

Food Value
Meat, having high protein content, is valuable for the growth and repair of the body and as a
source of energy.

PRESERVATION OF MEAT
Salting- meat can be pickled in brine and this method of preservation may be applied to
silverside, brisket and ox-tongues. Salting is also used in the production of bacon, before the
sides of pork are smoked. This also applies to hams.
Chilling- this means that meat is kept at a temperature just above freezing point in a controlled
atmosphere. Chilled meat cannot be kept in the usual type of cold room for more than a few
days, and this is sufficient time for the meat to hang, enabling it to become tender.
Freezing- small carcasses, such as lamb and mutton, can be frozen and the quality is not
affected by freezing. They can be kept frozen until required and then thawed out before being
used. Some beef is frozen but it is inferior in quality to chilled beef.
Canning- large quantities of meat are canned and corned beef is of importance since it has very
high protein content. Pork is used for tinned luncheon meat.
POULTRY

Poultry is a category of domesticated birds kept by humans for the purpose of collecting their
eggs or raising for their meat and/or feathers. Poultry also includes other birds which are killed
for their meat, such as pigeons or doves or birds considered to be game, like pheasants. Poultry
comes from the French/Norman word, poule, itself derived from the Latin word Pullus, which
means small animal. Examples of poultry are chicken, guinea fowl, duck, ostrich, pigeons,
doves, pheasants, turkey

Poultry is the second most widely eaten meat in the world, accounting for about 30% of meat
production worldwide, after pork at 38%.

The meatiest parts of a bird are the flight muscles on its chest, called breast meat, and the
walking muscles on the first and second segments of its legs, called the thigh and drumstick,
respectively. The wings are also eaten, usually (in the United States) without separating them, as
in Buffalo wings; the first and second segment of the wings are referred to as drumette (meatier)
and flat when these need to be distinguished, though these are technical terms.

NUTRITIVE VALUE OF POULTRY

- Chicken is an easily digested source of protein to the human body as it has no strong
connective tissues as in meat.
- It provides some B vitamins, calcium and a little iron to the body.
- It is suitable for invalids, infants and convalescent diets because it is easy to chew and
digest.

TECHNIQUES ASSOCIATED WITH POULTRY

 Plucking-it is the pulling of feathers against the way they lie after dipping in water
before it reaches boiling point. Pluck the bird as soon as it is killed, while still warm, or
plunge into water just below boiling point for 10 seconds. Keep the birds head hanging
down. Gather the feathers carefully into a large paper bag or dustbin.
 Stubbing-removing of short tick feathers with the point of a knife and the thumb,
washing them off the fingers in boiled water.
 Singeing-burning (singe) of hairs with a gas stuffer or a charcoal jiko and also to remove
the smell of raw chicken.
 Trussing - done with a kitchen or a needle. It refers to the tying of chicken before
roasting so as to ensure that it maintains its shape and that the drum sticks and the legs do
not open up and break apart.
  To dish – the chicken is removed after roasting and roast gravy prepared from the
sediments
 Drawing – removing the innards of a chicken

CUTS OF POULTRY-CHICKEN

TYPES OF POULTRY
1. Chicken
Grades
 A poussin/baby chicken/spring chicken - is a very small chicken suitable for one
person and weighs up to 600 grams. It is normally of 4-6 weeks old. It is suitable for
roasting and grilling.
 Broiler - is a young chicken, plump, tender specially bred and quickly fattened to
produce a good sized bird in a short time. They are aged 6-7 weeks weighing 1.25kg-
1.75kg. It’s suitable for all methods of cooking. Also referred to as “poulet de grain”.
 Roasting chicken/ broiling fowl (poularde) – it’s a fully grown prime bird of about 1-
1.5 kilograms.
 Boiling fowl - usually they are tough old birds which have completed their laying season.
They are best for stock, soups, gentle stewing or braising.
  Free range – reared on a diet of maize which gives them their distinctive yellow colour.
They are plump, tender birds with good flavor.
 Giblets - refers to the edible internal organs of a bird and includes the following:
gizzards, heart, liver, and the neck. They can also be used for preparation of chicken
stock apart from the main meal.

Methods of cooking chicken.

-May be roasted whole when stuffed with rosemary leaves, chopped onions e.t.c. Done in the
oven.
-Chicken can be boiled and used for cold preparations.
-Can be casseroled, grilled or fried.

Signs of quality
-plump breast
-pliable breast bone
-firm flesh
-white skin, unbroken and with a faint bluish tint
-long hairs on the skin

2. TURKEY
Hens are smaller than males. Usually killed at 5-6 mths weighing 11-13.5 kg.
Cock/stag – is a male turkey used for roasting, shallow frying, sautéing, stewing and pies.

Signs of quality
-Large full breast with undamaged skin and no signs of stickiness
-Legs should be smooth with supple feet and short spur
-As the bird ages, the legs become reddish grey and become scaly. The feet become hard.

3. GUINEA FOWL
They are grey and white feathered birds which resemble chicken when plucked. The bones are
small and fine giving the bird a high proportion of flesh to bone. The young birds are known as
squabs.
Quality point
- Plump breast
- Pliable breast bone
- The skin should be white with a faint bluish tint and unbroken
- The legs should be smooth with small scales and spurs

4. PIGEON

Quality points
- Plumb breast
- The flesh should be mauve red in colour and the claws pinkish.
[Link]
Has meat with slightly coarser texture with less fat and lower cholesterol. Usually sold as a fillet
or leg steak

[Link]/DUCKLING
Duck is a mature bird, fatty and tough used for stock, soup and braising.
Duckling is a young bird with tender well-flavoured flesh, dark in colour and not so meaty. Used
for roasting or sautéing.
Quality points
- The feet and bills should be bright yellow
- The upper bill should break easily
- The webbed feet must be easy to tear

[Link] AND GOOSLING

Goose is a mature bird while gosling is a young bird weighing 3.5-4.5 kg when dressed and is
used for roasting.
Qualities for purchasing are as for duck.

STORAGE OF POULTRY
Chilled birds should be stored between 3˚c and 5˚c. Oven ready birds are eviscerated and should
be stored in a refrigerator.
Frozen birds should be kept in a deep freezer until required but must be thoroughly thawed,
preferably in a refrigerator before being cooked.
Frozen poultry should be checked that:
- The packaging is undamaged
- There are no signs of freezer burns which are indicated by white patches on the skin.
GAME MEAT
INTRODUCTION
The word game is a term traditionally used to refer to animals that are hunted for food.
Game is the flesh of wild birds and animals that have been hunted and killed with the intentions
of being eaten by humans. It has a stronger flavor than that of domesticated birds and animals
due to a natural diet of grasses, berries, shrubs, leaves etc.
Today it is used to refer to the same animals raised on ranches or farms, so they may be termed
as domesticated animals. The wild animals may be raised on farms and fed as regular livestock,
or are raised on ranches and allowed to foliage.

CLASSIFICATION OF GAME
There are two categories of game
1. Furred game.
They include deer, rabbit. Squirrel, elk moose, antelope, bear, boar, buffalo, caribou,
beaver, maskrat, opossum, raccoon, armadillo, porcupine, camel, crocodile, alligator,
kangaroo, etc
2. Feathered.
This includes all edible birds. Game birds should be hung with feet down before being
plucked. It drains the flesh of blood and begins the process of disintegration which is
essential to make the flesh tender and develop flavor. This is due to action of enzyme.
As game birds are deficient in fat, a thin slice of fat bacon should be tied over the breast
during cooking to prevent it from drying. This is referred to as barding. This is also
placed on the breast when serving. They are birds such as grouse, partridge, pheasant,
plover, quail, snipe, squab, wild ducks, wild geese, wild turkey, woodcock, Emu.
Game can also be classified as small or large game. All feathered game is small game but small
game also includes small furred animals such as rabbits. Large game is all furred animals.

STRUCTURE OF GAME MEAT

Wild game tend to produce meat which is generally darker, stronger tasting and sometimes
tougher than that of domesticated animals. Due to their diet and lifestyle, game animals produce
certain enzymes in their tissues. These enzymes begin to break down meat proteins a day or so
after animal has been killed creating a soft palatable meat with a characteristic game flavor. The
ageing process can play an important role in developing the flavor of game meat. Some game
animals are stored for periods of a few days or even a few weeks to develop their flavor.
Traditionally game was hung whole including fur, feathers and intestines for the entire period.
Game with the exception of young game tends to have tougher flesh than that of poultry, beef,
sheep and pigs. Game birds and animals have to fend for themselves in the quest for survival and
as a result, the flesh of moving parts especially the legs tend to be tough. The amount of visible
fat is less in game than poultry and meat with the exception of birds in the duck family. This too
is probably due to the active life style of these creatures. The flavor of meat of farm-raised game
will be milder than that of actual wild game but stronger than that of domesticated animals. The
meat from game birds though considered white will be darker than that from domestic animals.
The birds do more exercise which means more red blood cells are needed to supply the muscles
with more oxygen.
FEATHERED GAME

Wild Duck
This includes mallard and widgeon. Average weight is 1-1 ½ kg. It is much less fatty than reared
duck and has more intense flavor. They are hand plucked and hung in cold room to mature. It is
good for roasting and the addition of little fat maybe necessary to avoid drying.

Teal
This is the smallest duck weighing 400-600gms. It is hung for 1-3 days. It is usually roasted or
braised. Young birds have small pinkish legs and soft down under the wings. It should be eaten
while in season because the flesh can be course and has a fishy flavor.

Snipe
This one weighs about 100gms. It is hung for 3-4days. The head and neck are skinned, the eyes
are removed. Birds are then trussed with their own beaks. When drawing the birds only the
gizzard, gall bladder and intestines are removed. The birds are then roasted with the liver and
heart left inside.

Woodcock
These are small birds with long thin beaks. Their average weight is 200-300gms. They are
usually roasted.

Grouse
These are tiny game birds the size of very small chicken. Its average weight is 300gms. They are
usually hunted and sold into stores. They are not easy to farm. They are hung for 5 to 7 days and
have a rich flavor. The young birds are roasted or grilled and the older birds are made in
casserole. One bird provides one portion.

Guinea fowl
Its flesh is tender and slightly dry resembling a pheasant. The flavor isn’t especially game like, it
is more like chicken. It is Suitable for roasting, braising and casserole. One bird serves two
people.

Partridge
They are small mild flavoured birds. The average weight is 200-400gms. They are hand plucked
and hung in cold room for 5-7days to mature. For young birds roast and serve in their own juices.
The older birds are stewed or braised. Since they are so small cook one per person.

Pheasant
It’s one of the most common game birds. The average weight is 1.5 -2kg. It is hand plucked and
hung in cold room for 5 – 8 days to mature. It has very lean meat, so lean that they will cook up
tough and dry unless added some fat. To roast young birds, wrap in foil to keep the bird moist.
The older birds are stewed. Hens are smaller and more tender and will serve three people and
cocks will serve four.

Pigeon
It is tasty. They are hand plucked and hung in cold room to mature. It is usually braised or made
into a pigeon pie .One bird per person is allowed.

Quail
These are small stocky game birds that are now mostly raised domestically. They weigh
between 50-75gms. They are never hung It is either grilled or roasted. One bird is allowed per
person for a starter and two for main meal.

FURRED GAME
Wild Rabbit
It’s the most common small game. It has a mild, lean tender and fine textured meat. A mature
rabbit ranges from 3 to 5 pounds and a young rabbit generally 2 to [Link] loin is often sautéed or
roasted while the legs are commonly braised or stewed. The quality of the fresh is a direct result
of age, diet, and time of the year it was killed. The flesh is pale whitish brown colour. The flesh
of older animals is dry and stringy and requires long cooking. It requires hanging for 2-3 days.

Hare
To test a young hare it should be possible to take the ear between the fingers and tear it quite
easily, also the hare lip which is clearly marked in old animals should only be faintly defined. A
hare should be hang for about a week before cleaning it out. They are larger than rabbits and
have heavier build, longer, more powerful hindlegs and two larger incisor teeth set in the upper
jaw. All hares are tender upto 1 year old, after which the flesh becomes dry and tough. The flesh
is dark reddish brown in colour with a strong flavor.

Alligator
This is a white meat with a veal-like texture and shell fish-like flavor.

Crocodile
It has a firm textured light colored meat with a delicate fishy taste similar to monkfish. It absorbs
other flavours. It is also fatty.

Kangaroo
It is similar to venison in flavor. It has fine grained meat that once cooked is similar in texture to
liver. It is best served rare or medium rare.

Wild boar
The consumption of boar goes back thousands of years back. It was highly priced in the classical
world. Virtually all parts of the boar were eaten including its liver, stomach and even its blood. It
was so tasty that the aim of some recipes was to make the meat and innards of other animals taste
like that of the boar. Boars head was often the crowning meal of a Christmas feast.

Horse meat
The meat of horses has been consumed ever since the animal was domesticated 5000years ago.
In Europe it was only eaten during famine. Horse meat is prohibited in the diet of Jews, Muslim
and most Hindus and the cannon law. There are no known recipes on horse meat.

Venison
Venison is the meat of any species of deer, and can also mean meat from any large game animal
and as with most meats, and this list comprises the deer commonly hunted for sport and prepared
for consumption. Venison is the most common of the furred game. It will likely be found in a
semi wild environment to maintain taste.
The flesh should be dark, reddish brown in colour, free from any signs of blood clots and
excessive bleeding and bruising. Young animals up to 4 yrs are the best. Venison is not only low
in fat and cholesterol but high in vital nutrients like B vitamins, iron and phosphorous. It is
resistant to disease. It has a strong flavor which is woody and almost fruity. It is incomparable to
beef but the texture is similar, but if one is prone to gout eats it in moderation. It has a wonderful
flavor and does not need marinade for extra flavor but since it is low in fat oil based marinade is
good to give it extra moisture.
It can be roasted, braised, stewed, made into steak, fried or grilled.

Types of Venison
Bison

It should be prepared and hung like other game meats. As it is so lean it should be cooked
quickly and served rare or medium rare.

Kudu

This is a breed of wild African antelope that is culled in a controlled way. The animals are very
large and the meat has a stronger flavor than wild venison. It needs to be tenderized by
marinating and cooking.

Axis Deer
It is native to Sri Lanka and India, the Axis Deer was brought to the United States in 1932 and
now lives in the wild and on ranches throughout Central and Southern Texas. A beautiful
species, Axis Deer are reddish-brown with white spots and have a dark stripe (also spotted) that
runs from the nape of the neck to the tip of the tail. Males have three-tined antlers and can weigh
up to 250 pounds females can weigh up to 150 pounds. Their natural diet consists of grasses, live
oak, sumac, acorns and mushrooms. Their meat is mild in taste, extremely tender and
exceptionally low in fat (0.2%). Axis Deer is generally considered by most hunters to be the
best-tasting game meat.

Caribou

The Reindeer is known as Caribou in North America and is indigenous to arctic and sub-arctic
climates. Caribou vary in size and weight, with males averaging 400 pounds. Both sexes grow
antlers, although the males' antlers are larger. The color and depth of their fur is dependent on
region and climate, but in general Caribou fur has two layers: a thick undercoat and a long-haired
overcoat, the hairs of which are hollow, which keeps the deer warm. Caribou diet consists mainly
of lichens in winter and tree leaves and grasses in warmer weather. Reindeer-hunting dates back
to 10,000 BCE and is vitally important to many cultures for providing food. Caribou venison is
very high in protein, very low in fat, and can be eaten fresh or dried.

Elk

Elk is one of the largest land mammals indigenous to North America and eastern Asia, living in
forest habitats with a diet of grasses, plants, leaves and tree bark. Mature bull elk can weigh as
much as 40% more than females, upwards to 730 pounds and even as high as 1,200 pounds in the
Roosevelt Elk subspecies. Elk venison is higher in protein and leaner than beef, but it is high in
cholesterol (a single serving has 83% of a daily intake allowance). Elk has a less gamey flavor
than other venison and is often compared to tasting like beef but with a coarser texture.
Fallow Deer

Fallow Deer are one of the most common deer found throughout the world. Fallow Deer are
medium sized in height and weight (220 pounds for males, 110 pounds for females) and vary in
color, from white to chestnut to black. Bucks have large, flattened, shovel-shaped antlers. They
eat a variety of plants and grasses. Fallow Deer is the traditional venison in European recipes,
having a strong taste, often counter-balanced by juniper berries and wine marinades.

Red Deer

Sizes of Red Deer are comparable to the North American Elk and vary by region with a mature
stag measuring 8 feet in length and weighing up to over 500 pounds The Red Deer's natural
habitat is forest land, where they browse rather than graze, preferring to eat oak and birch leaves,
twigs, ivy and lichen. Until recently, Red Deer venison in the United Kingdom was restricted to
the aristocracy and royalty, but farm-raised Red Deer is now widely available in supermarkets.
As with all venison, it is high in protein and low in fat, with a rich flavor and is the most
commonly used venison in British cooking.

Moose

The moose is the largest species in the deer family and is native to North America, Russia,
Scandinavia and northern Europe. Its diet consists of both aquatic and forest vegetation Males
stand six feet tall from shoulder to foot and can weigh up to 1,600 pounds, females weigh up to
1,300 pounds. Moose-hunting is extremely popular for sport but also for harvesting venison,
since a bull moose can yield over 900 pounds of meat. Moose venison is high in protein, low in
fat, and is similar in texture and taste to lean beef or bison.
Mule

The Mule Deer, so-named because of its large ears, is native to the western United States in the
Rocky Mountain region. They are small-to-medium sized with the bucks averaging 200 pounds
in weight; females average 125 pounds. Its diet consists of plants and berries in summer, and
conifers and brushes, sage, in particular, in winter, which imbues an unpleasant taste and gamy
flavor to its venison. Mule Deer is a favorite with sport-hunters, but it is not preferred for its
venison.

South Texas (Nilgai) Antelope

The blue-gray-colored male, can weigh up to 600 pounds. The females (and calves) are light
brown and about one-third smaller. Their natural diet consists of grasses, seeds and fruits,
although when food is scarce, they are not particular in what they eat .Nilgai or South Texas
Antelope venison is favored in restaurants for its veal -like texture and light flavor, which is even
milder than beef. Nilgai is lower in cholesterol than chicken and one-third the calories of beef
with less than 3% fat.

Sika Deer

Sika (pronounced "shee-kah") Deer are a compact, "dainty-footed" deer indigenous to Japan
.Sika Deer graze and browse, eating grasses and leaves. Their coats vary in color from brown to
mahogany with white spots. Sika venison is a strong-flavored darker meat, which is often
described as similar in taste to elk.
White Tailed Deer

The White Tailed Deer is small-to-medium sized with reddish coats in spring and summer and
gray-brown coats in fall and winter. The deer is named for its long white tail that it displays
when sensing danger or threat. Preferring forest lands, the deer's diet mainly consists of plants,
cacti, grasses, acorns, fruits and mushrooms. White Tailed Deer are commonly hunted for sport
and venison, which has a characteristically game flavor, although lighter in taste than other
species (for example, the Mule Deer), and is very dependent on the deer's diet.

NUTRITIONAL VALUE
The nutritional value of game is similar to that of meat. Game it is used for building and
repairing body tissues and for energy. The major difference is the lower fat content. Most recipes
use streaky bacon or practice larding to prevent the meat from drying.
It has fat, protein, iron, zinc, potassium, phosphorous, and the vitamin B-complex.
As it is less fatty than other meat game is more easily digested with the exception of water fowl
which has oily flesh.

BUYING QUALITIES
1. Game should only be sold by wholesalers or shops with a license to sell it.
2. Check how long the bird or animal has been hung. It might be necessary for hanging to
continue after purchase.
3. Check that the game is fresh:
a. For feathered game, avoid if the smell is too high.
i. The smell should be pleasant
ii. The skin should show no signs of bruising or cuts.
iii. The flesh should be firm.
iv. A high quality bird has meaty legs and a well-fleshed or plump breast.
v. The breast should be plump, well fleshed with a pliable breast bone.
vi. Should have minimal bruising.
vii. The legs should be smooth.
viii. Should not have excessive bleeding.
ix. Avoid birds that have been poorly shot
b. For furred game the flesh should not smell too high.
i. There should be no unpleasant odour.
ii. The flesh should feel firm, plump, well fleshed, free from excessive
bleeding and be free from bruising.
iii. The fat should be firm and not oily.
iv. There is little or preferably no juice running from the meat.
v. The claws should be long and sharp
vi. The tip of the ears should tear easily
 4. For quality in game birds and small animals look for ‘meaty’ legs and a plump breast. For
large animals such as deer, remember that the choicest parts are the leg and saddle.
5. Buy game when it is young if tender meat is required for roasting. Ideally, purchase early
in the season. If older game is purchased it will require moist methods of cooking.

STORAGE
1. Hanging is essential for all game. It drains the flesh of blood and begins the process of
disintegration that is vital to make the flesh soft and edible and also to develop flavor.
2. The hanging time is determined by the type, condition and age of the game and the
storage temperature.
3. Old birds need to hang longer time than young birds.
4. Game birds are not plucked or drawn before hanging.
5. Venison and hare are hung with the skin on.
6. Game must be hung in a well ventilated dry, cold storeroom. This need not be
refrigerated.
7. Game birds should be hung by the neck with the feet down.

COOKING
Game needs to dressed within an hour of slaughter.
Game birds are no more difficult to cook than chicken, turkey or goose. Simple methods are
usually the best. Plain roasting for young tender birds or grilling for the small young birds and
casserole cooking or pot roasting for those that are a bit older and tougher also good for pies.
Lean birds will need frequent basting or should be larded with fatty bacon to keep tender.
Rabbit has the mildest flavor. Game is usually served with other strong flavours that can stand up
to its taste.
Meat from game is leaner than domestic meat. This makes cooking it without it going dry a
challenge. Any fat on game is trimmed and then replaced by barding the meat because it does not
generally taste good.
Game can be cooked using all the methods of cooking meat which includes roasted, braised,
stewed, made into steaks fried or grilled, made into casseroles, pies etc
EGGS

The term egg applies to not only those of a hen but also to the edible eggs of other domesticated
birds e.g. turkey, goose, guinea fowl, e.t.c. Most caterers make use of hen’s egg for much of the
purposes compared to others.
Eggs are an extremely versatile food commodity, suitable for inclusion in a wide range of
products and dishes.
Hen’s eggs are graded in to four depending on their sizes:
 Small: 53gms or under.
 Medium: 53-63gms
 Large: 64-73 gms
 Very large:73 gms and above.
The size of an egg does not affect the quality but does affect the price. Eggs are tested for quality
then weighed and graded under European Law as follows:
Grade A – naturally clean, fresh eggs, internally perfect with intact shells and an air cell not
exceeding 6mm in depth
Grade B – eggs that have been downgraded because they have been cleaned or preserved, or
because they are internally imperfect, cracked or have an air cell exceeding 6mm but not more
than 9mm in depth.
Grade C – eggs that are fit for breaking for manufacturing purposes but cannot be sold in their
shells to the public

USES OF EGGS
a) Enriching - egg improves the quality and texture of sugar paste. They can be added to
sauces, soups and milk puddings to provide extra proteins.
b) Thickening - eggs are used to thicken custards, sauces, soups etc because of the
coagulation of the egg protein.
c) Colouring - egg yolks provide a distinct yellow colour which acts as a colouring agent
to some dishes. When heated, glazed pastry products also get an attractive brown colour.
d) Glazing - egg yolk, egg white or whole egg when well beaten can be brushed over
pastries during or before baking so as to give them an attractive golden brown colour.
e) Garnishing - hard boiled eggs and yolks can be sliced and used to decorate dishes when
serving.
f) Emulsifying - egg yolks contain lecithin which is an emulsifier, and enables oil and
water to mix to an emulsion without separating.
Emulsion consists of fine droplets of a liquide.g oil dispersed in another liquid e.g water
or in a solid e.g fat.
This is mainly use in mayonnaise and cake making when eggs are added to the fat and
sugar in a creamed mixture.
g) Binding - eggyolks included in croquette potatoes and stuffing’s coagulate on heating,
ensuring that the ingredients are held together during and after cooking.
h) Coating - eggs are used as a coating for fried foods either on their own or combined with
flour and breadcrumbs. This forms a protective layer on the outside of the food which
sets and holds together and prevents the dish from over cooking.
i) Aerating/ trapping air - both egg whites and yolk are capable of trapping air due to
ability of over filming to stretch. The ability of eggs to stretch is utilised in cake making.
 They are also used to trap air as a raising agent. They are also used to lighten mousses
and sweet breads. Also in making meringues, swissrolls, Genoese sponges and soufflés.
j) Clarifying- egg white, when added to a liquid and heated, slowly coagulates and rises to
the surface, taking impurities with it. This is made use of in clarifying consommé, aspic
and fruit jellies.
k) Main meals/ dishes - eggs can be served as dishes in their own right or with others as in
omelettes, crumbled eggs etc.

PRESERVATION METHODS FOR EGGS

1. Cold storage: - Eggs are kept a little above freezing point. The humidity of the air and the
amount of carbon dioxide in the air are controlled. They keep for upto 9 months under
this condition.
2. Frozen: - mainly used by bakers and confectioners and are sold in large tins of various
sizes. Eggs are washed, sanitized, and then broken into sterilized containers.

USES OF FRESH EGGS

Eggs are used extensively in:
-Hors d’oeuvre -salads
-Meat and poultry dishes -fish dishes
-Soups -sweet and pastries
-Pasta -sauces
-Egg dishes -savouries

TRANSPORT OF EGGS
For the successful transportation of eggs, essential requirements must be met:
 The containers and packaging materials must be such that the eggs are well protected
against mechanical damage.
 Care should be taken at all stages of handling and transport. Workers handling eggs
should be instructed so that they appreciate the need for careful handling. The provision
of convenient loading platforms at packing stations, loading depots and railing stations,
and handling aids, such as hand trucks and lifts, are of great help.
 The eggs must be protected at all times against exposure to temperatures that cause
deterioration in quality as well as contamination, especially tainting.
 The permissible range of temperatures during loading and transport depends on the local
climatic conditions and the duration of the journey. Care is needed to avoid excessive
shaking, especially where roads are bad. Egg containers should be stacked tightly and
tied down securely to minimize movement. Covers should be used to protect them from
the heat of the sun, rain and extreme cold where applicable. Where bicycles are used, a
device such as a special carrier suspended on springs may be helpful.
STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF AN EGG.
An egg is composed of three main parts:
 shell
 The egg white
 The yolk.

STRUCTURE OF AN EGG

The shell
 Forms 11.5% of the egg. It is composed of 97% calcium carbonate, and 3% protein.
 It is porous enabling the developing chick to obtain oxygen. The pores also allow
bacteria and odour to enter into and water as well as carbon dioxide to escape.
 Just beneath the shell are 2 other membranes together lying close and they separate at the
broader end to form the air space. These membranes also act as chemical filters to
bacteria thus protecting the inside.
 The colour of the shell may vary according to:
 Breed of the bird,
 Food eaten by the bird. This means that its colour does not affect the nutritional
value of the egg.
 Older birds will produce eggs with weak shells.

Shell quality characteristics that must be considered are as follows:

 cleanliness
 soundness (unbroken)
 smoothness
 shape
The two most desirable shell qualities, cleanliness and soundness, are largely controlled by the
production and handling of eggs. Eggs with shell defects should be removed from eggs destined
to the retail trade. Egg shells must never be washed as washing would remove the natural
protective coating.

Egg white
 Also known as albumen and contains a mixture of proteins.
 Divided in to thick white and thin white.
 The white forms 58.5% of the whole egg and consist of 88.5% water and 10.5% proteins,
riboflavin and other B vitamins as well as traces of fat.
 The main proteins in the egg are ovalbumin and mucin.

Yolk
An important constituent of yolk is lecithin, which is an emulsifier.
 It is the central part of the egg and forms about 30% of the egg. It is supported at the
centre by the chalazae.
 It consists of
 16.5% protein,
 33% fat and
 50% water
 Fat soluble vitamins A, D, E & K.
 Mineral elements, including iron and lecithin.
 Its colour varies depending on the amount and type of carotenes that the bird feeds on.
The colour of the yolk too does not affect the nutritional value of the egg.
 The yolk also is more vulnerable to bacterial attack when it is older, as the yolk
membranes weaken.

In quality eggs the yolk should be:

 round,
 firm and stand up well
 Yellow in colour.

Factors that may cause loss of quality are as follows:

 natural factors
 temperature
 humidity
 time
 handling
 storage
 tainting

VALUE OF EGGS
 They are good sources of high biological value protein,
 Provide little quantities of iron to the body.
  They are also poor sources of calcium since its only concentrated in the shell which is not
eaten.

QUALITY POINTS FOR FRESH EGGS

 Shell-should be clean, undamaged, well shaped, strong and slightly rough
 White-when broken, the egg should have a large proportion of thick white to thin white.
 Yolk-should be firm, round/dome shaped and good yellow colour.
 Smell- should be pleasant. Bad eggs smell of hydrogen sulphide.

As the egg becomes older, they deteriorate and the thick white changes to thin white and water
passes from the white to the yolk. The yolk losses strength and begins to flatten. Water escapes
from the egg and its replaced by air thus the egg becomes lighter (that is why fresh eggs are
heavier than stale ones.)
The storage temperature normally affects the time taken for eggs to deteriorate. Eggs stored at
3°C (37F) will remain in first class condition for about 3 months whereas if stored in a hot place,
deterioration occurs only after a few weeks.

N.B: Long cooking of eggs at high temperatures encourages the production of hydrogen
sulphide even in freshly laid eggs. Some of the sulphur in the egg combines with the iron to form
a grayish - green strong tasting compound that can be seen as a layer around the yolk of hard
boiled eggs.
This is as a result of over cooking or not cooling the eggs sufficiently in cold running water.

FUNCTIONS OF EGGS IN FOOD PREPARATION

The three functional properties of relevance to food preparation are:
1. Coagulation
2. Emulsification
3. Foaming

1. Coagulation
The proteins of egg coagulate during cooking. The egg white coagulates at temperature between
60°C -75°C, where the white become opaque and it no longer flows. When it reaches 70°C it
becomes firm. The eggyolk coagulate at a slightly higher temperature. It begins at 65°C and
stops flowing at 70°C.
When cooking avoid overcooking as the proteins squeeze together leaving little pockets of water.
Whole egg dishes e.g boiled, poached and fried become rubbery and egg dishes with added
liquid e.g. scrambled eggs separate to produce lumps of protein and a watery liquid. This is
known as syneresis.
Functions associated with coagulation:
 Supplementary thickening e.g hollandaise sauce
 Binding e.g. burgers, meatballs, potato croquettes etc
 Coating e.g fish in breadcrumbs, potato croquettes
 Glazing to give attractive appearance e.g in pastries
 Garnish hardboiled slices

2. Emulsification
Eggyolks contain lecithin which is an emulsifying agent. The emulsifying property is used in
preparation of cakes and mayonnaise. Oil and vinegar are immiscible i.e they separate when left
to stand but when eggyolk is used the oil and vinegar are held together as an emulsion.

3. Foaming
When eggwhite is whisked, bubbles of air are incorporated in it foaming an eggwhite foam e.g.
in meringues and soufflés. Whole egg can also be used e.g. in sponge cake.
For egg whites to foam:
-The bowl should be larger enough to allow the eggwhite to increase
-Whisks should have thin blades or fine wires
-The eggs should be fresh
-The eggs should be at room temperature
-The egg whites should be free from any traces of fat or yolk
-If agents are added to stabilize the foam e.g. salt, lemon juice or cream of tartar, these should be
added after foamy stage
-If sugar is added before the foam is prepared, it is necessary to beat for longer
-The eggs should not be underbeaten of overbeaten
-Use the foam as soon as it is ready, if left to stand it stiffens

METHODS OF COOKING EGGS

 Poaching
 Boiling
 Scrambling
 Baking
 Frying
 En cocotte

STORAGE OF EGGS
While storing eggs, you should:
 Store with the blunt edge upwards,
 Keep in a cool but a not dry situation, in a refrigerator at a temperature range between 0-
5°C.
 Keep away from strong smelling foods e.g cheese, onions etc.
 Eggs should not be washed before being stored as washing will remove the natural
protective coating.
 Eggs cannot be frozen whole, but when separated i.e the yolk separately from the white.
 They can also be preserved through pickling.
 Stock should be rotated
 Cracked eggs should not be used
 Hands should be washed before and after handling eggs
 Preparation surfaces, utensils and containers should be regularly cleaned

The storage of shell eggs during the main laying season, in order to conserve them for
consumption when they are scarce, has been practised for many centuries.

For the successful storage of eggs, the following conditions must be met.
  The eggs placed in storage must be clean; they must not be washed or wet.
 Packaging material used should be new, clean and odourless.
 Loss of water due to evaporation should be reduced to a minimum.
 The storage room must be free from tainting products and materials and should be
cleaned regularly with odourless detergent sanitizers.
 The storage room must be kept at a constant temperature and humidity must be checked.
 There should be air circulation in the storage room.
 Eggs should be stored so that they are allowed to breathe.
 As far as possible, interior quality should be monitored; there should be a good
proportion of thick white, the yolk should stand up well, and the flavour of white and
yolk should be good.

If all of the above requirements are to be met, refrigerated storage is necessary.

Cold storage of eggs

In the tropics, eggs can deteriorate very quickly unless they are stored at low temperatures. The
ideal temperature for storage in such climates is 13°C or lowers (usually between 10° and 13° C).
Here refrigeration is a necessity for successful commercial storage; however, it may be
unavailable or the costs too high.

The most important factors in successful cold storage are as follows.

 The selection and packaging of eggs.

 The equipment and preparation of the cold store.
 Proper temperature, humidity and air circulation.
 Periodic testing for quality.
 The gradual adjustment of eggs to higher temperatures when removed from storage.
FISH AND SEAFOODS
INTRODUCTION
Because of health considerations, many people choose to eat fish in preference to meat and
consequently consumption of fish has steadily increased. Over 200 types of fish are on sale
throughout the year.

Sea food - is any form of sea life regarded as food by humans. Though, seafood
prominently includes fish and shell fish.
Shell fish include various species of molluscs, crustaceans and echinoderms.
 Historically, sea mammals such as whales and dolphins have been consumed as food,
though that happens to a lesser extend these days.
 Edible sea plants, such as some sea weeds and microalgae, are widely eaten as seafood
around the world, especially in Asia.
 The harvesting of wild seafood is known as fishing, and the cultivation and farming of
seafood is known as aquaculture, Mari culture, or in the case of fish, fish farming.
Fish – it’s a limbless cold-blooded vertebrate animal with gills and fins and living wholly in
water.

CLASSIFICATION OF FISH
Fish includes sea or salt-water fish, fresh water fish and shellfish.

1) Sea fish
This is fish classified according to their way of life:

a) Demersal fish
 They live at the bottom of sea. They are caught in nets dragged along the sea-bed by
trawlers.
b) Pelagic fish
 They swim freely near the surface, usually in shoals.
 They are caught in nets hung vertically from the surface of the sea by boats known as
drifters.

2) Fresh water fish

They are caught mostly for sport, and, with the exception of eels, salmon and trout, are not
readily available to the consumer.
Eels, sea trout and salmon spend part of their lives in fresh water and part in the sea.
Fish may be further classified according to their shape (flat or round fish) and, according their
fat content, (as fatty or white fish)
Comparison between white fish and oily fish
1. In white fish the flesh is always white when cooked while in oily fish the flesh is darker and
changes from light brown to deep pink.
2. In white fish the oil is stored in the liver while in oily fish the oil is distributed throughout the
flesh.
3. White fish can either be round or flat while round fish is always round in shape.

4. In white fish fat soluble vitamin A and D is found in the liver while in oily fish fat soluble
vitamin A and D is dispersed throughout the flesh.
5. White fish is easily digested while oily fish is less easy to digest because of fat.
6. White fish is popularly deep fried while oily fish is not deep fried except for white bait.

7. White fish has a delicate flavor while oily fish has a more pronounced flavor.

Examples of fatty/ oily round fish: Anchovy, common eel, conger eel, Herring, mackerel,
pilchard, salmon, salmon trout, sardines, sprats, trout, tunny(tuna) and white bait.

Examples of white round fish: Bass, bream, carp, cod, coley or saith, dogfish, grey mullet,
gudgeon, gurnard, haddock, hake, john dory, ling, monkfish, pike, perch, Pollack, redfish, red
gurnard, red mullet, rockfish, shark, smelt, snapper, swordfish, wrasse and whiting.
Examples of flat white fish: Brill, dob, flounder, halibut, megrim, plaice, skate, sole, lemon
sole, turbot and witch

3) Shellfish
They are of two main kinds:

a) Crustacean
 They are those fish which have legs and partially jointed shell and they include:
Crabs, craw fish, crayfish, lobsters, prawns and shrimps.
b) Molluscs
 They are those which have a hard outer shell and no legs.
 These may be bivalves, which have a shell in two hinged parts such as oysters,
mussels and scallops, or they may have a shell like a snail, such as cockles and
winkles.
 Shell fish have no backbone.

PURCHASING REQUIREMENTS / SPECIFICATIONS

i) It should be firm to touch
ii) The skin of really fresh fish is bright in appearance and glistering; it is moist and has a
transparent outer slime and the scales are plentiful
 iii) The eyes should be clear, full and shiny – almost glistening.
iv) The gills should be red.
v) It should not, under any circumstances smell ‘fishy’, but should have a clean, fresh smell.
vi) When buying crab, tab it gently to make sure it doesn’t contain water.
vii) Mussels should not be bought if their shells don’t close when tapped.
viii) The scales should be flat, moist, firmly attached and plentiful.
ix) Fish should be purchased daily, if possible direct from the market or supplier.
x) The fish should be well iced so that it arrives in good condition.
xi) Fish may be brought on the bone or filleted
xii) Medium sized fish are usually better than big fish which may be coarse, small fish often
lack flavor.

STORAGE OF FISH
Refrigeration
i) Scales, clean and gut fish. Place on a plate or tray or a lidded container, cover with a
damp cloth and then with plastic wrap or the lid. Store in the coldest part of the fridge
and use within 2-3 days.
ii) Clean and rinse squid, cuttle fish and octopus. Place on the plate or tray or in a lidded
container, cover with a damp cloth and then with plastic wrap or the lid. Store in the
coldest part of fridge and use within 2-3 days.
iii) Dead crustaceans (such as crab) should be consumed as soon as possible after purchase.
Refrigerate, covered plastic wrap, on a plate or tray in a covered container in the coldest
part of the fridge.
iv) Live crustacean (such as crabs) should be consumed as soon as possible after purchase.
Keep in a cool place with a damp cloth over the container ensuring that the cloth remains
damp.
v) Live molluscs (such as mussels) should be consumed as soon as possible after purchase.
Place in container, cover with a damp cloth and keep in the warmest part of the
refrigerator, usually the crisper (optimum 5˚c), ensuring that the cloth remains damp.

Before cooking discard any shells that are open and don’t close when tapped or gently
squeezed.

Freezing
i. Scale, gut, gill and wipe out all fish before freezing. Place in an airtight freezer bag,
extract as much air as possible, label and date.
ii. Whole non-oily fish can be frozen for up to 6 months at -18 ˚c or less.
iii. Whole oily fish, and all fish fillets, steaks and cutlets can be frozen for up to 3 months at
-18 ˚c or less.
iv. Meat from molluscs (such as squid and mussels) can be frozen for up to 3 months at -18
˚c or less. Gut, clean, squid, cuttle fish and octopus remove meat from the shell place in
an airtight freezer bag, extract as much air as possible, label and date.
 v. Crustaceans can be frozen for up to 3 months at -18 ˚c or less. Place crustaceans (other
than prawns) in an airtight freezer bag, extract as much air as possible, label, and date.
vi. Place unpeeled prawns in a plastic container appropriate to the volume of prawns. Cover
with water, seal and freeze.
This forms a large ice block, which insulates the prawns. Do not add salt as it draws out
the moisture. Label, date and freeze as above.

PRESERVATION OF FISH
Preservation techniques are needed to prevent fish spoilage and lengthen shelf life. They are
designed to inhibit the activity of spoilage bacteria and the metabolic changes that result in less
of fish quality.
Preservation methods maintain the quality of fish for a longer period of time.
Curing – fish curing is defined as the method of preserving fish by means of salting, drying,
smoking and pickling.

i. Salting
Salt is the preservative agent used to lengthen the shelf life of fish and fishery products.

Methods of salting fish

a) Kench-salting or dry salting – the fish is heavily salted with the ratio of 1:7 (1 part fish
to 7 parts of salt). Before, they are heavily salted, the fish are soaked in 10% brine to
leach out blood and then half dried for two hours. They are packed in wooden boxes to
drain away. Some fish kenched are Indian sardines, short-bodied mackerel, stripped
mackerel and yellow-striped crevalle.
b) Brine salting – fish that are commonly brine salted are anchovy and herring.
c) Fermenting - is the making of fish paste and fish sauce.

ii. Drying and dehydrating

 Drying is the process in which moisture is removed by exposure to natural air current
as humidity is regulated by climatic condition.
 Dehydration is the process of removing moisture with the use of mechanical device
that provides artificial heat for drying.

Methods of fish drying

a) Salt drying – this is a method of drying fish where the fish are sprinkled and
blended thoroughly with dry salt before drying under the heat of the sun.
b) Brine salting – the fish are soaked in a saturated brine solution for a few hours
prior to drying under the heat of the sun.

iii. Smoking
This is the method of preserving fish by applying smoke with the aid of salting, drying
and heat treatment.
 Types of smoking
a) Hot smoking – this is a slow type broiling where fish are placed near the fire at
smoke temperature.
b) Cold smoking – the fish are placed away from the fire at a distance of almost two
meters with a smoke temperature ranging from 32˚c to 43 ˚c.

Smoke producing materials: saw dust, corn cobs, rice hull, guava leaves, coconut husk,
dried sugar cane stakes, pill nuts shell, and tealeaves.

iv. Canning
The oily fish are usually canned. Some fish are canned in their own juice or in oil or
tomato sauce.

v. Pickling
By use of vinegar to pickle. This method of preserving fish is usually done in making
appetizer which is considered semi-preservation because its shelf life is short. This
method is used for home consumption only.

vi. Soused
It is a method of poaching oily fish in vinegar and water with various flavourings. After
sousing the fish is served cold in the cooking liquor

Cooking fish
Fish are naturally tender and contain very little connective tissue, unlike meat they require short
cooking times at a high temperature

CUTS OF FISH
Fillet
It is a cut of fish free from all skin and bones, prepared from either a round or a flat fish. Can be
poached, grilled, deep fried, shallow fried, cooked au gratin or en pappilote. Flat fish yields four
fillets from a fish weighing 560-675g. cross cut fillets, two from each fish. Round fish yields two
fillets from fish weighing 340-550g.

Goujons
A long thin strip fish cut from a prepared fillet. They are egg-and-breadcrumbed and deep fried
but can also be shallow fried or sautéed.

Delice
It is not a cut of fish but a menu term indicating a neatly folded fillet.
Paupiette
A neatly rolled fillet stuffed with either a fish, shellfish, vegetables or mixture of vegetables and
shellfish. The fillet is rolled, from the tapered tail to the wider head end and poached.

Supreme
A thick slice of fish cut on the slant from a fillet prepared from a large fish such as salmon. They
are poached, shallow fried or cooked en papilotte

Darne
A thick slice of fish on the bone, prepared by cutting across a large round fish such as salmon. A
tapered tail is unsuitable for cutting darnes. Depending on the type of fish they are suitable for
grilling, shallow frying and deep poaching.

Troncon
A thick slice of fish on the bone, prepared from a large flat fish. The fish is split into two by
chopping down the backbone from tail end. Cutting across the fish, the best troncons are
prepared from the long side not containing the gut cavity. They are usually deep poached.

Guidelines for cooking fish

i. Measure fish (dressed or stuffed, fillet or steak) at thickest part
ii. Allow 5-7 minutes cooking time per cm of thickness (10 minutes per inch) for fresh fish.
iii. Allow 10-12 minutes cooking time per cm thickness (20 minutes per inch) for frozen fish
iv. Fish is ready when fish is opaque and flakes easily

NOTE:
Do not overcook.
Ciseler – ciseler means to make slight incisions in the surface of a thick fillet of fish, or on the
bone, to allow even cooking.

METHODS OF COOKING FISH

Fish can be cooked by various methods such as baking, frying, poaching and boiling.
CONCLUSION
Fish are valuable, not only because they are a good source of protein, but are suitable for all
types of menus and can be cooked and presented in a wide variety of ways.
MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS
Milk is a white liquid produced by the mammary glands of mammals. It is the primary source of
nutrition for young mammals before they are able to digest other types of food. Early-lactation
milk contains colostrum, which carries the mother's antibodies to the baby and can reduce the
risk of many diseases in the baby. It also contains many other nutrients.

As an agricultural product, milk is extracted from mammals during or soon after pregnancy and
used as food for humans though it has to be treated before consumption to make it safe.

The females of all mammal species can by definition produce milk, but cow milk dominates
commercial production. In 2011, FAO estimates 85% of all milk worldwide was produced from
cows.

STORAGE
Fresh milk should be taken care of to ensure that it is not contaminated and therefore it should:
 Kept in the container in which it is delivered.
 Stored in the refrigerator for maximum of 5 days
 Be kept covered as it easily absorbs smells from other foods such as onions and fish
 Order fresh milk daily
 Tinned milk should be stored in cool and dry, well ventilated rooms
 Dried milk is packaged in air tight tins and kept in a dry store
 Sterilised milk will keep for 2-3 months if un-opened, but once opened, must be treated
just as fresh milk

USES OF MILK
 As a drink or in preparation of hot drinks
 In soups e.g. cream soups
 In sauces e.g. custard sauce, bread sauce e.t.c
 Making batters e.g. for pancakes
 In making milk custards and egg custards
 In making milk puddings
 In bakery products e.g. cakes
 Glazing pastries e.g. brushing over the surface of scones to give a smooth shiny
appearance

COMPOSITION OF MILK

 3-4% Lipids/ fats

 87% water
 3-4% Protein- the proteins in milk include lactalbumin, caseinogens and lacto globulin
 0.7% minerals, and vitamins
Minerals or milk salts are traditional names for a variety of cations and anions within
bovine milk. Calcium, phosphate, magnesium, sodium, potassium, citrate, and chlorine
are all included as minerals. The milk salts strongly interact with casein, most notably
calcium phosphate. It is present in excess and often, much greater excess of solubility of
 solid calcium phosphate. In addition to calcium, milk is a good source of many other
vitamins. Vitamins A, B6, B12, C, D, K, E, thiamine, niacin, biotin, riboflavin, folates,
and pantothenic acid are all present in milk.
 4-5% Carbohydrates
Milk contains several different carbohydrate including lactose, glucose, galactose, and
other oligosaccharides. The lactose gives milk its sweet taste and contributes
approximately 40% of whole cow's milk's calories. Lactose is a disaccharide composite
of two simple sugars, glucose and galactose.

TYPES OF MILK
Based on fat content

 Whole milk: Whole milk must contain at least 3.25% milk fat and 8.25% milk solids by
weight—which means it derives about 50% of its calories from fat. Because of this
relatively high fat content, whole milk is best used only for infants and young children up
to age 2.
 Reduced-fat milk/semi skimmed milk (2%): This milk contains 2% milk fat. The
percentage of milk fat refers to the percentage of fat by weight, and much of milk's
weight is water. Once you subtract the water from 2% milk, for example, you're left with
a product that contains 20% fat by weight; such milk actually derives 35% of its calories
from fat. Drinking 2% milk is a good way to wean oneself from whole milk at first, but is
too high in fat as a permanent choice, unless your diet is otherwise very low in fat.
 Low-fat milk (1%): One-percent milk gets 23% of its calories from fat. Many people
find low-fat milk more appealing and a good compromise.
 Skimmed milk/non-fat milk: This type of milk has as much fat removed as possible. It
may not contain more than 0.5% milk fat by weight, and usually contains less than 0.5
gm of fat per cup, deriving just 5% of its calories from fat. Skimmed milk has about half
the calories of whole milk. It is the best choice for adults, and is the only type of milk that
should be consumed by people on strict low-fat diets. Unfortunately, skim milk has a
very "thin" flavor and an unappealing bluish cast.

Based on method of treatment/ processing

 Pasteurized milk- this is milk which has been heated to

72˚c for 15 seconds and then cooled quickly to less than 8˚c or
63 ˚c for 15 minutes and then cooled quickly to less than 8˚c.
10% of vitamin B1 and vitamin B12 is lost and 25% of vitamin C too is lost.
The milk will keep upto 5 days if kept cool.
 Homogenised milk – This means to make uniform. When milk is homogenized the
composition is uniform. This is Pasteurized milk which has its fat content being evenly
distributed all through by passing it through a fine mesh under pressure. The process
causes the fat to break down to a uniform size because milk is forces through tiny holes
under pressure. It does not separate to form cream lathe process causes the fat to break
down to a uniform size because milk is forces through tiny holes under pressure. It does
not separate to form cream layer.
  Sterilized milk- this is homogenized milk that has been packed in to bottles and then
heated to 113˚c for 15-30 minutes through either batch process(where the bottles are
placed in a chamber with hot air) or using the continuous process (where the bottles are
placed on a conveyer belt which then passes under water). 33.3% of thiamine, 50% of
vitamin B12, folic acid and vitamin are lost. The flavour and appearance are affected by
the high temperature of sterilization. Some milk sugars (lactose) caramelize and this
gives sterilized milk a cooked taste and a creamy appearance. It destroys micro organisms
more. It keeps for several days without refrigeration as long as it is not opened.
 Ultra-Heat Treatment(UHT) milk – this is homogenized which is heated to a
temperature of 132 ˚c for 1 second, the milk is then cooled and packed under sterile
conditions.

Based on water content

 Condensed milk- It is evaporated milk but with the addition of sugar. It can be from
whole, semi-skimmed or skimmed milk. It is homogenized and heated then sugar added,
passed into an evaporator and boiled under vacuum. The milk is concentrated 2.5 times
that of original milk, then drawn off, cooled and sealed into tins or barrels.
It has all nutrients found in milk but in concentrated form. Carbohydrates content is
higher because of addition of sugar. Has sugarly taste and can keep indefinitely when the
can is closed. The sugar acts as a preservative.
 Evaporated milk- it is processed as condensed.
The difference is that it has no added sugar, it is sterilized in the tin and it is concentrated
to about twice the density of the original milk. It loses about 60% of vitamin C and 40%
of thiamin. Has a pronounced flavor and distinctive tan colour. It doesn’t have cream
layer. Has long life without refrigeration as long as the can is not opened.
 Dried milk or powdered milk - this is milk produced by the evaporation of water from
the milk by heat to produce solid that contain 5% or less moisture. It can be made from
whole or skimmed milk. Before drying it is pasteurized or homogenized. Methods used
include spray method and the roller method.
Roller drying method – milk is spread on hot, revolving rollers and the water evaporates
rapidly and a thin film of powder is left on the rollers. It is then scrapped, cooled rapidly
then ground into powder and sifted then packed into airtight containers.
Spray drying method – the milk is sprayed into hot air chamber. The water is rapidly
lost by evaporation and the remains drop on the floor of the chamber in form of powder.
It is then collected, cooled quickly and packed in airtight containers. It has the same
nutrients as whole liquid milk in concentrated forms with the exception of vitamin C,
thiamin and vitamin B12 which are lost as a result of heat treatment.

PROBLEMS IN MILK
1. Milk scorching at the bottom of the pan
When milk is heated, the protein, lactobumin and lactoglobulin and some of the calcium
phosphate are precipitated. This precipitate falls into the bottom of the pan where it settles. As
heating continues the precipitate scorches (burns) because it is in contact with the heat source.
To overcome this -use a thick bottom pan over a moderate heat
-heat milk in a double boiler
 2. Skin on boiled milk
When milk is heated on an open pan a skin develops on the surface. This happens because water
is evaporated from the surface and the protein casein is concentrated, along with some milk fat
and calcium salts. Steam produced from water in milk forms under the skin and this causes the
milk to boil over.
To overcome this -remove the skin as it forms
-whisk the milk during cooking
3. Curdling of milk during cooking
Milk has a tendency to curdle when mixed with acid ingredients e.g. in preparation of cream of
tomato soup. This happens after the milk has been added to the tomato mixture.
To overcome this -add tomato mixture to the milk rather than milk to the tomato mixture
-ensure that both the milk and the tomato mixture are hot when mixed
together
-use the same kind of thickener to either the tomato mixture or milk before
these foods are mixed together.

MILK PRODUCTS
1. CREAM:
Is the layer of fat skimmed from the top of milk before homogenization or the lighter weight
portion of milk which still contains all the main constituents of milk but in different proportions.
The fat content of cream is higher than that of milk and the water content and other constituents
are lower.

TYPES OF CREAM
 Double cream - this is cream which contains 48% of fat. It is pasteurized and partially
homogenized. Can be used as a pouring cream. It also whips easily and its good for
making puddings and desserts because it is thick. It can be piped after whipping.
 Clotted cream - it contains 55% of fat, it is thick and spreadable with granular texture,
rich creamy colour. It is heat treated and can be used in scones, fruit and fruit pies and
also be served with tea
 Extra thick double cream - it contains 48% of fat; it is heavily homogenized and
pasteurized and can be served with pies, puddings and other deserts. It is thick thus it
cannot be poured due to its consistency. It will not whip.
 Whipping cream - it contains 35% of fat, it whips well but it is lighter when whipped. It
is pasteurized. It is used as piping cream and a filling for cakes and pastries. Can also be
a pouring cream.
 Whipped cream - it contains 35% of fat, it has been whipped and it is used in cake
decoration, topping for ice cream, fruit puddings e.t.c.
 Sterilized cream - it contains 23% of fat and it is sterilized
 Single cream - it contains 18% of fat. It is pasteurized. It is used in sauce making and can
be poured over puddings when serving. It does not whip
  Half cream - it contains 12% of fat and it is pasteurized. It is used as pouring cream for
coffee.
 Soured cream – it contains 18% of fat and is pasteurized. It has a piquant refreshing
taste and is used in sweet and savoury dishes e.g. salad dressing
 Aerosol cream – it contains 35% of fat and is UHT. It is used for topping in flans, fruit
and trifle but must be served at once since it collapses after 30 minutes of being released
from the can.

STORAGE OF CREAM
 Keep in the container in which it is delivered.
 Stored in the refrigerator until required
 Be kept covered as it easily absorbs smells from other foods such as onions and fish
 Order fresh cream daily
 Tinned cream should be stored in cool and dry, well ventilated rooms
 Frozen cream should be thawed only as required and not refrozen
 UHT cream keeps for 2-4 months without refrigeration as long as it is not opened.

USES OF CREAM
When adding cream to hot liquids dilute the cream with some of the liquid before adding to the
main bulk this helps to prevent the cream from separating. It is used:-
a) In preparation of hot drinks e.g. speciality coffees
b) In thickening soups
c) In sauces
d) In making batters
e) In making milk custards and egg custards
f) In topping up puddings e.g. trifles and soufflés
g) In bakery products e.g. cakes
h) In making ice creams

NUTRITIVE VALUE
Protein is found in small amounts approx. 2-3%.
Fat is the main source of energy in cream. It includes:-
48% fat – double cream
35% fat – whipping cream
18% fat – single cream
12% fat – half cream
It also contains fat soluble vitamins A and D
Carbohydrates forms 3-4% of the weight of the cream present as lactose
Calcium is also present depending on the fat content. The lower the fat content the higher the
amount of calcium
Retinol, carotene and Vitamin D also depend on the fat content. The higher the fat content the
higher the vitamins, since they are fat soluble.
POINTS TO NOTE IN WHIPPING CREAM
1. The cream must have sufficient fat to enclose air bubbles i.e between 38-42%
2. Homogenized cream does not whip well because fat has been reduced in size
3. The cream should be cooled below 8°c and all equipment used is best kept cool as well.
4. Do not over whip or under whip
5. Don’t overfill the whipping container with cream as it takes longer to form a foam.

2. YOGHURT:
Yoghurt is a curd – like food, prepared from milk fermented by the addition of bacteria known as
yoghurt culture. Fermentation of lactose by these bacteria produces lactic acid which acts on
milk protein to give yoghurt its texture and characteristic. Yoghurt is left plain or it may be
flavored with fruits, sugar, other sweeteners or flavorings. Stabilizers such as gelatin may also be
added.

TYPES OF YOGHURTS
 Stirred yoghurt: This has a smooth fluid consistency.
 Set yoghurt: which is more solid and has a firmer texture

STORAGE OF YOGHURT
 Do not freeze as this will affect the texture and flavour
 Do not mix used potions with fresh one as this may cause cross- contamination
 Store away from strong smelling foods and cover tightly
 For packed yoghurt, once opened use within 3 days
 Keep refrigerated
 Keep in clean containers

USES OF YOGHURT
 As a cold beverage
 In making dips and as an accompaniment to curries
 As a dressing for vegetable salads
 As part of the marinade
 Desserts – with fruits or nuts added and in cheesecakes
 As a substitute for cream or cream fillings
 Toppings
 Garnish for soups
 Bases for cold soups

NUTRITIVE VALUE
It contains:
5% protein of high biological value
Fat
Carbohydrates in form of sugars
Calcium
Potassium and phosphorus
Retinol and carotene
Vitamins B1, B2 and niacin

YOGHURT PRODUCTION
Production process
1. Pasteurization
Milk is pasteurized for 15-30 mins at a temperature 85°c-95°c .
2. Cooling
Milk is then cooled to a temperature between 40-43°c
3. Addition of starter(inoculation)
The quantity of starter added is between 0.5%-2%. This is a mixed culture of lactobacillus
bulgaricus and streptococcus thermophillus.
The streptococci grow and ferment the lactose in milk to give lactic acid, and diacetyl is
produced. Diacetyl gives yoghurt its creamy buttery flavor. Lactic acid production goes on until
pH is 5.5 and the oxygen level in the mixture is reduced. These conditions are ideal for growth of
lactobacillus bulgaricus, which is the organism responsible for the production of acetaldehyde
which contributes to the characteristic flavor of yoghurt.
4. Incubation
The inoculated milk is incubated 4-6 hours at 37°c -44°c or 12 hours at 32°c. The desired level
of acidity is 0.8%-1.8% lactic acid. During incubation the yoghurt thickens because of
coagulation of proteins.
5. Cooling
The yoghurt is cooled to 4.5°c. This helps to reduce further production of lactic acid. It is kept at
this temperature throughout storage and distribution. At these temperature bacteria is retarded in
their activities but are still alive.

The additives added include:-

-Colourings
-Stabilizers and thickeners – to help maintain viscosity during processing to help prevent
separation during transport and storage.
-Emulsifiers
-Preservation in fruit yoghurt e.g. sulphur dioxide and benzoic acid
-Retinol and vitamin D
-Flavouring from fruit
-Sweeteners like sucrose

3. BUTTER:
Butter is produced by churning fresh or fermented cream or milk. One litre of cream or 5 litres of
milk yield approximately one ½ kg butter.
It contains a very high percentage of milk fat and fat soluble vitamins.
It may be salted or unsalted.
Ghee is clarified butter that is brought to higher temperatures of around 120°c after the water
evaporates.
USES:
 As an alternative fat in cooking other foods
 As a flavouring for finished foods
 Butter can be used for making roux for soups and sauces.
 Making of all pastes except suet pastry
 Decorating cold dishes and cocktail savouries,
 Making cakes and butter creams.
 It can be clarified and used for shallow frying of all kinds of food.
 Used as a spread

STORAGE OF BUTTER

 keep away from direct light or air to delay rancidity

 Store away from strong smelling foods and cover tightly
 Keep refrigerated

4. CHEESE
This is a solidfied milk from which much of the water has been removed. It is a byproduct of
milk produced by adding enzyme rennet to acidified milk to cause coagulation. The solids are
then separated from the whey and pressed to form a more compact product.

CLASSIFICATION OF CHEESE

1. Hard cheeses
They are pressed to squeeze out as much of the whey (liquid) as possible. A long period of
ripening is required to develop the full flavor. They are difficult to cut but ideal for grating.
2. Semi-hard cheeses
They are pressed sufficiently to produce a firm, smooth texture that is easy to cut. The ripening
period varies with the type of cheese.
3. Soft cheeses
They are lightly pressed and have a soft spreadable texture that makes them stick to the knife
when cut. They have a short ripening period.
4. Blue-veined cheeses
The open texture of the cheese allows the mould spores which are introduced to grow into
mould and spread throughout the cheese.
5. External-mould cheese
Cheeses with very dry rind may be encouraged to grow certain types of mould on their surface.
If the rind is kept moist, some bacteria may be grown on the rind (skin).
The growth of bacteria or moulds on or in the cheeses will give them characteristic flavor. The
more the cheese is pressed, the lower the water content and the harder the cheese.

PURCHASING
Quality purchasing points
- The skin or rind of cheese should not show spots of mildew, as this is a sign of damp storage.
-All cheeses should have pleasant smell without traces of ammonia, which is associated with an
over-ripe cheese.
-The cut surface should not appear dry and shrunken
-The crust of external-mould cheese should not be dark and sunken or the middle over-runny.

TYPES OF CHEESE
some examples of British cheese
Cheddar: -golden color with a close texture and a fresh mellow nutty flavor
Cheshire: - orange red or white, loose crumbly texture and a mild mellow, slightly salty flavor
Lancashire: - white in color soft and crumbly with a fresh mild flavor

Stilton: - white with blue veins, soft and close texture and a strong flavor

Some examples of French cheese

Roquefort: - blue cheese made from ewe’s milk, rich, sharp flavor with salty aftertaste
Camembert: - white, round with soft, close, creamy texture and full flavor

Some examples of Italian cheese

Mozzarella: - traditionally made from buffalo milk, pale and plastic looking, sweet flavor with a
little bite
Parmesan: - hard, low-fat cheese, grated and used extensively in cooking
Ricotta: - fresh, white, crumbly and slightly sweet, similar to cottage cheese

Some examples of soft curd cheese

Cottage cheese:-a low-fat, high-protein product made from pasteurized skimmed milk; also
available are very low-fat, sweet and savory varieties
Fromage frais:- ( fresh cheese) or fromage blanc is a fat free soft curd cheese to which cream
can be added to give richer varieties; also available in low-fat, medium-fat, savory and fruit
flavors.

STORAGE OF CHEESE
-Store in a cool, dark, dry, well ventilated place
-Keep away from other strong smelling foods
-Keep tightly covered
-Keep refrigerated

FOOD VALUE
-Fat
-Protein
-Mineral salts
-Vitamins

USES
It is used in:
-sandwiches, salads, bar meals, flavouring pastry, soufflés, mousses, sauces, soups, pasta, egg
dishes, garnish for soups, savoury flans, cheesecakes etc.

PRODUCTION OF CHEESE
Rennet is the chief fermenting agent used in cheese making. It is a chemical substance found in
the gastric juice of calf or lamb.
Process:
1. Once the milk has been accepted at the creamery it is pasteurized and then cooled to a
temperature of 31°c.
2. It is then made sour by using a starter (bacteria which produce lactic acid). The lactic acid
acts as a preservative and contributes to the flavor of the cheese.
3. Rennet is added, which causes the milk to curdle.
4. The curds are stirred, warmed and then allowed to settle.
5. The whey(liquid) is run off
6. The curds are ground, salted and put into moulds. If a hard cheese is being made, then
pressure is being applied in order to squeeze out more of the whey.
7. The curds are now put into the special mould and skin or rind is allowed to form.
8. When set, the cheese is removed from the mould and is then kept in a special storage in
order to mature and develop flavor.
During the maturing period it’s kept in a cheese cellar at a temperature of 14°c -15°c.

RULES FOR COOKING CHEESE

The aim is to increase the savoury flavor of cheese and often to use it to improve more insipid
food.
1. Grate the cheese finely
2. Before cooking cheese, mix it with starchy ingredients
3. Have all other ingredients cooked and hot before adding cheese
4. Heat the cheese for the shortest time needed to brown it using a moderate hot grill or hot
oven.
5. Mix half its volume of breadcrumbs mix with grated cheese that is to form a coating of au
gratin. This increase crispness and absorbs fat
6. Never keep a cheese dish hot for more than a few minutes.
PULSES

They are dried edible seeds of plants of the legume family which form pods.
The term pulse is reserved for crops harvested solely for the dry grain. This therefore excludes
green beans and green peas, which are considered as vegetable crops. Also excluded are crops
that are grown mainly for oil extraction (oilseeds like soybeans and peanuts), and crops that are
used exclusively for sowing (e.g. clovers, alfalfa)..

PURCHASING
They are available in their dried state. They are also available cooked and tinned, processed into
flour, fermented into soy sauce, e.t.c.

STORAGE
-They should be kept in clean containers in a dry well-ventilated store.
-Fresh pulses is stored in a refrigerator at a temperature below 5°c
-Store frozen pulses in a freezer at a temperature below -18°c
-Unpack tinned pulses and check that the tins are sound and undamaged

FOOD VALUE
-Pulses are important food crops due to their high protein and essential amino acid content. They
contain 20-25% of proteins, which is double that found in wheat and three times that found in
rice.
-All pulses, except for soya beans very similar in nutritional content. They are rich in protein,
carbohydrate and fibre and low in fat.
-They are also important sources of some B vitamins.
-Fresh pulses contain vitamin C, but this declines after harvesting and virtually all is lost from
dried pulses.
-Pulses also contain iron .

TYPES OF PULSES
1. Beans
Aduki, Black beans, Black-eyed, Broad beans, borlotti, butter beans, cannellini, dutch
brown, flageolet, haricot, mung beans, pinto beans, red kidney beans, Soissons, soy.
2. Peas
Blue, chickpeas, split green, split yellow.
3. Lentils
Larger brown or green lentils retain their shape during cooking and are particularly good
in soups.
Red and yellow lentils cook down well, can be pureed and can be used in Indian cookery.
Puy lentils are tiny green lentils which are distinctive in flavor and also keep their shape
and colour when cooked.
USES OF PULSES
They can be used extensively in a wide range of dishes.
Used in:
-Soups e.g. pulse soup
-Stews e.g. bean goulash
-Salads e.g. haricot bean salad
-Accompaniment to meat dishes
-Vegetarian cookery

PREPARATION AND COOKING

Allow about 55g dry weight per person, once soaked and cooked they will at least double in
weight.
They should be ‘picked’ for stones and grit. They should then be rinsed in cold running water in
a colander.
Some pulses require pre soaking in cold water before cooking. They should be amply covered
with cold water and kept in a cold place. After soaking, salt should not be added before or during
cooking as this causes the pulses to toughen. Salt may be added if required towards the end of
cooking.
Always discard the soaking water, rinse and cook in fresh water without any salt. Changing
water will also help to reduce flatulence.
Some pulses e.g. lentils, green and yellow split peas, black eyed and mung beans do not need
soaking before cooking.
CEREALS
Definition:
-Cereals are cultivated grasses, but the term is broadened to include sago, rice and arrowroot. All
cereal products contain starch, and may have some similar characteristics.
-A cereal is a grass, a member of the monocot family cultivated for the edible component of its
grain. It is composed of endosperm, germ and bran.

Cereals are important in the diet for the following reasons:

-They are pleasant to eat and have no dominant or unpleasant flavor
-They can easily be prepared to a wide variety of products: flour, biscuits, breakfast cereals,
pasta e.t.c.
-They are inexpensive when compared with foods of animal sources
-Ripened grain is easily preserved and transported, keeping in good conditions for many months.
-They contain starch, protein, mineral salts and vitamins.

They are grown for their highly nutritious edible seeds which are known as cereal grains. They
include maize, rice, wheat, rye, barley, oats, millet, sorghum, tapioca, sago and arrowroot flour.

FOOD VALUE
(i) Carbohydrates in cereal grains
The principal nutrient is carbohydrates in form of starch. Most of the starch is found in the inner
part of the grain known as the endosperm. It is therefore present in both wholegrain and refined
cereals.

(ii) Protein in cereal grain

The protein in cereal grains is of lower biological value because only small amounts of some of
the essential amino acids [Link] wheat and many cereals are deficient in amino acid lysine.
Cereal protein also contain smaller amounts of amino acid methionine, tryptophane and
isoleucine than do animal proteins.
Cereal products are frequently eaten with animal protein or pulses to supplement the missing
amino acids.
(iii) Fat in cereal grains
Different types of grains vary in the amount of fat they contain .Oats contain the highest
proportion (8%), in wheat, the fat is mainly found in the germ. Wholemeal and wheatgerm flours
contain 2-3% fat. Maize yields a good oil suitable for cooking.
(iv) Vitamins and Minerals in cereal grains
Cereal grains provide some of the B-group vitamins, esp thiamin and niacin. Small amounts of
riboflavin are also present. There is also vitamin A, C and D in cereals. Cereal grains are also a
useful source of calcium esp. wheat and oats if not processed.
(v) Dietary fiber in cereal grains
The outer areas of cereal grains are less digestible, but are a valuable source of dietary fibre. The
highly refined cereal products are deficient in this fibrous matter.

TYPES OF CEREALS
1) WHEAT
Wheat is grown for milling into flour. The character of the flour depends on how the wheat is
grown and is referred to as being strong, medium or weak.
Wheat flour which has a protein content of more than 10% are known as strong flour and are
used for bread making.
Flour with the protein content of less than 10% are known as weak, soft flour normally used for
cake, biscuit and pastry making.
All wheat flours contain the protein glutenin and gliadin which join together when water is
added to form gluten.
Durum wheat, which is used to make pasta, has high protein content but it is unsuitable for
baking as its gluten is tough and does not stretch.
When making bread the dough should be kneaded thoroughly to develop gluten and increase
elasticity. The addition of salt helps to strengthen the gluten whereas sugar softens it.
Dough improvers such as vitamin C are added to help develop gluten. The weak flour has weak
elasticity and is damaged by over handling.

Structure of a cereal
The wheat grain is a seed and has the following parts:
The germ (2% of the grain) - The embryo plant and is rich in protein, fat and B-vitamins.
The bran (13% of the grain) - contains the seeds coat which protects the developing embryo. It
is mainly fibre with some minerals and B-vitamins.
The endosperm (85% of the grain) - it is the food reserve; composed of starch granules mixed
with protein.

Extraction rate of flour

This is the percentage of the whole grain used in the flour. It includes:
a) Wholemeal flour – contains 100% extraction rate. It’s brown in colour because of bran.
b) White flour – contains 70% of the original grain with most of the bran, germ, fat and
minerals removed.

Advantages of wholemeal flour

1. The nutrient content of the grain is retained
2. The bran provides a valuable source of Non Starch Polysaccharides (NSP)
3. The flour gives pleasant ‘nutty’ flavor to baked items

Disadvantages of wholemeal flour

 1. It does not keep as long as white flour due to its fat
2. It contains phytic acid which may accept the absorption of calcium and iron
3. It does not have such good baking qualities as white flour for pastry and cakes.

c) Self-raising flour – this is white flour which a raising agent has been added into it.

Food value
- They contain starch therefore one of the best energy food
- Wholegrain cereals provide vitamin B and therefore protective food
- Wholemeal flour has protein in the germ and endosperm
- They contain vitamin E, fat and iron in the germ
- Also contain cellulose in the bran
Storage
- The storeroom must be dry and well ventilated
- Flour should be removed from the sacks and kept in bins with lids
- Flour bins should be cleaned regularly

Products of wheat

 Flour e.g whole meal flour, Brown / wheat meal flour: the whole meal flour
Wheat germ flour: where only the germ is milled into flour. Can however keep up to two
weeks.
White flour plain: Where the germ and bran are removed
Self raising flour: usually white flour with raising agent
starch reduced flour:
 Semolina: Where particles of endosperm are ground slightly coarse and gritty. Used for
desserts e.g. semolina pudding
 Pasta: The term used for stiff pastes made of semolina or flour and water and sometimes eggs
are added. The pastes are rolled thinly or extruded into a variety of shapes. The shapes are
dried before cooking.
 Wheat breakfast cereals: Are ready to eat breakfast cereals or snacks. They are produced
from puffed wheat e.g All-Bran cereal, weetabix,

Products made from wheat flour:

- Cakes
- Pastries
- Pancakes
- Breads
- Chapatis
- To thicken eg stews, sauces (roux based)
-
2) RICE
It is the least nutritious of the cereals containing more starch and less protein, fat and minerals
especially white rice where bran and germ has been removed in the process called pearling. If
only the outer husk is removed the rice is sold as brown rice.
The main classifications include:

 Long grain: a narrow, pointed grain suited for savoury dishes and plain boiled because of its
firm structure which helps to keep the rice grain separate after cooking. E.g. patna, basmati
 Medium grain: has round plump grains used in puddings with milk. It is an all purpose rice
suitable for savoury and sweet dishes e.g Arborio, Carolina
 Short grain: short rounded grain best suited for milk puddings and sweet dishes because of
its soft texture e.g Arborio.

Main Types
-Brown rice: has covering removed but retains its bran and as a result is more nutritious
-whole grain rice; whole and unprocessed
-wild rice; seeds of an aquatic plant related to the rice family
-ground rice; this is rice coarsely ground, used for milk puddings
-rice flour; used for thickening certain soups e.g cream soups

-Rice paper- a thin edible paper produced from rice used in the preparation of macaroons, cake
decoration.
-pre-cooked rice
Products: rice breakfast cereal; produced alone or combined with wheat in the puffed form e.g
rice krispies

3. MAIZE
Maize is also known as corn, sweet or corn-on-the-cob and besides served as a vegetable it is
processed into cornflakes and corn flour.
Dry maize is rich in starch thus a cereal. Young green maize can be used as a vegetable and is
rich in fiber e.g. corn-on-cob.

Products of maize.
a) Corn flour’s flour produced from maize which is pure starch used for thickening soups,
sauces, gravies and also a main ingredient in custard powder.
b) Maize breakfast cereals;
Are cereals products made from maize taken for breakfast or as a snack eg corn flakes?
c) Savoury snacks.
Used to produce snack popular with children e.g corn chips
d) Pop corn.
e) Cooking oil: i.e the corn oil
f) Maize flour can be used for porridge, ugali, and can either be whole meal or white flour.
4) OATS
Oats are either rolled into flakes or ground into three grades of oat meal; coarse, medium and
fine. They have a high protein content and fat content compared with other cereals; but no gluten
so oatmeal is unsuitable for breadmaking.

Products of oats
a)rolled oats; bras is removed and the grain is steam treated before being rolled used mainly for
porridge, flapjacks and other biscuits.
b)oatmeal; grain ground into coarse flour after bran is removed used for porridge ,thickening
soups, coating foods, cakes (parkin), biscuits,
c) Oat breakfast cereal products; rolled oats are mainly used as part of other breakfast cereals e.g
muesli

5) RYE
A long thin grain which yields a dark coloured flour. It is lower in protein than wheat flour and
produces close, heavy bread. It is also mixed with wheat flour to produce a variety of dark
breads.

6) BARLEY
Barley is a very hardy cereal but is not grown for flour because of its very low protein content. A
wholegrain of barley is known as pot or scotch barley and require soaking overnight.

Products:
a) Malt extract: for the brewing industry
b) Malt flour: added to wheat flour for malt breads
c) Pearl barley: the endosperm after the bran and husk are removed. Mainly used to thicken
soups and stews.
d) Scotch barley: has only the outer husk removed; it needs long, slow cooking in stews and
broths.
e) Barley water: Is a refreshing drink (pearl barley soaked in water) often flavored with lemon
or oranges.

7) MILLET
It is in a group of highly variable small seeded grasses. It is high in protein, rich in amino acid,
high in B- complex vitamins, gluten free, easy to digest, high in fiber and minerals eg iron, zinc,
calcium, magnesium.
Used as a breakfast cereal in form of porridge, can be used to enrich soups and stews, can be part
of stuffing’s.

8) SORGHUM
Sorghum is high in fiber and iron with a high protein level rich in antioxidants which helps lower
risks of cancers, diabetes and heart diseases

Used as a breakfast cereal in form of porridge, can be used to enrich soups and stews, can be
part of stuffing’s, and in production of beer.

Others: Are classified under cereals but are not necessarily of cereal origin.
i) Tapioca: Obtained from the roots of a tropical plant called cassava. Used in milk
puddings and garnishing soups.
ii) Sago: Produced in small pellets from the pith of the sago palm. Used for making milk
puddings.
iii) Arrow root flour: Obtained from the roots of maranta plant. This powder is suitable since
it is clear/ transparent when boiled. It can be used instead of corn flour when a clear gel is
required e.g in fruit flan. Can also be used to enrich cakes and puddings.
iv) Potato flour: A preparation of potatoes suitable for thickening certain soups and sauces.

STORAGE OF CEREALS AND PRODUCTS

 Flour: Storeroom must be dry and well ventilated. Flour should be removed from sacks and
kept in wheeled bins with lids. Old flour should not be mixed with new.
NB. Storage time varies according to the amount of fat present in the flour.

 Oats: should be kept in containers with tight fitting lids and stored in a cool well
ventilated storeroom. Care should be taken because of its high fat content.
 Rice: should be kept in tight fitting containers in a cool well ventilated store.
 Arrow root: easily contaminated by strong smelling foods therefore must be stored in air-
tight tins.
 Breakfast cereals: are packed in sealed bags inside their cartons. After opening, carefully fold
down inside the carton to preserve crispness and freshness.
 Whole cereals should be stored in a well ventilated cool dry place. They absorb moisture in a
damp place and may go mouldy. Store in containers with well fitting lids to prevent mites,
rodents and other insects

Purchasing specification:
Buy cereals when they are being harvested if possible since they are fresh. Buy from a reliable
supplier.

Cereals should be nicely selected from any foreign objects and pests to avoid food hazards.
Avoid wet and torn packagings for those in packets / sacks
Check on the expiry date for the packaged products and try to establish the season for the other
cereals especially if from an open air market.
VEGETABLES
In culinary terms, a vegetable is an edible plant or its part, intended for cooking or eating raw.

Uses
 As an accompaniment to the main dish of meat, fish, poultry etc
 In their own right as vegetable course
 As a base for many different types of soups
 As a flavouring in soups, stews, sauces etc
 Raw and cooked as a salad ingredient
 As an attractive and decorative garnish item
 As a valuable source of nutrients for vegetarians

Vegetables are classified according to the part of the plant they belong/represent e.g.
Above the ground - Fruits and seeds
- Flower bud
- Leaves
- Stems and shoots
- Brassicas
Below the ground - Tubers
- Bulbs
- Roots
Roots
Beetroot, carrots, celeriac, horseradish, mooli, parsnips, radish, salsify, scorzonera, swedes,
turnips.
Tubers
Jerusalem, artichokes, potatoes, sweet potatoes, yams.
Bulbs
Garlic, leeks, onions, shallots, spring onions
Leafy
Chicory, Chinese leaves, corn salad, lettuce, mustard and cress, radiccio, sorrel, spinach, Swiss
chard, watercress.
Brassicas
Broccoli, Brussels sprouts, cabbage, Calabrese, cauliflower, curly kale, spring onions
Pods And Seeds
Broad beans, butter or Lima beans, runner beans, mange-tout, okra, peas, sweet corn
Fruiting
Aubergine, avocado, courgette, cucumber, goulds, marrow, pepper, pumpkin, squash, tomatoes.
Stems And Shoots
Asparagus, beans, cardoon, celery, endive, globe artichokes, kohlrabi, sea kale.
Mushrooms And Fungi
Ceps, chanterelles, horn of plenty, morels, cultivated mushrooms, shitake mushrooms.
FOOD VALUE
Roots vegetables contain starch, or sugar for energy a small but valuable amount of protein,
some mineral salts and vitamins. They are also useful sources of cellulose and water. Green
vegetables are rich in minerals salts and vitamins, particularly vitamin C and carotene. The
greener the leaf the larger the quantity of vitamins present. The chief mineral salts are calcium
and iron.
Vegetables are eaten in a variety of ways, as part of main meals and as snacks. The nutritional
content of vegetables varies considerably though generally they contain little protein or fat and
varying proportions of vitamins A, vitamin K, vitamin B6, provitamins dietary minerals and
carbohydrates.
Some vegetables also contain fiber, important for gastrointestinal function.
Vegetables contain important nutrients necessary for healthy hair and skin as well.
A person who refrains from dairy and meat products and eats only plants is known as a vegan.
Diets containing recommended amounts of vegetables may help lower the risk of heart diseases
and type 2 diabetes. These diets may also protect against some cancers and decrease bone loss.
The potassium provided by vegetables may help prevent the formation of kidney stones.

DIETARY RECOMMENDATIONS
The USDA Dietary guidelines recommend consuming 3 to 5 serving of vegetables daily.
These recommendations can vary based on age, gender, and is determined based upon standard
portions sizes typically consumed as well as general nutritional content. Most of vegetables are
serving is equal to half cup and be eaten raw or cooked.
I.e. for leafy greens such as lettuce and spinach a single serving is typically one cup.

PURSHASING REQUIREMENTS
The purchasing of vegetables is affected by,
The perishability nature of products.
Varying availability owing to seasonal fluctuation and supply and demand.
The effects of preservation e.g. freezing, drying, canning vegetables.
Fresh vegetables are living organisms and will lose quality quickly if not properly stored and
handled.
Automation in harvesting and packaging speed the handling process and helps retain quality.

THE ECC VEGETABLE QUALITY GRADING SYSTEM.

Extra class produces of the highest quality.
Class 1 produce of good quality
Class 2 produce of reasonably good quality
Class 3 produce of low market quality.

Roots
Root vegetables must be clean, free from soil, firm, not soft or spongy, Sound, Free from
blemishes of even shape.
Beetroot
The whiskery roots should not be broken; some stalk should remain on top.
Carrots
Avoid woody or limp carrots
Kohlrabi
Buy when about the size of an orange, large root can be tough.
Parsnips
Choose even-Sized crisp looking parsnips; avoid spongy or brown marked specimens.
Radish
Should be crisp and unblemished, avoid if spongy
Salsify
Choose smooth, tapered firm roots, avoid if flabby, leaves should be green-grey.
Swede
Avoid if blemished by spongy patches, holes or marks made by spade.
Turnips
Reject if spongy or blemished by holes, spots or brown patches.
Bulbs
Leeks
Stems should be straight and unblemished, reject any with a strong smell and hard yellow stalk
or leaves.
Onions
Look for firmness, skins should be papery, avoid slimy skins.
Tubers
Jerusalem artichokes
Look for the smoothest shaped specimens, the very knobbly ones are wasteful.
Potatoes
Reject if green or indented with deep eyes
Sweet potatoes
Avoid if damaged, should be firm and bright in color.
Yams
Avoid if damaged.
Shoots
Bamboo shoots
Retain crispness despite canning, canned often used in preference to fresh for convenience.
Stems
Asparagus
Should be uniform size with well-formed heads, tastes bitter if stale, avoid if dry or wilted.
Celery
Stems should be firm and plump at base, not bruised, leaves should not be droopy.
Fennel
Reject if limp or bruised.
Leaves
Green vegetables must be absolutely fresh and have leaves bright in color, crisp and not wilted
in addition.
Brussels sprouts
Each sprout should be firm and compact, avoid if strong smelling or if outer leaves are yellow.
Choose firm, crisp heads with close packed leaves, reject if discolored, damaged or curling at
edges.
Chinese leaves
Leaf edges should not be wilted or fawn-streaked.
Curly kale and Endive
Avoid if the leaves are limp or turning yellow.
Lettuce
Choose cabbage with fresh bright leaves, avoid if hearts have yellow or brown patches or if
underside is covered with slime.
Should feel solid, outer leaves should not be limp or brown marked.
Mustard and Cress
Avoid if droopy, buy when stalks are about 9CM long.
Spinach/spring greens
Should be bright green and crunch and squeak when handled, avoid if limp, use on day of
purchase.
Watercress.
Avoid if limp or yellow in color and flowering.
Flowers
Broccoli
Should have small fresh-looking heads with brittle stalks that snap easily.
Cauliflower
Look for firm leaves and head with creamy white flower buds, avoid if odour is strong or head
colored brown or grey
Fruits and seeds.
Artichoke (Globe)
Choose specimens with stiff leaves and slight bloom.
Aubergine
Look for skins that are bright and shiny, avoid if wrinkled or bruised.
Broad beans
If they are to be eaten whole, choose young beans with pods 5-7cm long, larger beans need to be
shelled.
Courgettes
If very small 5 cm long can be cooked whole, if large, slice into rings, best used on day of
purchase
Cucumber
Choose cucumbers that are straight with a clear bloom on the skin.
French beans
Buy when young and crisp
Baby marrow
Avoid large marrows because they tend to lack flavor and have coarse flesh and tough skin, the
skin should have a dull bloom.
Lady’s fingers (okra)
Buy when young otherwise tough and stringy, avoid brownish colored ones, and pick smallest
and brightest ones.
Peas
Look for small, green plump pods, avoid if pods are wet.
Peppers
Choose specimens with smooth, glossy skins; avoid any with wrinkles or brown patches.
Pumpkin
Should be bought whole because once cut the flavor diminishes and mould appears very quickly
Runner beans
Avoid if tough and stringy, misshapen or pitted with brown or black, if fresh a runner bean
will snap between the fingers.
Sweet corn
Best eaten the day it is picked, cobs should be plump and enclosed by bright green stiff leaves,
tassels at the top should be black and withered.
Tomatoes
Should be firm with unwrinkled skin, the color should be bright.
Fungi
Mushrooms
Avoid if brownish looking or slimy.

PRESERVATION OF VEGETABLES
It is now a relatively common practice to bottle vegetables and herbs and spices in either oil,
vinegar or a mixture of both.
Food preservation usually involves preventing the growth of bacteria, fungi such as yeast or any
other micro-organisms as well as retarding the oxidation of fats that cause rancidity. Food
preservation also include process that inhibit visual deterioration such as the enzymatic browning
i.e. Reaction in apples after they are cut which can occur during food preparation.
Methods of preservation
 Freezing
 Canning
 Pickling
 Drying
 Dehydration
 Salting
1) Freezing
Is to pass from the liquid to the solid state by loss of heat or to acquire on surface or coat of ice
from cold. Many vegetables keep well in freezer when blanched and frozen soon after harvesting
this can be the best method for retaining nutrients as well as color, texture, and flavor. Most
vegetables can last 8-12weeks in freezer.
Basic tips for freezing vegetables.
Freeze food immediately after packaging.
Keep freezer temperature at 00F or lower you can set your freezer control for 100F degrees F, the
day before freezing to speed the process.
Don’t try to pack your freezer with unfrozen produce
This will only lower the temperature in the frozen and lengthen the time need for the produce to
chill.
2) Canning
Canning is the process of sealing food in cans or tins to preserve it.
Vegetables with a bough water content, like tomatoes, mushrooms, beans and peaches but it is
essential you follow canning guidelines to the latter. Certain vegetables are preserved in tins e.g
artichokes, asparagus, carrots, celery, beans, tomatoes either whole or puree, mushrooms.

Some basic tips in preserving vegetables by canning:

Choose only disease free vegetables and wash them well before processing
Use clean jars and new seal lids
Process in boiling water or a pressure canner for specified amount of time.

3) Drying
Drying vegetables is also very easy process and can be done without any special equipment or
speeded up by using the oven or dehydration. e.g the seeds of legumes have the moisture content
reduced to 10%.
Basic tips for drying vegetables.
Be sure the fruits and vegetables are fully mature and disease free.
Provide good air circulation while drying to prevent spoilage.
Don’t rush the process; partially dried vegetables won’t last long.
4) Pickling
To preserve or flavour in a solution of brine or vinegar.
Cucumbers come to mind when we think of pickling, but many vegetables and fruits can
preserved in this manner. Onions and red cabbage are examples of vegetables preserved in
spiced vinegar.
Some basic tips for pickling vegetables
Always follow a tested recipe even in vinegar, spoilage can happen. Canning pickled products by
boiling water methods further stops spoilage.
5) Dehydration – the process of removing water from a substance or compound.
Onions, carrots, potatoes and cabbage are shredded and quickly dried until they
contain only 5% water.
6) Salting- To preserve vegetables by treating with salt or salt solution. French and
runner beans may be sliced and preserved in dry salt.

STORAGE
Store all the vegetables in a cool dry well ventilated room at an even temperature of 4-8 c (39-
46F) which will help to minimize spoilage. Check vegetables daily and discard any that are
unsound.
Remove root vegetables from their sacks and store in bins or racks.
Store green vegetables on well ventilated racks.
Store salad vegetables in a cool place and leave in their containers.
Store frozen vegetables at -18C or (00F) or below keep a check on use by dates, damaged
packages and any sign of freezer bun.
The fresher the vegetables the better the flavor so ideally they should not be stored at all.
However as in many case storage is necessary. Then it should be for the shortest time possible.
Green vegetables lose vitamin C quickly if they are bruised, damaged, stored for too long or
overcooked.
To prevent bacteria from raw vegetables passing on to cooked vegetables, store them in separate
areas.
Thaw out frozen vegetables correctly and never refreeze them once they have thawed out.

RULES FOR PREPARATION AND COOKING GREEN VEGETABLES.

[Link] all vegetables as fresh as possible and gathered when young or just mature for maximum
value and for the best flavor.
2. Soak the vegetable to drown and float any caterpillars or slugs for not more ten 10minutes in
cold water to which salt has been added to slow up the absorption of vitamins and minerals.
NB flies are more easily floated in unsalted water.
3. Rinse them thoroughly to remove all the above pests.
4. Discard only the fibrous or withered parts. Dark outer leaves contain more vitamins.
5. Shred or slice hard and large vegetables with sharp knife. A blunt knife will crash cells and
release oxidase enzymes which will destroy vitamin. The shredded vegetable takes shorter time
to cook thus saving nutrients.

PREPARATION OF VEGETABLES
Techniques used:
Peeling
This is the removal of outer skin of a vegetable using a peeler or a small knife according to the
thickness of the skin.
Cutting
This is using a knife to divide vegetables into required shapes and sizes
Slicing
This is cutting vegetables into rings
Dicing
This is cutting vegetables into small cubes
Grating
This is using grater to cut vegetables into various sizes
Cubing
This is cutting vegetables into cubes of various sizes

Presenting vegetables
Vegetables can either be:-
Glazed with butter e.g buttered carrots/glazed carrots
Presented with a sauce e.g carrots in cream sauce
Served as a salad e.g tomato and cucumber salad

Cuts of vegetables
1. Julienne(strips)
Cut the vegetables into 2cm lengths
Cut the lengths into slices
Cut the slices into strips
Double the length gives a long julienne for garnishing
2. Brunoise(small dice)
Cut the vegetables into convenient sized lengths
Cut the lengths into 2mm slices
Cut the slices into 2mm strips
Cut the strips into 2mm squares
3. Macedoine(1/2cm dice)
Cut the vegetables into convenient sized lengths
Cut the lengths into 1/2cm slices
Cut the slices into 1/2cm strips
Cut the strips into1/ 2cm squares
4. Jardiniere(batons)
Cut the vegetables into 1.5cm lengths
Cut the lengths into 3mm slices
Cut the slices into batons(3x3x15mm)
5. Paysanne
There are four methods of cutting paysanne.
The shape of the vegetable determines the method to use.
All are cut thinly
1 cm sided triangles
1 cm sided squares
1 cm diameter rounds
1 cm diameter rough-sided rounds
6. Concassee
This is roughly chopped (e.g skinned and deseeded tomatoes are roughly chopped for many food
preparations)
FRUITS
DEFINITION
This is the edible seed bearing portion of some cultivated or wild shrubs, trees and plants.
‘Fruit’ means the fleshly seed – associated structures of plant that are sweet or sour and edible in
raw state, such as apples, oranges, grapes, bananas and lemons.
Fruits can be available as fresh, frozen, canned, dried or crystallized.
Fruits are vey important commodities in our daily diet for the following reasons: -
 They provide fiber and bulk to the diet.
 They make a meal more attractive because of their interesting colours and textures.
 Fresh fruits provide approximately 90% of the vitamin C in the diet.

CLASSIFICATION OF FRUITS
They can be classified into: -
1. Soft/Berry fruits
They have a fragile cell structure.
Some of the fruits which fall under berry are: -
Black berries Black currant
Cranberries Goose berries
Grapes Raspberries
Red currant Straw berries
NB: Some of berry fruits fall under the class of dried fruits which include sultanas, currants,
raisins, dates and prunes.

2. Citrus fruits
They have a tough leathery pad which surrounds a succulent juicy mass of segments. Some have
seeds and others don’t.
Some of the fruits which fall under citrus are: -
Grape fruit Lemons
Oranges Tangerines

3. Fleshly fruits
They may be seedless or have seeds throughout the flesh or in a centre core.
Some of the fruits which fall under fleshly are: -
Apples Bananas
Kiwi Melon
Water melons Papaya
Pineapple Pears
Pomegranates Passion fruits

4. Stone fruits
They have a single seed which is surrounded by a fleshy portion.
Some of the fruits which fall under fleshly are: -
Apricots Avocado pears
Cherries Dates
Mango Peach
Plums
5. Tropical fruits
They include dates, figs, guavas, mangoes, passion fruit, pawpaw, etc.

6. Hard fruits
They have a crispy flesh. They include: apples and pears. They are used for garnishing meat
dishes and for sauce e.g apple sauce

7. Melons
Include honeydew, charentais, cantaloupe, ogen

FOOD VALUE
 Eating fruits provides healthy benefits to the consumers.
 People who eat more fruits as part of an overall healthy diet are likely to have a reduced
risk of some chronic diseases.
 The nutritive value of fruits depends on its vitamins content especially vitamin C.
therefore they are valuable as protective food.
 Eating fruits protects against certain types of cancers.
There are vitamins obtained from these fruits.
 Vitamins are organic food substances found only in living things, that is plants and
animals.
 They are essential for our bodies to function properly.
 For growth, energy and for the general well being.
 With very few exceptions, the human bodies cannot manufacture or synthesize vitamins.
They must be supplied in our diet or in man-made dietary supplements.

Vitamin A
Fruit source
Cantaloupes Grape fruit
Guava Tomatoes
Mango Papaya
Passion fruit Water melon

Vitamin B1 (Thiamine)
Fruit source
Avocado Dates
Grapes Guava
Mango Orange
Pine apple

Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin)
Sources
Avocado Banana Dates Grapes
Mango Passion fruit Pomegranate Prickly pear
Vitamin B3 (Niacin)
Fruit source
Avocado Mango
Dates Passion fruit
Guava Peach

Vitamin B5 (Pantothenic acid).

Sources
Avocado Gooseberry Pomegranate
Black currant Grape fruit Raspberries
Dates Guava Water melon

Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine)
Fruit sources
Avocado Gooseberry Mango
Banana Grapes Passion fruit
Dates Guava Pineapple
Water melon Pomegranate

Vitamin 9 (Folate / Folic acid)

Fruit source
Avocado Mango Pineapple
Black berry Orange Pomegranate
Dates Pawpaw Raspberries
Guava Passion fruit Strawberries

Vitamin C
Fruit source
Black currants Kiwi Orange Pineapple
Grape fruit Lemon Pawpaw Strawberries
Guava Mango Passion fruit

Vitamin E .
Sources
Avocado Guava Peach
Blackcurrant Kiwi Pomegranate
Blue berries Mango Raspberries
Cranberries Pawpaw (among others)

Vitamin K
Fruit sources
Avocado Cranberries Mango Pomegranate
Black berries Grapes Pear Raspberries
Blueberries Kiwi Plum Tomatoes
Minerals
Some fruits supply a small amount of iron and calcium, plus some trace elements.
Sources
Avocado Bananas Cantaloupe
Cherries Apple Pineapples
Kiwi is a good source of potassium and magnesium.

Other nutrients
 Most fruits are naturally low in fat, sodium and calories. None have cholesterol.
 Fruits are sources of many essential nutrients that are under-consumed including
potassium, dietary fiber, vitamin C and folate (folic acid).
 Diets rich in potassium help maintain healthy blood pressure. Fruit sources of potassium
include bananas, prunes, prune juice, dried peaches and apricots, honeydew melon and
orange juice.
 Dietary fiber from fruits as part of an overall healthy diet helps reduce blood cholesterol
levels and may lower risk o heart disease.

PURCHASING REQUIREMENTS OF FRUITS

The following points should be adhered to when purchasing fresh fruits
1. Clean, free from traces of pesticides and fungicides
2. Free from external moisture
3. Whole and of fresh appearance (for maximum flavor – the fruit must be ripe but not
overripe).
4. Firm according to the type and variety
5. Free from any unpleasant foreign smell or taste
6. Free from pests or diseases
7. Sufficiently mature must be capable of being handled and travelling without damage.
8. Free from any defects characteristics of the variety in shape size and colour.
9. Free of bruising and any other damage due to weather conditions. E.g. soft fruits deteriorate
quickly; especially if not sound therefore care must be taken to see that they are not damaged
or overripe when purchased. They should look fresh and no signs of wilting, shrinking or
mould.
 Colour of certain soft fruits is an indication of ripeness e.g. strawberries or dessert
gooseberries.

PRESERVATION
Preservation involves preventing the growth of bacteria, fungi such as yeasts or any other micro-
organisms.
There are several points to be considered in preservation of fruits. These include:
 Safety for health
 Nutritive value
 Appetizing appearance
 Conditions that make fruit deteriorate and decay
The organisms that develop in fruit are not usually dangerous, as they are mainly moulds and
yeasts. The appearance of the preserved food and the flavor are most important and an attractive
colour often indicates that the correct method of preservation has been used.
Causes of spoilage
Fruits will decay if left to become overripe. For this reason they should be preserved in their
prime condition before decay has set in.
Decay may also be due to the development of micro-organisms; these are yeasts, moulds or
bacteria. These being living cells, require certain conditions for growth and to preserve food /
fruits, this growth must be prevented.

METHODS OF PRESERVATION
1. Drying
This is an action or process of making or becoming dry. Examples of fruits that can be preserved
by drying include apples, pears, apricot, dates, peaches, bananas and figs. Plums when dried are
called prunes, and currants, sultanas and raisins are produced by drying grapes.

2. Canning
This is a process of sealing food in cans / tins to preserve it. Almost all fruits may be canned;
apples – they are packed in water and known as solid packed apples; other fruits are canned in
syrup.
3. Quick freezing
This is process of passing from the liquid to solid state by loss of heat i.e. to be killed or harmed
by cold or frost. Examples of fruits preserved by this method include strawberries, raspberries,
loganberries, apples, blackberries, gooseberries, grapefruit and plums. They must be kept below
00 C (320F).
4. Bottling
This method is used domestically, but very little fruit is commercially preserved in this way;
cherries are bottled in maraschino.
5. Candied, glace and crystallized fruits are mainly imported from France.
They are put in high concentration of sugar and allowed to dry
6. Jam
Some stone fruits and all soft fruits can be used.
7. Jelly
They are produced from fruit juice
8. Cold storage
Apples are stored at a temperature between 1-40C

STORAGE OF FRUITS
There are different methods of storage that depends on the type of fruits to be stored.
Cold storage
Apples are stored at temperatures of between 1-40C (34 – 390F), depending on the variety of
apple.
Gas storage
Fruits can be kept in a sealed storeroom where the atmosphere is controlled; the amount of air is
limited, the oxygen content of the oar is decreased and the carbon dioxide increased, which
control the respiration rate of the fruit.
i. Hard fruits e.g. apples are left in boxes and in a cool ventilated store.
 ii. Soft fruits e.g. raspberries and strawberries should be left in their punnets or baskets in a
cold room or a refrigerator as they deteriorate rapidly warm weather.
iii. Stone fruits – Best placed in trays so that any damages fruit can be seen and discarded.
iv. Peaches and citrus fruits are left in their delivery trays or boxes.
v. Bananas should not be stored in too cold a place because their skin turns black

USES OF FRUITS
With the exception of certain fruits like lemon, cranberries, fruits can be eaten as a desert or in its
raw state. Some fruits have desert and cooking varieties e.g. apples, pears, cherries and
gooseberries.
It can be eaten raw
Can be served as a starter
Can be served as a dessert
Can be made into ice cream
Eaten as a snack
Used as a garnish
Used to produce wide range of cakes, pastries and dessert

Tropical fruits
Bananas – As well as being used as a desert they are grilled for a fish garnish, fried for fritters
and sieved a garnish to poultry. They are also used in fruit salad and other sweet dishes e.g.
banana flan and a garnish for chicken Maryland.
Dates – Whole dates are served as a desert.
Guavas – They can be eaten with cream or mixed with other fruits.
Mangoes – Ripe fresh mangoes have smooth pinky – golden flesh (apple) with a pleasing
flavour. They may also be yellow-orange in colour. They are serves in halves sprinkled with
lemon juice, sugar, rum or ginger. They can also be used in fruit salad.
Pawpaw – It is eaten when ripe with lime or lemon juice.
Grapes – Black and white grapes are used as a desert in fruit salad and as a fish garnish.
Melons – Care must be taken when buying melons because they should not be over or under
ripe. This can be caused by carful pressing the top or bottom of the fruit. The stalk should be
attached otherwise the melon deteriorates quickly.

Cooking fruits
Wash gently and quickly, never soak them
Avoid crushing fruit before cooking
Stew for the minimum of time in the minimum of water covered.
If fruit is required whole, dissolve sugar in the cooling water, it may prevent it from breaking in
the syrup or water.
Sieve all the juice in the fruit.