Food Science and Engineering

[Link]

Review

A Comprehensive Review: Exploring Bioactive Compounds of Citrus

Fruit Peels for Therapeutic and Industrial Applications

Soumi Chakraborty1 , Komal Goel1, Vaibhavi Rasal2, Kaninika Paul2 , Dibyakanti Mandal3*
1
Amity Institute of Food Technology, Amity University, Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India
2
MIT School of Food Technology, MIT-ADT University Pune, Maharashtra, India
3
Amity Institute of Biotechnology, Amity University, Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India
E-mail: dkmandal2000@[Link]

Received: 13 June 2024; Revised: 4 November 2024; Accepted: 13 November 2024

Abstract: Citrus fruit peel has recently been highlighted as one of the major wastes and by-products of the citrus
industry, which offers a plethora of health benefits and industrial uses. In addition to the common micronutrients
present in the whole fruits (including carbohydrates, fibre, vitamin C, potassium, folate, calcium, thiamin, niacin,
vitamin B6, phosphorus, magnesium, copper, riboflavin, and pantothenic acid), albeit in different proportions, citrus
peels contain high amounts of pectin, vitamin C, and phytochemicals. The major phytochemicals present in citrus fruit
peel include phenolic acids (caffeic, p-coumaric, ferulic, and sinapic acid), flavanones (naringin and hesperidin), and
polymethoxylated flavones (nobiletin and tangeretin), which are important bioactive compounds. The phytochemical
and therapeutic efficacies of citrus fruit waste are documented in several early studies; however, detailed information on
the industrial uses of these bioactive components is limited. This article aims to highlight recent advancements in the
diverse range of applications of citrus fruit peel, including its use as a natural flavouring, an essential oil, and a source
of dietary fibre in preventing metabolic and infectious diseases. Moreover, this review discusses the processing methods
(drying and extraction) of citrus fruit peel for industrial uses, offering insights that enhance the understanding of the
importance of citrus fruit peel not only as a by-product but also as a substance of immense value to human health.

Keywords: bioactive compounds, cirus fruit peel, therapeutics, industrial uses

1. Introduction
Citrus fruits, such as oranges, lemons, and grapefruits, are widely consumed throughout the world for their
delicious taste and high nutritional value. These fruits are rich sources of vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants, which
are essential for maintaining good health. While the juice of these fruits is typically the primary product, the peel is
often discarded as waste by food processing industries. After processing, citrus fruits generate a large number of by-
products such as peel, pulp, and seeds, which used to be considered waste. Approximately, 70% of all fresh citrus fruits
are consumed by food manufacturing industries, with nearly 50-60% of harvested fruit being converted into fruit wastes
such as peel, seed, and cell residues [1].
Present knowledge indicates that citrus fruit-derived nutraceuticals are potential natural sources of anti-
carcinogenicity, anti-allergenicity, and anti-aging biochemicals, as well as important constituents in synthetic

Copyright ©2024 Dibyakanti Mandal, et al.

DOI: [Link]
This is an open-access article distributed under a CC BY license
(Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License)
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Food Science and Engineering 54 | Dibyakanti Mandal, et al.

antioxidants [2]. During the COVID pandemic and before any vaccine was developed, a higher intake of citrus fruit
nutraceuticals was recommended to boost individual’s immunity [3], which increased the industrial uses of citrus fruit
pulp and thereby led to an increase of citrus waste [4]. These by-products are rich in bioactive ingredients such as
essential oils, dietary fibre, flavonoids, vitamin C, pectin, carotenoids, hesperidin, limonin, and phenolic compounds,
which have antimicrobial, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antidiabetic, cytotoxic, and anti-obesity properties and are
important raw materials in the chemical and pharmaceutical industries. Composition of these ingredients may be similar
to fruit pulp but concentration may differ [5-7].
Previously, industries used to discard the waste of citrus peel, but through expert knowledge and hard work that
waste has been made useful through proper processing. Earlier studies characterized the chemical composition of
bioactive compounds of citrus fruit peel and identification of more such components are underway [8]. That information
will be beneficial to formulate healthy food products [9] or useful pharmaceuticals. Apart from nutritional values
and health benefits, citrus fruit peels are found to have huge industrial importance such as in the pharmaceutical and
cosmetic industries. The uses of Citrus fruit peels are extended to the production of packaging material [10], large-scale
natural dyes [11-13], low-cost paper, etc. Given its versatility, abundance, and cost-effectiveness, orange-peel products
may significantly contribute to sustainable agriculture waste management practices, and various industries such as food
and cosmetics [14].
Articles published in the recent past have provided information about the bioactive compound present in citrus
fruit and peels, and their in vitro and in vivo bioactivities, however, the detailed industrial uses of the peels, challenges
in the processing, future uses of these value-added products still need to be discussed. In the present review, the authors
have focused on filling these gaps in knowledge and pragmatically reviewed the recent research study findings on the
important use of citrus fruit peels. This review may help in further understanding of infinite benefits of citrus fruit peels
towards health, environment, and inexpensive and useful industrial products.

2. Origin of citrus fruits

The botanical name and family name of the citrus fruits are mentioned in Table 1 [15]. Citrus fruits have several
distinct characteristics that set them apart from other types of fruits. Here are some of the key characteristics of citrus
fruits:
(1) Citrus fruits have a thick rind or peel that surrounds the edible fruit. The rind is often rich in essential oils and
can be used in various applications such as flavorings, fragrances, and medicine.
(2) The flesh of citrus fruits is typically juicy and acidic, with a sour or tart taste. However, some varieties can be
sweet, depending on the balance of sugars and acids.
(3) Citrus fruits are high in vitamins and minerals, particularly vitamin C, which is an important antioxidant that
helps to boost the immune system and protect against various diseases.
The peel of citrus fruits is considered an important raw material from the food processing industry [16]. It has
abundant nutrients, essential oils, and phenolic acids, representing a valuable resource. Rather than being discarded
as waste during fruit processing, these residues can be repurposed as a potential nutraceutical source, offering
environmental benefits [17]. Peel represents about 30% of the total fresh fruit weight [18]. The citrus peel has two
layers i.e., flavedo (the outer orange layer) and albedo, the inner layer. Of these two layers, the flavedo consists of small
oil glands from which the oil is extracted and used by the pharmaceutical industry in the manufacturing of perfumes,
cosmetics, and the like.

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 Table 1. Characteristics of citrus fruits [19, 20]

Colour, Other Industrial uses and

Fruit shape and texture Bioactive compound characteristics Therapeutic activity market scenario Reference

Stomach upset, cough,

skin inflammation, muscle
pain, and ringworm
infections, as well as
Orange to reddish- for lowering blood
Organic acids, sugars,
orange. Mild and strong pressure. Now at present,
and amino acids,
Small to large, it is used widely in
carotenoids, flavor, seedless Jams, biscuits,
Mandarin circular to flattened. medicinal activities
polyphenols, to seed cookies and [21-23]
(Citrus reticulata) Smooth surface but like anticancer, anti-
flavonoids, (3-7 seeds), madeleines.
sometimes it has inflammation, wound
phenolic acids, small and plump.
pebbled, orange- healing activity,
and limonoids.
coloured surface. modulation of
bone density, anti-
atherosclerotic agents,
neuropharmacological
activities and antiaging.

Yellow-orange. Navel-like
Obovate or Flavanone glycosides Type 2 diabetes. Essential
Navel orange structure, at the
ellipsoid. (FGs) and oil suppresses triple Biscuits. [23-25]
(Citrus sinensis) stylar end, or
Moderately pitted polymethoxyflavones. negative breast cancer.
apex.
and pebbled.

The presence
Yellow to Produce animal
of a green or
yellow-orange. Essential oils, feed, confectionary,
yellowish-green
Globose but oval to flavonoids, bakery products,
carotenoids, steroids, calyx and a button
Sweet orange ellipsoid. Antimicrobial and beverages, biofuels,
at the stem end [26, 27]
(Citrus Sinensis) Finely pitted but terpenoids, alkane antioxidant. biodegradable
of the orange
smooth, thin to groups, and ethyl polymers and
indicates the
medium-thick, and esters. remediation of
freshness of
firm and leathery. contaminated soils.
the fruit.

Food ingredient with

nutritional, antioxidant,
and antibacterial
Antioxidant,
Flavonoids (e.g., properties. Film
antimicrobial,
diosmin, hesperidin, matrixes or active
Green to bright Seedless to seedy. antidiabetic, anti-
limocitrin) and constituents for food
yellow. The nipple is obesogenic, lipid-
phenolic acids (e.g., packaging or edible
Lemon Varies in size prominent and lowering, anti-colitic,
ferulic, synapic, large in some anti-arthritic, antiurolithic, coatings. Application [28]
(Citrus limon) and shape. p-hydroxybenzoic into bioremediation
Rind is thick to varieties, while anti-fatigue, ameliorating as
acids). The essential removers of heavy
smooth in texture. some have small. disuse muscle atrophy,
oil (D-limonene, metals and dyes and
skin protection and
β-pinene, γ-terpinene). into aquaculture as
prebiotic properties. beneficial constituents
of fish diet is also
promising.

The flesh is firm

Green to yellow- and crisp, juice
colored surface Polyphenols, vesicles are
when mature. flavonoids, phenolic
Large to very large, separable, and Sugar pickled pomelo
Pomelo acids, carotenoids,
round to oval in the core is open peels, honey pomelo
(Citrus grandis) triterpenoids, Prevents obesity. [29]
shape, and born and hollow. Pink tea, jam and wholemeal
phytosterols,
singly. fleshed, seeded to of pomelo peels.
carbohydrates, seedless, and the
Rind is thick to very coumarins. flavor is mild to
thin and smooth. strong.

Yellow to pink The flesh is white

blushed. and tender/melting
Medium to large Vitamins C, E, A, with a central core
in size and oblate that is usually
phenolic compounds
to spherical in open, born in
Grapefruit (flavonoids, phenolic No such therapeutic use
shape. Slightly clusters, and Mosquito repellent. [30]
(Citrus paradise) acids and coumarins), seeded is available yet.
depressed from to seedless,
carotenoids,
the stylar end, and the flavor is
limonoids.
flat on the stem end. strong, and the
Medium thick pink to red
and smooth. color flesh.

Food Science and Engineering 56 | Dibyakanti Mandal, et al.

3. Traditional uses of orange peels
Peels from bitter oranges are utilized as neuroprotective and antidepressant medications in traditional Persian
medicine [31]. It is consumed orally as an aphrodisiac, hepatoprotective medicinal food, and appetizer. It is also used to
treat polymenorrhea, dyspepsia, diarrhea, and bloating. Peels are gastronomic and helpful for gastrointestinal problems
as well. In Japanese herbal medicine, bitter orange peel teas have been shown to have digestive and muscle-relaxing
properties [32]. The desiccated peels derived from Citrus reticulata, often referred to as “chen-pi”, boast a rich historical
tradition of being employed in traditional remedies to address and alleviate symptoms associated with digestive
disorders linked to both acute and chronic inflammation [33].
Extracted from orange peel, orange peel extract (OPE) is abundant in a diverse array of flavonoids. These
include polymethoxylated flavones (PMF), c- or o-glycosylated flavones, o-glycosylated flavanones, flavonols, and
various phenolic acids, along with their derivatives [34]. The spectrum of bioactivities exhibited by citrus flavonoids
encompasses antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-carcinogenic, and anti-atherosclerosis properties. In essence, these
compounds contribute to a range of health benefits [35, 36].

4. Composition of orange peels

There has been a lot of focus on the phytochemicals contained in peels and seeds. The citrus peel is divided into
two layers: flavedo (the outer orange layer) and albedo (the inner layer). The flavedo layer is made up of small oil glands
from which oil is extracted and used by the pharmaceutical industry to make perfumes, cosmetics, and other products.
A large amount of citrus peel is produced during citrus processing, accounting for approximately 25-30% of the total
weight of citrus fruit [18].

4.1 Flavonoids
Flavonoids are an important active compound in citrus peels. Anthocyanidins, flavones, flavanones, flavonols, and
isoflavones are examples of flavonoid compounds present in citrus fruit peel [37]. The citrus peel contains a variety of
functional compounds, such as flavone glycosides (neohesperidin, naringin, hesperidin, narirutin); triterpene (limonene,
citrol); polyethoxylated flavones (tangerine and nobiletin); flavonoids (citacridone, citbrasine, and noradrenaline), etc.
Citrus peels contain more of these chemicals and flavonoid content than the fruit’s edible portions, which has been
expanded to include immature citrus fruits [38]. It has been reported that the ethanolic extract of citrus peels contained
higher amounts of flavonoids compared to pulp extract (243-397 mg/g and 81-101 mg/g for peel and pulp extracts,
respectively) [39].
Citrus fruit peels possess the highest amounts of polymethoxylated flavones (PMF) compared to other edible
parts of the fruits. Flavanone glycosides vary in composition in fruit seeds, peels, and juice because flavonoids vary
in composition across various fruit tissues. Naringin, for instance, is present in lemon peels and seeds but not in juice.
Citrus seeds and peels, on the other hand, contain a diverse mix of flavanone molecules, while lemon skins are high in
neoeriocitrin, naringin, and neohesperidin, lemon seeds are mostly high in neo eriocitrin and hesperidin [40].
Antioxidant activity of flavonoid compounds present in citrus fruit pulp and peels helps in fighting different
diseases. The role of flavonoids as anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidant is shown to be through scavenging the free
oxygen radicals produced by the reactive oxygen species (ROS) system in the body. Because of their special chemical
structure, the molecules are able to react with the free oxygen radicals and prevent abnormal biochemical events.
Flavonoids are also thought to prevent increased levels of nitric oxide production. Flavonoid’s role in prevention of
neurodegenerative and cardiovascular diseases is also believed to be due to its antioxidant activity and reduction of
oxidative stress [41]. Citrus fruit peel’s major bioactive compounds flavonoids also have anti-cancer activity. Not known
much, but it is hypothesized that flavonoids interfere with the altered signaling pathways that lead to unusual apoptosis
and cancer. Little is known about flavonoids compound’s role in preventing diabetes. It is believed that these compounds
increase insulin production and its activity via an unknown mechanism.

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4.2 Carotenoids
Orange peel is a source of natural pigments such as carotenoids [42]. The waste of orange (var. Valencia) peels is
rich in apo-carotenoids representing more than 60% of the total carotenoids. β-chryptoxanthin and, dihydroxycarotenoids
(zeaxanthin and its epoxides) are also present in minor quantities [43]. β-cryptoxanthin, which exhibits provitamin A
activity, was the main compound in the navel variety extract. β-carotene as well as some dihydroxy derivatives were also
present [44]. The number of apo-carotenoids in this variety is very low. There are differences in carotenoid composition
depending on the orange variety. Valencia variety was richer in short-chain apocarotenoids while navel variety was in
nonpolar carotenoids [43]. β-citraurin epoxide, a new carotenoid from Valencia orange peel [45].
Carotenoids are also known as strong antioxidants. The structure of many carotenoids is derived already and is now
well characterized. These molecules are also good scavenger of free radicals generated by the ROS system and are able
to reduce oxidative stress. Carotenoids thus act as anti-inflammatory, anti-neurodegenerative and anti-cardiovascular
molecules. Among the carotenoids. Lycopene is well studied and shown to modulate the pathways of interferons,
Carotenoids can modulate oxidative stress or cause an upregulation of antioxidant and cytoprotective phase II enzymes
via nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR).

4.3 Pectin
Citrus peels and pomace are rich in pectin, known for their ability to lower blood sugar and cholesterol levels [46].
Approximately 85% of the world’s commercial pectin is made from citrus peel residues [47]. The raw materials for
producing pectin can be fresh peels of citrus fruits viz, lemon, grapefruit, and orange or washed plus dried peels. Fresh
citrus peels contain 1.5 to 3% pectin, and dried peels contain 9 to 18% pectin [48]. Citrus fruit peels have an excess of
pectin, which appears in the form of protection, in their yellow skin and white skin. The pectin content and quality of
citrus peels are listed in decreasing order: lime > lemon > grapefruit > orange > citrus with loose skin [49]. The pectin
content of citrus peel is typically 20-30% of the dry weight [37]. Utilizing ultra-high pressure (UHP), pectin extraction
was conducted from navel orange peel. The conditions for UHP extraction are as follows: a pressure of 500 MPa, a
temperature of 55 °C, and a pressure-holding time of 10 min. Under these optimized conditions, the pectin yield reached
20.44% ± 0.64 [50]. This yield demonstrated a significant increase compared to pectin obtained through traditional
heating (15.47% ± 0.26) and microwave-assisted extraction (18.13% ± 0.23) [51, 52] extracted the pectin from Assam
lemon (Citrus limon Burm f.) peels using conventional, microwave-assisted, and ultrasound-assisted extraction.

5. Processing of citrus peels

The high sugar and pectin content of orange by-products, together with their high moisture content (> 50%), make
them ideal growth substrates for microorganisms [53]. To ensure stability and provide a long storage life, drying is also
required. Citrus fruit peel is highly used in powder form [15] and also could be used for the extraction of essential oil.
Oil extraction could be conducted in several ways like steam distillation [54-55]; solvent-free microwave extraction
(SFME) process [56]. The procedure for obtaining powder form of citrus peel is mostly by using drying technology. The
various kinds of drying techniques are mentioned below in Figures 1 and 2.
The major bioactive compounds of citrus essential oil are terpenes and limonoids. The major terpenes are
monoterpene hydrocarbons, oxygenated monoterpenes, terpene alcohol, sesquiterpenes, aldehyde and ester, while
limonoids are limonene and nomilin [57]. For example, sweet orange peel is an excellent source of orange essential oil
as well as pectin and has long been regarded as an important raw material in the food processing industry [16]. Essential
oils, a blend of phytochemicals like monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes, and phenylpropanoids, demonstrate pharmaceutical,
antioxidant, and antimicrobial prowess. Preserving stored grains is challenging due to pest infestations, prompting the
need for alternative strategies. Chemical insecticides, although widely used, are facing resistance, which reduces their
effectiveness. Citrus fruit essential oils emerge as a potent solution, offering impressive repellent, contact, and fumigant
activities against stored-product pests [58-61].

Food Science and Engineering 58 | Dibyakanti Mandal, et al.

 (a) (b)
Citrus peels
Sun
drying

Collection, sorting and

Shade Freeze cleaning
drying drying

Authentication by
taxonomist
Drying
techniques
Hot air Drying (freshly collected
Tray oven should be used, usually
drying drying shade drying is preferred)

Subjected to powdering (by

grinder, mixer or iron
mortar and pestle)*
Air Microwave
drying drying
Subjected to suitable
method of extraction

Figure 1. (a) Different drying techniques used to process citrus fruit peels. (b) Representation of the drying process of citrus fruit peel

Food packaging

Food industry
Cosmetic products
Jam, jelly, cookies, pickles, cakes,
Face pack and toner biscuits, etc.

Industrial uses of
Household industry Citrus Peels
Green diesel
Non-alcoholic production
sanitizer
Mosquito repellent

Figure 2. Industrial uses of citrus peel waste

6. Therapeutic uses of citrus fruit peels

6.1 Antidiabetic properties
Blood sugar levels are significantly impacted by orange peel extract, suggesting the anti-diabetic benefits of

Volume 6 Issue 1|2025| 59 Food Science and Engineering

the same. It can reduce blood sugar levels by up to 19.30% [62]. The antioxidants hesperidin and naringin, which
are contained in orange peel, reduce the effects of glucose-6-phosphate and phosphoenolpyruvate. The production
of glucose from carbohydrate is aided by the inhibition of α-amylase inhibitory activity, which is implicated in the
stimulation of insulin secretion, repair of pancreatic beta cell abnormalities, and stimulation of insulin secretion [63].
The antioxidant, glucosidase inhibition, and antiglycation properties of orange peel (var. navel) extracts and
individual flavonoids were evaluated to explore the antidiabetic potential of the extract [64]. They have studied
seventeen flavonoid compounds in the peel extract, where sinensetin (5-hydroxy-6,7,3′,4′-tetramethoxyflavone) was
found to be the best for its antidiabetic activity. Glucosidase inhibitor, and glycation inhibitor flavonoids were tested
for anti-diabetic activity [64]. Tangerine peel is being tested as a potential anti-diabetic drug for the complication of
diabetic nephropathy. Tangerines and orange peel are high in the natural flavonoid tangeretin. It can significantly slow
the development of diabetic nephropathy [65].

6.2 Alzheimer’s disease

The neuroprotective activity of orange peel extract indicates that it may reduce brain oxidative stress, thereby
preventing the progression of Alzheimer’s disease [66]. Nobiletin and tangeretin, key citrus flavonoids from Citrus L.
genus, demonstrate neuroprotective effects in both in vitro and in vivo studies [67].

6.3 Antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties

Orange peel has anticancer property. Orange peel extract has a high concentration of flavonoids, which increases
its antioxidant action in the body. Polymethoxyflavones, one of the bioactive components found in orange peel extract,
have anti-inflammatory properties [68]. With the help of efficient bioactive substances from orange peel extract, diseases
associated with inflammation can be managed and treated [69].

6.4 Antimicrobial properties

The antibacterial activity of orange essential oil inhibits the growth of common food spoilage bacteria such as
Staphylococcus and Pseudomonas [70]. Furthermore, it has potent activity against Listeria monocytogenes, a major
cause of food-borne illness [71]. The fungus Aspergillus niger is inhibited by the component D-limonene in orange
peel essential oil. Orange essential oil was used in cupcakes [72]. It is used to make oil phase emulsions, which are then
wrapped in tea bags to make a drinkable tea. It is used in the pharmaceutical, fragrance and cosmetic industry. It also
plays a vital role in preservation, antimicrobial packaging and pest control [73].
Bioactive chemicals from orange peels are extracted and tested for antimicrobial activity against a number of
pathogenic plant fungi. The extracts of five different citrus peels (key lime, orange, pomelo, lemon, and mandarin
orange) were evaluated on seven fungi species (Alternaria solani, Alternaria alternate, Rhizoctonia solani,
Macrophomina phaseolina, Trichothecium roseum, Fusarium solani, and Fusarium equiseti). It was observed that the
pomelo peel extract is the most effective anti-fungal, followed by orange peel extract, lemon peel extract, mandarin
orange and key lime peel extracts [74].
Flavonoid compounds are known as effective antiviral molecules. They inhibit viruses at multiple stages of the
virus life cycle including virus internalization, genome replication and assembly [75]. Previous studies have shown
Hepatitis C Virus (HCV), Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV), Influenza dengue and Respiratory Syncytial Virus
(RSV) are inhibited by different flavonoids [76]. Effective antiviral activity of vitamin C was reported from earlier
studies. Citrus fruit peels are rich in vitamin C. Vitamin C acts as a strong antioxidant and thus plays a role as anti
apoptotic molecule.
Orange peel extracts which contain vitamin C and other antioxidants help to enhance immunity and to prevent
respiratory viral and bacterial diseases. The world recently experienced the historically worst pandemic due to
COVID-19 which killed several million people. Before vaccines were developed against COVID-19, eating citrus fruit
was recommended, which helped reduce the activity against the virus and save many people’s lives [3, 77]. Citrus fruit
also helps in reducing the chances of severe diseases caused by influenza, and dengue. There is a need for alcohol-free
hand sanitizers which has fewer health hazards compared to alcohol-based products. The peel extracts based sanitizer

Food Science and Engineering 60 | Dibyakanti Mandal, et al.

proved to contain considerable antimicrobial activity against the pathogenic bacteria, and effective against pathogenic
viruses such as COVID-19 [78].

6.5 Anti-obesity significance

Orange peel powder protects against diseases caused by oxidative stress and inflammation, which are associated
with obesity. As fat deposits build, the pro-inflammatory response rises. Consuming citrus aids in managing aberrant
lipid profiles and endothelial dysfunction. Orange peels are rich in antioxidants, vitamin C, pectin, and flavonoids, all of
which have been demonstrated to be highly beneficial in lowering inflammation and endothelial dysfunction brought on
by obesity [79].

6.6 Other health effects: anticancer effects

Citrus peel essential oil has a sedative effect on the human central nervous system, which can alleviate stress and
fatigue. Furthermore, despite its trace levels in essential oil, coumarin has a clear anticancer effect; it most likely works
by decomposing the toxic functional groups in carcinogenic substances and inhibiting cancer cell metabolism [80]. It
has been demonstrated that citrus peel essential oil acts as an expectorant, cough suppressant, gastrointestinal motility
promoter, and digestive juice secretion enhancer. It also helps to ease pain, dissolve gallstones, and reduce inflammation
[81, 82] suggested that citrus peels offer potential as a dietary supplement which could be used as a functional food
additive.
Bioactive compounds derived from citrus fruits are abundant in therapeutic qualities, functioning as antioxidants,
anticancer, antitumor, and anti-inflammatory agents. Additionally, they are recognized for their antiviral, antiplatelet
aggregation, and anti-inflammatory properties [19, 83]. Certain bioactive compounds have been documented for their
ability to induce protective enzymes in the liver and inhibit the damage to genetic materials within cells [84]. Hesperidin
plays an essential role in blood vessel osmotic pressure maintenance, vascular fragility reduction, capillary toughness
increase, and bleeding time reduction. It has the ability to lower low-density lipoproteins (LDL) levels in the body. It
can be used as an adjuvant therapy for cardiovascular diseases [37]. Pectin contains dietary fiber, which is essential for
keeping a healthy body. It helps to improve gastric motility and nutrient absorption. Furthermore, it has the potential to
prevent and treat high blood pressure, cancer, diabetes, obesity, and other diseases. Pectin can be used as a weight loss
agent due to its satiating impact. Naringin is used in the pharmaceutical industry to make drugs for the prevention of
cardiovascular disease and anti-inflammatories [85].

7. Biopolymers, ethanol production and activated carbon

The creation of bioactive scaffolds that promote bone repair is important for hard tissue regenerative medicine
initiatives. Because of their excellent capacity to imitate the bone extracellular matrix, biopolymers containing synthetic
polymers offer a new option for this application. Orange (Citrus sinensis) rind pectin and bovine tendon collagen
were used to make scaffolds [86]. Orange-peel can do ethanol production by using hydrolysis for 15 min, and further
processing it at 121 °C and 15 psi pressure [87]. Citrus seeds have a strong biodiesel potential due to their 30% oil
content (by weight). By trans-esterifying citrus seed oil with methanol under the catalysis of sodium methoxide,
it generated methyl esters that met both the ASTM D6751 and EN 14214 biodiesel criteria [1]. Activated carbon
was created by using orange peels and it was also used to remove acetic acid from an aqueous medium [88]. Iron-
impregnated activated carbons derived from waste Citrus limetta peels (referred to as AC-CLPs) for the novel purpose
of fluoride ion removal from water. The adsorbents were meticulously crafted by subjecting the chosen biomass to
activation through FeCl3, followed by carbonization at two distinct temperatures, namely 250 and 500 °C [89]. The
resulting carbon materials were denoted as AC-CLP250 and AC-CLP500, respectively [90].

Volume 6 Issue 1|2025| 61 Food Science and Engineering

8. Value added products with citrus fruit peels
Citrus peel cellulose is commonly used in cakes, biscuits, bread, and other food products. It can also be used in
dishes as an anti-stickiness agent. They have advantageous properties such as the ability to bind water and create gels.
It can be used to replace fat in ice cream without significantly changing the flavor, color, or aroma. The change results
in a 70% fat replacement, making the ice cream low in calories and beneficial for gut health and disease prevention [9].
Table 2 describes the various value-added food products.

Table 2. Nutraceutical foods with citrus food wastes

Food products Details of the products References

When the orange peel is added to herbal cookies, their nutritional value, bioactive components,
Herbal cookies [91]
textural as well as organoleptic were improved.

Orange pomace is used to make tricolour pasta. The prepared pasta has more nutritional
Tri color pasta [92]
value and viscoelasticity.

Mandarin and orange peels were used to make biscuits (marie). The addition of peels had resulted in no
negative side effects. They boosted the antioxidant activity, shelf life, crude fibre, ash, and ether extract
Biscuits [23]
content of biscuits. The usage of peels also reduced serum total cholesterol, liver lipid and cholesterol,
and blood glucose levels.

Orange peel extract was used to increase the storage duration of frozen sausages. It improves microbiological
Frozen sausages [93]
security and sensory quality. It increases the lipid oxidation and also has no effects on color.

Orange peel extract was added to minced beef. It had effects on the physical, chemical, biological, and
Beef processing microbiological properties of minced beef. To decrease the amounts of free fatty acids, peroxide, and [94]
thiobarbituric acid in the minced beef, orange peel extract was added.

Alginate, Aloe vera, and orange peel extract were encapsulated in bio-polymeric foamy beads.
Encapsulated beads These natural remedies are workable for delaying cell aging, and boosting healthy cell growth, [95]
resulting in a natural treatment.

The pectin extracted from citrus fruit peels has been added to jam which stabilises the jam during
Jam [37]
transportation and also improves the flavour and reduces syneresis therapy, resulting in an unrivalled taste.

Pectin has acid resistance properties when added to fruit juice and syrup, as it can stabilise and
Fruit juices [37]
suspend oily lactic acid, resulting in juice with a fresh flavour.

They used a dehydration process in low temperatures for the subproduct creation, and
Seasoning for white and it was possible to minimize the intensity of limonene contained in the fruit’s peel to reduce [96]
red meat and snack its bitter flavor without losing its beneficial properties.

Chocolates No changes in the polyphenol content. [97]

9. Packaging material
The citrus peel waste is used in the synthesis of biodegradable packaging material. Also, edible packaging film was
developed by using lemon peel pectin. The prepared edible film was also used for coating the edible cheese by wrapping
it, which eventually improved the physicochemical, textural, and microbial stability of the cheese (ricotta) wrapped
in edible film [10]. Orange peels, often discarded as challenging food waste, present an opportunity for bioplastic
production due to their high starch content. Additionally, the peels contain pectin, a key factor enhancing the strength
of bioplastics. Comprising hemicelluloses, starch, cellulose, lignin, soluble sugars, fat, ash, protein, and flavonoids,
orange peels possess diverse components. Their substantial cellulosic content, when disposed of in landfills, leads to
the production of methane gas, contributing to global warming. To address this, a study employed pulverization using
a pestle and mortar as part of a mechanical disruption method to extract polymeric materials from orange peels. The
resulting paste underwent further processing, including treatment with HCl and glycerol. Uniformly mixed and shaped,

Food Science and Engineering 62 | Dibyakanti Mandal, et al.

the paste was cast into molds and left at room temperature for 48 h, resulting in a developed film with a thickness of 0.2
mm. This process represents a vital step in transforming orange peels from waste into a valuable and environmentally
beneficial product [98].
Citrus peel finds application in producing food-grade kraft paper, biodegradable polymers, and packaging
materials. Citrus residue serves as a source of bio-oil, biogas, ethanol, and activated carbon, offering potential in enzyme
production, cellulose, nano cellulose, dietary fibers, and more [99, 100].

10. Natural dyes

Orange peel is a good source of natural colors and is high in carotenoids. Orange peel dye has antioxidant,
antibacterial, and ultraviolet (UV)-protective qualities, and has been applied to wool, cotton, and tencel fabric [11].
Lemon peel waste from juice processing companies, constituting about 50% of the weight, is an excellent resource.
It serves as a raw material for producing valuable pectin, lemon oil, and a stable yellow natural colorant known as
limocitrol glycoside. This water-soluble dye, a flavonoid, offers an industrial alternative to both synthetic and natural
yellow colorants like curcumin, crocin, norbixin, or riboflavin (vitamin B2) [12]. Recent study evaluates Citrus limonum
(lemon) peel’s adsorption potential for removing anionic dyes (methyl orange and Congo red) from aqueous solutions
[13].

11. Raw material for paper making

Cellulose separated from orange peel waste is mainly used as an additive in paper-making industries [101].

12. Future scope and considerations

Supplements containing the glycosides found in orange peel extract may be beneficial when the body is under
significant oxidative stress and the supplements are taken consistently over a lengthy period of time. Identification
and recommendation of correct and efficient dosage is required. The value of citrus peel extract in a multitargeted
pharmaceutical strategy must be determined, for example, whether it is used to treat or prevent cancer [102].
In a recent report, Pal et al. [103] elaborated that pomegranate and sweet lemon peels have carbon contents of 56.43
and 55.89%, respectively, which in turn suggested their utilization in different industries. Rafiq et al. [104] indicated that
more research is needed to determine the bioavailability and genuine benefits of citrus peel extracts for the environment
and farmers. Addi et al. [105] have suggested that methidathion and chlorpyriphos ethyl are the most detected pesticides
in citrus fruits, which could have harmful side effects if they remain in more than the permissible limit.

12.1 Probiotics
The effectiveness of probiotic starter cultures, namely L. acidophilus, S. thermophilus, and Bifidobacterial sp.,
was improved when citrus peels were added to synbiotic yogurt and stored in cold conditions. Their findings indicate
that incorporating citrus peels, particularly those from sweet orange and sour orange, holds promise as a versatile
additive for creating probiotic and synbiotic yogurts. This enhancement results in improved antioxidant and antibacterial
properties, along with increased viability of probiotics during storage. These outcomes suggest the potential for utilizing
citrus peels in the development of functional dairy products [106].

12.2 Animal feed

Ahmad et al. [107] concluded from the study that methanolic extract of citrus supplementation of quails (0.5 to
1.5 mL/kg of feed) can improve feed intake, weight gain, dressing percentage, relative weight of lymphoid organs, and
digestibility coefficient. The same supplementation at a dose of 1.5 mL/kg of feed has provided positive impacts on

Volume 6 Issue 1|2025| 63 Food Science and Engineering

antibody titers against various viral diseases.
One of the most widely cultivated fruit trees in the world is the citrus fruit, which is a member of the Rutaceae
family. Since ancient times, citrus fruit peels have been a source of nutrition and medicine. Citrus peel is thus a
prospective source of foods with beneficial properties. Many bioactive substances, such as polyphenols, pectins,
proteins, pigments, dietary fibers, and essential oils, can be found in citrus peel, which is a valuable natural source.
Overall, citrus fruit peels exhibited many biotherapeutic properties such as antioxidant, antibacterial, anticancer,
anti-inflammatory, and antidiabetic. Additionally, it could be used as a thickening, flavoring, and food coloring agent in
the food industry. Citrus peel, a waste product of the citrus processing industry, thus demonstrates potential economic
benefits by returning to the food processing chain as an additive and offering sustainable and creative approaches to the
exploitation of food waste. To get the most benefits from citrus peel extract, further research is currently being done on
it.

13. Challenges in using the citrus peel wastes

Citrus fruit peels have various uses in the pharmaceuticals, nutraceutical and cosmetics industries, owing to their
therapeutic and health benefits. However, there are many challenges that need to be addressed to make better use of
citrus fruit peels. There are abundant sources of these peels, but the collection, and processing of these materials face
major challenges. Environmental instability, poor water solubility, and low bioavailability limit faster processing
and wide application. Flavonoids of citrus fruits exhibit poor bioavailability and increased sensitivity to different
environmental conditions, such as pH, heat, and oxidation. Changes in these conditions promote the degradation of
flavonoids, which lowers the total flavonoid content. Preservation of key bioactive compounds in citrus fruit peels has
been now partially resolved by using nanotechnology, where the extracted bioactive compounds may be encapsulated
(nano liposomes, nano particles, etc.) in various types of nanoparticles and make the components thermostable. In a
developing country like India with a vast population, collection and short-term storage of fruit peels is a huge challenge.
People need to be aware of the use of these citrus fruit peels through recycling. There is a need to set up a policy for the
collection and storage of the citrus waste and more focus should be given to the micro-process industries for low-cost
effective utilization and marketing of these value-added products to the local as well as to the international market.

14. Conclusions
This review demonstrated the presence of many important bioactive compounds in citrus fruit peels. This article
highlighted the present knowledge about the various uses of citrus-peel extracts as nutraceuticals, pharmaceuticals, and
in other industries. Key bioactive compounds present in citrus fruit peels include essential oils, flavonoids, carotenoids,
steroids, terpenoids, alkane groups, ethyl esters, vitamins C, E, and A, and phenolic compounds, which provide a wide
range of benefits, including antioxidant activity and antimicrobial activity, as well as applications in the production of
natural dyes, value-added products, packaging materials, and low-cost paper. Because of the limitless uses of citrus
peels, harvesting and processing of this material have now become a growing industry. However, there are several
challenges in large-scale processing and preparation of bioactive compounds from citrus fruit peels in countries like
India. Effective policies, government-industry collaboration, and large funding opportunities would help in overcoming
these challenges. Successful implementation of such policies would also help in achieving the aims of the Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs) set by the United Nations.

Acknowledgment
I would also like to express my gratitude to the Amity university, Noida and MIT School of Food Technology,
MIT-ADT University Pune, Maharashtra for providing library support.

Food Science and Engineering 64 | Dibyakanti Mandal, et al.

Conflict of interest
Authors declare that there is no conflict of interest.

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Volume 6 Issue 1|2025| 69 Food Science and Engineering