FUNDAMENTAL

OF SIGNALS
AND SYSTEMS

WAN HAMIDAH BINTI WAN ABAS

First Published 2021
© Politeknik Kuala Terengganu
e ISBN 978-967-2240-25-9

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or

transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, including
photocopying, recording or by any information storage or retrieval
system, without prior written permission from the Politeknik Kuala
Terengganu

Author :
Wan Hamidah Binti Wan Abas

Published by :
Politeknik Kuala Terengganu,
Jalan Sultan Ismail,
20200 Kuala Terengganu, Terengganu.
09-6204100
 PREFACE

Fundamental of Signals And Systems was written for Electrical

Engineering students based on polytechnic syllabus. It also can be used
by engineering students in other technical institution The material in this
book are presented in a simple manner to assist student in understanding
the fundamental concepts and theory of signals and systems .
 ACKNOWLEGDEMENTS

Special thanks to my family especially to my sweetie daughter, and

colleagues for their support and encouragement throughout the
preparation for this book. My hoping is that this book would helping
students to gain better understanding of the signals and systems
concepts.
 CONTENT
INTRODUCTION TO SIGNALS
1 AND SYSTEMS 1

2 CLASSIFICATION OF SIGNALS 7

3 CLASSIFICATION OF SYSTEMS 20

4 SIGNAL OPERATIONS
28

5 QUESTION AND ANSWER 36

6 REFERENCE
48
 1
Introduction
To Signals and
Systems
After completion this chapter, student
should be able to:

 Understand the definition of signals

and systems.

 Know the concept and theory of Learning

Outcome
Signals and Systems.

2
 Introduction To Signals And Systems

Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION TO SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS

Definition of Signal
Student Guide

A function representing a physical quantity or variable, and typically it

contains information about the behavior or nature of the phenomenon.

Example of Signal

Human voice Electrical Current

Optical signal Radio wave signal Body Temperature signal

3
 Introduction To Signals And Systems

Definition of System

A respond to an input signal by producing an output signal.

Input Output
Signal
SYSTEM
Signal

Single input, single output

Input Output
Signals
SYSTEM
Signals

Multiple inputs, multiple outputs

Example of System

Radio transmitter and receiver

Traffic light controller

4
 Introduction To Signals And Systems

Example of System

Human Voice System

Remote Sensing System

Auditory System

5
 Introduction To Signals And Systems

Control System

Application of Signals and Systems

Biometrics
Acoustics Fingerprint
Restore speech identification,
in a noisy speaker recognition,
environment iris recognition
such as cockpit
Biodemical
Communications
Extract information from
Transmission in mobile
biological signals:
phones, GPS, radar
Multimedia -Electrocardogram (ECG)
Compress signals to electrical signals generated
store data such as by heart
CDs, DVDs -Electroencephalogram
(EEG) electrical signals
generated by brain

6
 2
Classification
Of Signals
 Classification Of Signals

After completion this chapter, student

should be able to:

 Understand the types of signals

Learning
 Understand the basic signals of
Continuous-Time Signals

 Understand the basic signals of

Discrete-Time Signals
Outcome

8
 CLASIFICATION OF SIGNAL

A. Continuous-Time And Discrete-Time Signals

B. Analog And Digital Signals

C. Real And Complex Signals

D. Deterministic And Random Signals

E. Periodic And Non-Periodic Signals

F. Even And Odd Signals

9
 Classification Of Signals

Chapter 2

CLASSIFICATION OF SIGNALS

1. Continuous-Time And Discrete-Time Signals

The identification is based on Horizontal: X-Axis or TIME

Sampling

Continuous-time signal x(t) Discrete-time signal x[n]

A discrete-time signal x[n] can obtained by sampling a continuous-time

signal x(t) :
𝑥 𝑡0 , 𝑥 𝑡1 , … . , 𝑥 𝑡𝑛 ,…. or
𝑥 0 , 𝑥 1 , ……, 𝑥 𝑛 , ..… or
𝑥0 , 𝑥1 , …. , 𝑥𝑛 , …..

𝑥𝑛 = x[n] = x(𝑡𝑛 )

𝑥𝑛 = samples
sampling interval = the time interval between samples (𝑥𝑛 )

10
 Classification Of Signals

Sampling intervals are equal (uniform sampling)

𝑥𝑛 = x[n] = x(𝑛𝑇𝑠 )

Example of calculating the nth value of the sequence.

𝑛
1
𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑥𝑛 = ൞ 2 𝑛≥0
0 𝑛<0
or 𝑛
1 1 1
𝑥𝑛 = 1, , , … . . , ,…
2 4 2
“0” before and after
significant signal
Write the sequences of discrete signal. are neglect

{𝑥𝑛 } = { ... , 0, 0, 1, 2, 2, 1, 0, 1, 0, 2, 0, 0, ... }

or
{𝑥𝑛 } = {1, 2, 2, 1, 0, 1, 0, 2}
Arrow show
the origin of
the signal

2. Analog And Digital Signals

The identification is based on Vertical: Y-Axis or AMPLITUDE

signal whose amplitude

can take on any value in a
continuous range

signal whose amplitude

can take only a finite
number of values (involve
binary 1 and/or 0)

11
 Classification Of Signals

3. Real And Complex Signals

The identification is based on Vertical and Horizontal: Y-Axis and X-Axis

or AMPLITUDE and TIME

X(t) is a complex quantity and has : Important class of signals is complex

• A real and imaginary part or exponentials:
equivalently • CT signals of the form 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑒 𝑠𝑡
• A magnitude and a phase angle • DT signals of the form 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑧𝑛
Where z and s are complex numbers.

4. Deterministic And Random Signals

The identification is based on PATTERN of the signal

• The signal is fixed and can

be determined
• Can be represented in
mathematic form since the
present, past and future
Deterministic Signals values can be predicted
based on the equation

• A signal take random values

• Cannot be put in
mathematic form

Random Signals

12
 Classification Of Signals

5. Periodic And Non-Periodic Signals

The identification is based on REPETITIVE of the signal

CT

DT

Non-Periodic Signal also known as Aperiodic Signal.

Differences between Periodic and Non-Periodic Signal

Periodic Signals Non-Periodic Signals

A signal which repeats itself after a A signal which does not repeat
specific interval of time itself after a specific interval of time
A signal that repeats it pattern A signal that does not repeats its
over a period pattern over a period
They can be represented by a They cannot be represented by
mathematical equation any mathematical equation
Their value can be determined at Their value cannot be determined
any point of time with certainty at any given point of
time
They are deterministic signals They are random signals

Example: sine cosine square Example: sound signals from radio,

sawtooth etc all types of noise signals

13
 Classification Of Signals

6. Even And Odd Signals

The identification is based on SYMMETRICAL of the signal

Even Signals Odd Signals

𝑥 −𝑡 = 𝑥(𝑡)
𝑥 −𝑡 = −𝑥(𝑡)
CT

𝑥[−𝑛] = 𝑥[𝑛] 𝑥 −𝑛 = −𝑥[𝑛]

DT

Double symmetrical operations:

Symmetrical at
1. First at horizontal (or vertical)
vertical axis
2. Then at vertical (or horizontal)

Any signal x(t) or x[n] can be expressed as a Note:

Sum product of two signal
sum of two signals, one of which is even and 𝑥𝑒 𝑡 × 𝑥𝑒 𝑡 = 𝑥𝑒 𝑡
one of which is odd. That is, 𝑥𝑜 𝑡 × 𝑥𝑜 𝑡 = 𝑥𝑒 𝑡
𝑥𝑒 𝑡 × 𝑥𝑜 𝑡 = 𝑥𝑜 𝑡
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑥𝑒 𝑡 + 𝑥𝑜 𝑡 𝑥𝑜 𝑡 × 𝑥𝑒 𝑡 = 𝑥𝑜 𝑡
𝑥[𝑛] = 𝑥𝑒 [𝑛] + 𝑥𝑜 [𝑛]
Where
1
𝑥𝑒 𝑡 = 2 {𝑥 𝑡 + 𝑥 −𝑡 } even part of 𝑥 𝑡
1
𝑥𝑜 𝑡 = 2 {𝑥 𝑡 − 𝑥 −𝑡 } odd part of 𝑥 𝑡
1
𝑥𝑒 [𝑛] = 2 {𝑥[𝑛] + 𝑥[−𝑛]} even part of 𝑥[𝑛]
1
𝑥𝑜 [𝑛] = 2 {𝑥[𝑛] − 𝑥[−𝑛]} odd part of 𝑥[𝑛]

14
 TYPES OF SIGNAL

A. Continuous-Time Signals

i. Unit Step Function

ii. Unit Impulse Function

iii. Complex Exponential Signals

iv. Sinusoidal Signal

v. Arbitrary Signals

B. Discrete-Time Signals

i. Unit Step Sequence

ii. Unit Impulse Sequence

iii. Complex Exponential Signals

iv. Sinusoidal Signal

v. Arbitrary Signals

15
 Classification Of Signals

Continuous-Time Signal Discrete-Time Signal

Unit Step Function Unit Step Sequence

The unit step function 𝑢(𝑡) , also The unit step sequence 𝑢[𝑛],
known as the Heaviside unit
function
1 𝑛≥0
𝑢[𝑛] = ቊ
0 𝑛<0
1 𝑡>0
𝑢 𝑡 =ቊ
0 𝑡<0

The shifted unit step sequence

The shifted unit step function 𝑢[𝑛 − 𝑘]
𝑢(𝑡 − 𝑡0 )

1 𝑡 > 𝑡0 1 𝑛≥𝑘
𝑢[𝑛 − 𝑘] = ቊ
𝑢 𝑡 − 𝑡0 = ቊ 0 𝑛<𝑘
0 𝑡 < 𝑡0

16
 Classification Of Signals

Continuous-Time Signal Discrete-Time Signal

Unit Impulse Function Unit Impulse Sequence

The unit impulse function (𝑡), also The unit impulse sequence (or unit
known as the Dirac delta function sample) [𝑛]
0 𝑡≠0
𝛿 𝑡 =ቊ 1 𝑛=0
∞ 𝑡=0 𝛿 𝑛 =ቊ
0 𝑛≠0
∞
න 𝛿 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 1
−∞

The shifted unit impulse sequence

[𝑛 − 𝑘]

1 𝑛=𝑘
The delayed delta function (𝑡 – 𝑡0 ) 𝛿 𝑛−𝑘 =ቊ
0 𝑛≠𝑘
∞ ∞
න ∅(𝑡)𝛿 𝑡 − 𝑡0 𝑑𝑡 = ∅(𝑡0 )
−∞
𝑥 𝑛 = ෍ 𝑥 𝑘 𝛿[𝑛 − 𝑘]
𝑘=−∞

17
 Classification Of Signals

Continuous-Time Signal Discrete-Time Signal

Complex Exponential Signal Complex Exponential Signal

𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑒 𝑗𝜔0 𝑡 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑒 𝑗 0 𝑛

Euler’s Formula Euler’s Formula

𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑒 𝑗𝜔0 𝑡 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔0 𝑡 + 𝑗𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔0 𝑡 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑒 𝑗0𝑛 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠0 𝑛 + 𝑗𝑠𝑖𝑛0 𝑛

A signal x(t) is a real signal if its

value is a real number
A signal x(t) is a complex signal if
its value is a complex number.
𝛼>1
General complex signal x(t):

𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑥1 𝑡 + 𝑗𝑥2 (𝑡)

where 𝑥1 (𝑡) and 𝑥2 (𝑡) are real

signals and 𝑗 = −1 1>𝛼>0
t represents either a continuous or
a discrete variable.

0 > 𝛼 > −1
Increasing signal

Decreasing signal 𝛼 < −1

18
 Classification Of Signals

Continuous-Time Signal Discrete-Time Signal

Sinusoidal Signal Sinusoidal Sequences Signal

𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔0 𝑡 + 𝜃 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 0 𝑛 + 𝜃

where Also can expressed as

A = amplitude (real)
𝜔0 = radian frequency in radian 𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 0 𝑛 + 𝜃 = 𝐴𝑅𝑒 𝑒 𝑗0 𝑛+𝜃
per seconds
𝜃 = phase angle in radians

Periodic Signal

Non-Periodic
2𝜋 Signal
Fundamental period : 𝑇0 =
𝜔0
1
Fundamental frequency : 𝑓0 =
𝑇0
Fundamental angular frequency : 𝜔0 = 2𝜋𝑓0

Euler’s Formula for sinusoidal signal:

Real part:
𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔0 𝑡 + 𝜃 = 𝐴 𝑅𝑒 𝑒 𝑗𝜔0 𝑡+𝜃

Imaginary part:
𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔0 𝑡 + 𝜃 = 𝐴 𝐼𝑚 𝑒 𝑗𝜔0 𝑡+𝜃

19
 3
Classification
Of Systems
 Classification Of Systems

After completion this chapter, student

should be able to:

 Understand the classification of the

systems

Learning
Outcome

21
 Classification Of Systems

Chapter 3

CLASSIFICATION OF SYSTEMS

System is a mathematical model of a physical process that relates the input

(or excitation) signal to the output (or response) signal.

𝑦 = 𝐓𝑥
Where T is a transformation (or mapping) of x into y.

Continuous-time system :
If the input and output signals x and y are continuous-time signals

x(t)
System y(t)
Input Signal T Output Signal

Discrete-time system :
If the input and output signals are discrete-time signal or sequences

x[n]
System y[n]
Input Signal T Output Signal

System classification refers to how the system interacts with the input signal.
The interaction can be linear or non linear, time-varying or time-invariant, with
memory or memoryless and causal or non-causal.

22
 Classification Of Systems

Systems With Memory And Without Memory

Example 1
A Memoryless
A resistor R with the input 𝒙(𝒕) taken
System
as the current flow through the resistor
and the voltage taken as the output
The output at any time 𝒚(𝒕) is a potential different across the
resistor. The input-output relationship
depends on only the input at (Ohm's law) of a resistor is
that same time.
𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑅𝑥(𝑡)

𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑅𝑖(𝑡)

Example 2

A capacitor C with the current as the A Memory

input 𝒙(𝒕) flow across the capacitor and System
the voltage as the output 𝒚(𝒕) is a
potential different through the capacitor.
The output at any
𝑡
1
𝑦 𝑡 = න 𝑥 𝜏 𝑑𝜏 time depends on the
𝐶 −∞
past or current
∞
1
𝑣 𝑡 = න 𝑖 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝐶 −∞

Example 3

𝑛
A discrete-time system whose input
and output sequences are related by 𝑦 𝑛 = ෍ 𝑥[𝑘]
𝑘=−∞

23
 Classification Of Systems

Causal And Non-Causal Systems

Causal System Non-Causal System

The output at any time depends The output at any time

on the past or current only depends on future input.

i.e. the output only depends on the

input for values of 𝑡 ≤ 𝑡0
Causality is a property

The output only exists after an that is very similar to

memory
input was applied to the system

Most of the practical systems are causal

Linear System And Non-Linear Systems

Linear System

• Output is proportional to an input

• 3 properties of linear system
i. Additivity
ii. Scaling
iii. Superposition

24
 Classification Of Systems

Linear System And Non-Linear Systems

1. Additivity property

If 𝑥1 𝑡  𝑦1 (𝑡)

and 𝑥2 𝑡  𝑦2 (𝑡)

therefore 𝑥1 𝑡 + 𝑥2 𝑡  𝑦1 𝑡 + 𝑦2 (𝑡)

2. Scaling property

If 𝑥1 𝑡  𝑦1 (𝑡)

therefore 𝑘𝑥1 𝑡  𝑘𝑦1 𝑡

3. Superposition property

If 𝑥1 𝑡  𝑦1 (𝑡)

and 𝑥2 𝑡  𝑦2 (𝑡)

therefore 𝑘1 𝑥1 𝑡 + 𝑘2 𝑥2 𝑡  𝑘1 𝑦1 𝑡 + 𝑘2 𝑦2 (𝑡)

Non-Linear System

Any system that does not satisfy properties of Linear System is

classified as a nonlinear system.

25
 Classification Of Systems

Time-Invariant System And Time-Varying Systems

Time-Invariant System Time-Varying System

Shifted output signal will A system which does not satisfy

produce if the input signal either continuous-time system or
had a time shifted discrete-time system

If A system in which certain

𝑥1 𝑡  𝑦1 (𝑡)
quantities governing the system's
therefore 𝑥 𝑡 − 𝑡0  𝑦 𝑡 − 𝑡0
behavior change with time, so
that the system will respond
Its input output characteristics do not
differently to the same input at
change with time.
different times
Also known as Fixed Parameter System

Linear Time-Invariant Systems

If the system is linear and also time-invariant, then it is called a linear

time-invariant (LTI) system.

There are many well developed techniques for dealing with the response
of linear time invariant systems, such as Laplace and Fourier transforms

26
 Classification Of Systems

Stable Systems

A system is said to be bounded-input, bounded-output (BIBO) stable if

and only if every bounded input results in a bounded output, otherwise it
is said to be unstable.

Feedback Systems

The output signal is fed back and added to the input to the system.

27
 4
Basic Signal
Operations
 Basic Signal Operations

After completion this chapter, student

should be able to:

 Understand the transformation on

dependent variable

 Understand the transformation on Learning

Outcome
independent variable

 Apply the problem for

transformation on dependent and
independent variable

29
 Basic Signal Operations

Chapter 4

BASIC SIGNAL OPERATIONS

An important concept in signal and system analysis is the transformation of a

signal. A signal either continuous time or discrete time can be manipulated
by modifying or transforming its dependent (amplitude) or independent (time)
variable. Multiple transformations can be applied to a signal in a certain
sequence to manipulate it in a particular way. The sequence of time
transformations is significant.

Types of Transformation Signals

Dependent Variable Independent Variable

(Amplitude) (Time)

a. Amplitude Scaling a. Time Scaling

b. Addition b. Time Inversion (Reflection)
c. Multiplication c. Time Shifting
d. Differentiation
e. Integration

Remember !!!
affects only
1. time transformation time parameter
affects only
2. amplitude transformation amplitude.

30
 Basic Signal Operations

Transformation on Dependent variable (amplitude)

1. Amplitude Scaling
The identification is based on Vertical: Y-Axis or AMPLITUDE

𝑌(𝑡) = 𝑋(𝑡)
.  <1  signal is attenuated  >1  signal is amplified.
x(t) y1(t) y2(t)
t = 1.5
t = 0.5 1.5
1 1
1
0.5

0 t 0 t 0 t

-1 -1 -1

-1.5
(a) (b) (c)

2. Addition
The identification is based on ADDITION AMPLITUDE of two signal

𝑌(𝑡) = 𝑋1(𝑡) + 𝑋2(𝑡)

(a) (b) (c)

31
 Basic Signal Operations

3. Multiplication

The identification is based on MULTIPLICATION AMPLITUDE of two signal

𝑌(𝑡) = 𝑋1(𝑡)𝑋2(𝑡)

(a) (b) (c)

4. Differentiation

The identification is based on DIFFERENTIATION AMPLITUDE of signal

𝑑
Y 𝑡 = 𝑋(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡

(a) (b) (c) (d)

32
 Basic Signal Operations

5. Integration

The identification is based on INTEGRATION AMPLITUDE of signal

𝑡
𝑌 𝑡 = න 𝑋(𝑡)dt
−∞

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Transformation on Independent variable (time)

The periodicity of the signal is varied by modifying the horizontal axis values,
while the amplitude or the strength remains constant.

1. Time Scaling

The identification is based on DIVIDE X-Axis with a CONSTANT

𝑌(𝑡) = 𝑋(𝛽𝑡)

(a) (b) (c)

33
 Basic Signal Operations

2. Time Inversion or Reflection

The identification is based on MIRROR at Vertical: Y-Axis or AMPLITUDE

Y(t) = X(-t) or Y(-t) = X(t)

(a) (b)

3. Time Shifting

The identification is based on MOVING the WHOLE SIGNAL along TIME-

axis by a CONSTANT

Y(t) = X(t - t0)

Y1(t) Y2(t)
X(t)

(a) (b) (c)

A time delay or advances the signal in time by a time interval +t0 or -t0
without changing its shape.
i. If t0 is positive, the signal of y(t) is obtained by shifting x(t) toward
the relative to the x-axis (Delay) 𝑌1(𝑡) = 𝑋(𝑡 − 3) = 𝑋(𝑡 – (+3))

ii. If t0 is negative, x(t) is shifted to the left (Advances)

𝑌2(𝑡) = 𝑋(𝑡 + 4) = 𝑋(𝑡 – (−4))

34
 Basic Signal Operations

II I
Remember !!!
Region of Signals

III IV

shifted

shifted

shifted

shifted

35
 5
Question &
Answers
 Question & Answers

Example 1

Sketch each of the following continuous-time signals.

(a) 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑢 𝑡 + 1 − 𝑢(𝑡)
(b) 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑢 𝑡 + 4 − 𝑢(𝑡 − 4)
(c) 𝑦 𝑡 =  𝑡 − 1 + (𝑡 + 2)
(d) 𝑦 𝑡 =  𝑡 − 2 𝑡 − 1 + 3(𝑡 + 2)

Solution:

(a) 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑢 𝑡 + 1 − 𝑢(𝑡)

(b) 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑢 𝑡 + 4 − 𝑢(𝑡 − 4)

(c) 𝑦 𝑡 =  𝑡 − 1 + (𝑡 + 2)

37
 Question & Answers

(d) 𝑦 𝑡 =  𝑡 − 2 𝑡 − 1 + 3(𝑡 + 2)

Example 2

Sketch each of the following discrete-time signals.

(a) 𝑦[𝑛] = 𝑢 𝑛 + 3 − 0.5𝑢 𝑛 − 1
(b) 𝑦[𝑛] = 𝑢[𝑛 − 1] − 𝑢[𝑛 − 4]
(c) 𝑦 𝑛 =  𝑛 − 1 + [𝑛 + 2]
(d) 𝑦[𝑛] = 2𝛿 𝑛 + 4 −  𝑛 − 2 + 𝛿[𝑛 − 3]
(e) 𝑦[𝑛] = 𝛿 𝑛 − 2 𝑛 − 1 + 3[𝑛 + 2]

Solution:

(a) 𝑦[𝑛] = 𝑢 𝑛 + 3 − 0.5𝑢 𝑛 − 1

38
 Question & Answers

(b) 𝑦[𝑛] = 𝑢[𝑛 − 1] − 𝑢[𝑛 − 4]

(c) 𝑦 𝑛 =  𝑛 − 1 + [𝑛 + 2]

(d) 𝑦[𝑛] = 2𝛿 𝑛 + 4 −  𝑛 − 2 + 𝛿[𝑛 − 3]

(e) 𝑦[𝑛] = 𝛿 𝑛 − 2 𝑛 − 1 + 3[𝑛 + 2]

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 Question & Answers

Example 3

Sketch and label the even and odd component of the signal x(t) and x[n]
below.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

Solution:

(a)

Even odd Odd signal

(b)

Even odd Odd signal

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 Question & Answers

(c)

Even odd Odd signal

(d)

Even odd Odd signal

Example 4

Sketch and label each of the following signals for a continuous-time signal 𝑥(𝑡)
that shown in Fig. 1.
(a) 𝑥(𝑡 − 2) (b) 𝑥(𝑡 + 2)
(c) 𝑥(−𝑡) (d) 𝑥(3 − 𝑡)
𝑡
(e) 𝑥(2𝑡) (f) 𝑥 2

(g) 2𝑥(𝑡)

Fig.1

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 Question & Answers

Solution:

(a) 𝑥(𝑡 − 2) (b) 𝑥(𝑡 + 2)

For 𝑡 − 2 = 0 For 𝑡 + 2 = 0
𝑡=2 𝑡 = −2
For 𝑡 − 2 = 4 For 𝑡 + 2 = 4
𝑡=6 𝑡=2

(c) 𝑥(−𝑡) (d) 𝑥(3 − 𝑡)

For −𝑡 = 0 For 3 − 𝑡 = 0
𝑡=0 𝑡=3
For −𝑡 = 4 For 3 − 𝑡 = 4
𝑡 = −4 𝑡 = −1
Reflect signal Reflect signal

𝑡
(e) 𝑥(2𝑡) (f) 𝑥 2

For 2𝑡 = 0
𝑡=0
For 2𝑡 = 4
𝑡=2

(g) 2𝑥(𝑡) 𝑡
For =0
2
Not changing 𝑡=0
at time 𝑡
For =4
but only 2
changing on 𝑡=8
amplitude

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 Question & Answers

Example 5

Sketch and label each of the following signals for a discrete-time signal 𝑥[𝑛]
that shown in Fig. 2.

(a) 𝑥[𝑛 − 2] (b) 𝑥[𝑛 + 2] (c) 𝑥[−𝑛]

𝑛
(d) 𝑥[3 − 𝑛] (e) 𝑥[2𝑛] (f) 𝑥 2
(g) 2𝑥[𝑛]

Fig. 2

Solution:

(a) 𝑥[𝑛 −2] (b) 𝑥[𝑛 + 2]

For 𝑛 − 2 = 0 For 𝑛 + 2 = 0
𝑛=2 𝑛 = −2
For 𝑛 − 2 = 4 For 𝑛 + 2 = 4
𝑛=6 𝑛=2

(c) 𝑥[−𝑛] For −𝑛 = 0 (d) 𝑥[3 − 𝑛]

For 3 − 𝑛 = 0
𝑛=0 𝑛=3
For −𝑛 = 4 For 3 − 𝑛 = 4
𝑛 = −4 𝑛 = −1

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 Question & Answers

(e) 𝑥[2𝑛] 𝑛
(f) 𝑥 2
For 2𝑛 = 0
𝑛=0
For 2𝑛 = 4
𝑛=2

For 𝑛 𝑛
(g) 2𝑥[𝑛] =0 =3
2 2
𝑛=6
For 𝑛 = 0
𝑛 𝑛
Not changing =1 =4
2 2
at time but 𝑛=2 𝑛=8
only changing 𝑛
on amplitude =2
2
𝑛=4

Example 6

A continuous-time signal 𝑥(𝑡) is shown in Fig. 3. Write the mathematical

equation in terms of Unit Step Function.

Fig. 3

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Solution:

Sketch individual signal as follows:

Mathematical equation in terms of Unit Step Function:

𝑦 = 2𝑢 𝑡 + 1 − 𝑢 𝑡 − 2𝑢 𝑡 − 1 + 𝑢(𝑡 − 2)

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 Example 7

A discrete-time signal x[n] and z[n] are shown in Fig. 4. Sketch and label the
signals of 𝑦1 [𝑛] = 𝑥[𝑛] + 𝑧[𝑛], and 𝑦2 [𝑛] = 𝑥[𝑛]𝑧[𝑛].

Fig. 4

Solution:

(a) 𝑦1 [𝑛] = 𝑥[𝑛] + 𝑧[𝑛]

(b) 𝑦2 [𝑛] = 𝑥[𝑛]𝑧[𝑛]

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 Example 8

A continuous-time signal 𝑥1 (𝑡) and 𝑥2 (𝑡) is shown in Fig. 5. Sketch and label
the signals of:

(a) 𝑦1 (t) = 𝑥1 (𝑡) + 𝑥2 (𝑡)

(b) 𝑦2 (t) = 𝑥1 (𝑡)𝑥2 (𝑡)
(c) 𝑦3 (t) = 2𝑢 𝑡 𝑦1 (𝑡)
(d) 𝑦4 (t) = 𝑥1 (𝑡)𝛿(𝑡 − 2)

Fig. 5
Solution:
(a) 𝑦1 (t) = 𝑥1 (𝑡) + 𝑥2 (𝑡) (b) 𝑦2 (t) = 𝑥1 (𝑡)𝑥2 (𝑡)

(c) 𝑦3 (t) = 2𝑢 𝑡 𝑦1 (𝑡) (d) 𝑦4 (t) = 𝑥1 (𝑡)𝛿(𝑡 − 2)

47
 1. Boulet, B. (2006). Fundamental Of Signals And
Systems. Charles River Media.

2. Hsu, H. (2011). Schaum’s Outline: Signals And Systems,

Second Edition. Mc Graw Hill.

3. Basic Signal Operations. Retrieved on 07092021

from https://www.electrical4u.com/basic-signal-
operations/

References

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