Dilla College of Education-Department of English Language

A short handout-of the course “Fundamental Writing Skills”

[Course code: EnLa 2341 Cr/hrs= 3
1. Introduction
1.1 Definition of sentence and its parts
The standard definition of a sentence is that it is a group of words containing a subject and a predicate
and expressing a complete thought.
A complete sentence is a group of words that meets all three of the following criteria:
 It has a verb (a word or phrase that explains an action such as run, take, give, or a state of being,
such as am, is, are, was, were, be). Many sentences have more than one verb. The verbs in the
following sentences are highlighted for you.
Examples:
Zeberga and Docho both want a promotion.
Yihunsewdrafted a memo and sent it to the sales department.
Mamo and Martha are the chief operators in this department.
 It has a subject (someone or something that performs the action or serves as the main focus of
the sentence). As with verbs, many sentences have more than one subject .The subjects are
highlighted to make them easier to identify.
Examples:
Zeberga and Docho both want a promotion.
Yihunsew drafted a memo and sent it to the sales department.
Mamo and Martha are the chief operator in this department.
 It expresses a complete thought. In other words, the group of words has a completed meaning.
Sometimes, a group of words has both a subject and a verb but still does not express a complete
thought. Look at the following examples. The subjects and verbs are italicized to make them
easier to identify.
He jumped.
This is grammatically complete sentence, though perhaps not an interesting one. It has a subject (he) and
a predicate (jumped). It expresses a complete thought—you know what happened. You might want to
know more about the person—who he is or why he jumped, for example. You might want to know more
about the jump itself—when it occurred, how high it was, and so on. But the basic action is complete: He
jumped.

When he jumped
The next example is an incomplete sentence. It still has a subject (he) and a predicate (jumped), but the
presence of ‘when’ keeps this group of words from being a complete thought: What happened when he
jumped?
The following sentence is still an incomplete sentence. When he jumped high into the air
Now, you know something about where he jumped, but the thought is still incomplete: What happened
when he jumped high into the air?
Examples
When he jumped high into the air, he looked as if he were flying.

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The above example is a complete sentence. The question “What happened when he jumped?” has been
answered: he looked as if he were flying. Even if the phrase ‘high into the air’ were to be deleted, the
thought would be complete.
When he jumped high into the air, he looked as if he were flying.
In your academic writing, you are expected to write a sentence having a subject (what or whom the
sentence is about) and a predicate. The predicate tells what the subject does or is or what is done to the
Subject. In addition to having a subject and predicate, a sentence must be able to stand on its own. It can’t
depend on something else to express a complete thought.
Activity: Use the above three examples and write five sentences. Consider varieties of one Vs two
subject; one Vs two verbs both active and being verbs.
1. _________________________________________________________
1.2 Types of sentences
In broader sense, English sentences can be classified into two major categories. These major
classifications are:
1. Structural/grammatical classification and
2. Functional/purpose classifications.
Under each broad category, there are four types of sentences and their total number is eight. Now let’s
discuss them briefly.
1.3 Structural/grammatical classification of sentences
Activity: Discuss with your friend and try to list the four kinds of sentences based on their grammatical
structure.
Your ability to vary sentence types in your writing will allow you to control the pacing and clarity of your
paragraphs. Using a variety of sentence types also makes for more interesting reading. (Eggenschwiler,
64)
a. Simple sentence:
It has one independent clause and no subordinate or dependent clauses. “A simple sentence is not
necessarily a short sentence; it may contain several phrases. (Watkins,26)
Example:
1. Birds sing.
2. The bird began to warble a sustained and beautiful song after a long silence.
3. Old-growth forests in the United States are disappearing. Citizens must act.
b. Compound sentence:
Have two or more independent clauses, joined by coordinating conjunctions, and no subordinate or
dependent clauses.
Example:
1. Birds sing, (independent clause) and bees hum. (Independent clause)
2. Old-growth forests in the United States are disappearing, and citizens must act. (two
independent clauses joined by and)

c. Complex sentence:
Contains one independent clause and one or more subordinate/dependent clauses.
Example:
1. When spring comes (dependent clause) and when new leaves grow, (dependent clause) migratory birds
return north. (Independent clause)

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 2. Because old growth forests in the United States are fast disappearing, citizens must act
now. (Because old growth forests in the United States are fast disappearing =
subordinate clause beginning with subordinating conjunction; citizens must act now =
independent clause)
3. Forests that have existed for thousands of years are in danger. (that have existed for
thousands of years= subordinate clause beginning with relative pronoun ‘that’;
Forests . . . are in danger= independent clause)
d. Compound complex sentence:
A compound complex sentence joins two or more independent clauses with one or more subordinate
clauses.
Example:
1. When heavy rains come, (dependent adverb clause) the streams rise, (independent clause) and farmers know
(independent clause) that there will be floods. (dependent noun clause used as object)

2. Forests that have existed for thousands of years are in danger, and citizens must take action.
(Forests are in danger and citizens must take action = two independent clauses; that have
existed for thousands of years = subordinate clause)
1.4 Functional or purpose classification of sentences

In linguistics, sentence function refers to a speaker's purpose in uttering a specific sentence, phrase, or
clause. Whether a listener is present or not is sometimes irrelevant. It answers the question: "Why has this
been said?" The four basic sentence functions in the world's languages include the declarative,
imperative, interrogative, and exclamative/exclamatory.

a. Declarative Sentences

The declarative sentence is the most common kind of sentence in language, in most situations, and in a
way can be considered the default function of a sentence. What this means essentially is that when a
language modifies a sentence in order to form a question or give a command, the base form will always
be the declarative. In its most basic sense, a declarative states an idea (either objectively or subjectively
on the part of the speaker; and may be either true or false) for the complete purpose of transferring
message. In writing, declarative sentence ends with a period.
Example:
 Roses are red and violets are blue.
 She must be out of her mind.
 He is coming soon.
 Her name is Derartu.
 I like hot drinks, tea and coffee.
 The airplane has been crashed in the deep forest.
b. Imperative Sentences
An imperative sentence gives anything from a command or order, to a request, direction, or instruction.
Imperative sentences are more intentional than exclamatory sentences and do require an audience; as their
aim is to get the person(s) being addressed either to do or to not do something. An imperative can end in
either a period or an exclamation point depending on delivery.
Example:

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  Look at me!
 After separating them from the yolks, beat the whites until they are light and fluffy.
 Please lower your noise.
 Drop what you are doing and come celebrate with us!
c. Interrogative Sentences
An interrogative sentence asks a question and hence ends with a question mark. In speech, it
almost universally ends in a rising inflection. Its effort is to try to gather information that is
presently unknown to the interrogator, or to seek validation for a preconceived notion held.
Beyond seeking confirmation or contradiction, sometimes it is approval or permission that is
sought as well, among other reasons one could have for posing a question. While an imperative is
a call for action, an interrogative is a call for information. An interrogative ends in question mark.
Example:
 What do you want?
 Are you feeling well?
 Is it raining?
 Have you had your breakfast?
d. Exclamatory Sentences
An exclamative or exclamatory sentence is released because of, and expresses strong emotion. They
many times feel like involuntary reactions to a situation, yet they can technically be stifled if need be.
And while exclamatives most usually manifest themselves as one or two word interjections, they can also
come as major sentences. They are essentially unfiltered vocalizations of our feelings, and a form of self-
talk because they are directed either at the speaker themselves or at nobody in particular. An exclamative
is ended with an exclamation mark.

Example:
 Ouch!
 I'll never finish this paper in time!
 Please don’t go!
 This is the best day of my life!
1.5Combining sentences
Writers, particularly inexperienced ones, sometimes create a series of short sentences that sound choppy
and lack good connections. If you can vary the length and complexity of your sentences, you will increase
your reader’s interest in your ideas.
If you have written a series of simple sentences, try alternate methods of combining them to vary the
pacing of the paragraph.
1.5.1 Coordination
Q. What is conjunction? What are its main forms?_______________________
Conjunctions are words that join or link elements. Like prepositions, they get a job done rather than add
excitement to your writing. But choosing the right conjunction makes the logic of your thought clear. For
example, which of the following two sentences creates the more logical connection?
I’ve always disliked history, and I have never failed a test.
I’ve always disliked history, but I have never failed a test.
Because the two clauses suggest contradictory ideas, but provides a more logical connection than and.
Therefore, to have clear idea you have to use the conjunction that gives the desired sense.

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Coordinating conjunctions:The coordinating conjunctions are and, but, for, nor, or, so, and yet. These
conjunctions join words, phrases, or clauses that are grammatically equal in rank.

1. Words:Mother and daughter, tea and toast

2. Phrases: We found the Easter eggs under the couch and in the closet.
3. Clauses:He likes me, but I don’t care.
Each clause (He likes me, butI don’t care) can stand alone. The two clauses are grammatically equal.
But tosuggest the idea of contradiction, it is better to connect them the appropriate coordinating
conjunction but.
1.5.2 Subordinating conjunctions: these are conjunctions that bring an independent clause into
dependent one when it is added at the beginning.Examples are after, although, as, because, before, even
though, if, since, so that, though, unless, until, when, where, while.Sometimes, a subordinating
conjunction is a phrase rather than a single word:

Example:

Because I was too late.

As long as they can still be heard
As soon as I can finish my work
Subordinating conjunctions join unequal elements. They join a clause that can’t stand alone (called a
subordinate or dependent clause) to a clause that can stand alone (called an independent clause).Look
at the following example,
1. We will discontinue research in this area unless the results of the experiment are promising.
The clause beginning with unless cannot stand alone; it is subordinate to, or dependent on, the
independent clause ‘We will discontinue research in this area. Unless is the subordinating conjunction
that links the two clauses.
1. The train arrived before we did.
Before we did is a dependent clause; it cannot stand alone. It depends on the independent clause the train
arrived. Before is the subordinating conjunction that links the clauses.
While you are writing paragraph you expected to maintain parallel construction when using coordinating
conjunctions and attach the subordinate clause independent clause.

1.5.3 Correlative conjunctions

They are like coordinating conjunctions except that they come in matched pairs: either…or, neither…nor,
both…and, not only…but also… and whether…or.
Examples
Neither AyehunorSiyoum go to the concert.
Both English group A and group B students have participated the meeting.

Relative pronouns
Relative pronouns are also used to combine sentences and it makes a given group of words or phrases
dependent when placed before them. Relative pronouns include: who, whom, which, whose, that, etc.
Examples

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 1. The man whom you met yesterday is my uncle.
 Whom you met yesterday – relative clause/whom-relative pronoun
 The man is my uncle – main clause/independent clause
2. Mr.Girma, who owns a restaurant, is waiting outside.
Who owns a restaurant –relative clause
Mr.Girma is waiting outside- main clause
Unit Two
2. Common Errors in Sentence Constructions
This sub topic is about how complete sentences are put together or the way words function within a
sentence.
2.1 Sentence fragment:

Fragment is the group of words missing one or more of the three elements required to make it a sentence:
a subject, a predicate, and grammatically a complete thought. Most sentence fragments are phrases, or
subordinate clauses, or combinations of the two...(Alamirew, 97)
Example:
1. Unless you want more coverage than the newspaper story. (fragment)
This is a subordinate clause. It is missing an independent clause that would complete the thought.
Unless you want more coverage than the newspaper story, we have made all the arrangements.
(Sentence)
When you write sentences beginning with subordinating conjunctions, make sure that you have an
independent clause following the subordinate clause.
Look at the following fragments with their error and revised version indicated in subscripted parenthesis.
1. Genealogy, the study of family history. (phrase)
2. Genealogy is the study of family history. (Verb added)
1. Although several large rivers have been cleaned up. (dependent clause)
2. Several large rivers have been cleaned up. (Subordinating conjunction although omitted)
1. The green fields humming with sounds of insects. (nouns and phrases – no main verb)
2. The green fields hummed with sounds of insects. (Modifier humming changed to verb hummed)
Activity
Write F by fragments, C by complete sentences and if there is fragment revise and make into
complete sentence.
1. Looking forward to a prosperous and fulfilling career.
2. Increasingly educators use computers for instrumental purposes.
3. Sixty miles from the nearest town.
4. Do not be late.

2.2 Comma Splice:

It can also be termed as comma fault, and occurs when a comma is used between two independent clauses
without a coordinating conjunction. (See more on run- on; 2.3). It is actually a special type of run-on
sentence in which a comma is used in place of a semicolon to join two independent clauses without a
conjunction.
A comma splice can be corrected by putting a semicolon in place of the comma or by adding a
conjunction after the comma.

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 1. Zelalem lives across the street, he has been there for years. Wrong
 Zelalem lives across the street; he has been there for25 years. Correct
 Zelalem lives across the street, and he has been there for 25 years.correct
2. Martha heads the search committee, John is the recorder. Wrong
 ___________________________________________________ correct
 ____________________________________________________correct
3. Sheleme gave demonstrations all summer long, here turned in the fall. Wrong:
 ___________________________________________________ correct
 ____________________________________________________correct
Activity
Correct the following comma fault sentence
Human nature is seldom as simple as it appears, hasty judgments are often wrong.
 _______________________________________________________________________________ (use period)
 __________________________________________________________________(use semicolon)
 ____________________________________________ (use a comma and a coordinating conjunction)
 ______________________________________________________ (use a subordinating conjunction) show relationship between two
independent sentences
2.3 Run-on sentences:

One of the most common mistakes with independent clauses is joining them without the proper
punctuation. This error is called a run-on sentence, fused sentence or comma splice if such sentences
connected by using comma. An independent clause standing alone should end in a period, question mark,
or exclamation point.
If you want to join independent clauses, however, you should use a semicolon or one of the seven
coordinating conjunctions between them. A comma should precede the coordinating conjunction, but a
comma without a conjunction is not sufficient.
Example:
1. He drove off in the Bicycle, Muluwatched him go.
This is a run-on sentence, or comma splice. A comma alone cannot join independent clauses. It can be
corrected as:
(1a). He drove off in the Bicycle. Muluwatched him go.
Here, the independent clauses are separate sentences. Each ends correctly with a period.
(1b). He drove off in the Bicycle; Muluwatched him go.
The two independent clauses are correctly joined with a semicolon.
(1c). He drove off in the Bicycle, and Muluwatched him go.
The two independent clauses are correctly joined with a coordinating conjunction (and) preceded by a
comma.
(1d). As he drove off in Bicycle, Muluwatched him.
One of the independent clauses changed into subordinating clause.
2. Endaylalu moved from Minneapolis her job was transferred.
3. The concert seemed unending it lasted almost until midnight.
4. We got some gas then we headed off to Omaha.
All the three examples above can be corrected quite easily in one of three ways:

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 1. By adding a period and capitalizing the first letter of the second sentence.



2. By joining the two independent clauses with a semicolon.



3. By adding a comma and a conjunction (and, but, or, for, nor, yet, so). Sometimes, you have to
change the order of the words.



4. By turning one of the independent clauses into a dependent clause. To do this, you need to add a
subordinating conjunction where it fits in the sentence. This can usually be done in two
different ways: by rewording the clauses or by using different subordinating conjunctions.




After we got some gas, we headed off to Hawassa.
We headed off to Hawassa after we got some gas.
Activity
Choose the answers that include only complete sentences. Watch for fragments as well as run-ons.
1. a. The puppy chewed on everything. And ruined my favorite shoes.
b. The puppy chewed on everything and ruined my favorite shoes.
2. a. Julie is a loyal friend. She helps whenever she is needed.
b. Julie is a loyal friend she helps whenever she is needed.
3. a. The car was in the garage we thought you were home.
b. The car was in the garage. We thought you were home.

2.4 Faulty Agreement(Subject-Verb agreement)

Agreement in sentences refers to matching between a subject and a verb in number and pronouns. This
means if the subject of a sentence is a singular noun, the verb must be in a singular form. Again the
pronouns that can be used instead of nouns must agree with the original noun in a sentence.
Examples
She play piano. Incorrect
She plays piano. Correct (the subject is 3rd person singular and it must take an-s after the verb)
Girma and Buze are in grade 12. He is learning in the same section. (incorrect)
Girmaand Buze are in grade 12. They are learning in the same section. (correct)

2.5 Faulty parallelism

Parallelism in sentences refers to matching grammatical structures. Elements in a sentence that have the
same function or express similar ideas should be grammatically parallel, or grammatically matched. A

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failure to create grammatically parallel structures when they are appropriate is referred to as faulty
parallelism. Notice the difference between correct parallel structure and faulty parallelism.
In your writing, nouns should be parallel with nouns, participles with participles, gerunds with gerunds,
infinitives with infinitives, clauses with clauses, and so on. For example:
1. What counts isn’t how you look but your behavior. (NOT PARALLEL)
What counts isn’t how you look but how you behave. PARALLEL
2. The president promises to reform health care preserve social security, and a balanced budget.
(NOT PARA)
The president promises to reform health care, to preserve social security, and to balance the
budget. PARALLEL
When your sentence includes a series, make sure that you have not used different grammatical structures
for the items.
1. He described skiing in the Alps, swimming in the Adriatic, and the drive across the Sahara Desert.
(Faulty parallel)
He described skiing in the Alps, swimming in the Adriatic, and driving across the Sahara Desert. (Parallel)
In the parallel version, all the elements in the series begin with gerunds: skiing, swimming, and driving. In
the nonparallel version, the final element is a noun but not a gerund. The elements would remain parallel
in the correct version even if the phrases following the gerunds were changed or omitted. The length of
the items in the series does not affect the parallel structure.
He described skiing, swimming in the Adriatic, and driving across the desert. (Parallel)
It doesn’t matter what grammatical structure you choose for your series as long as you remain with
it consistently. In general apply the following rules to avoid faulty parallelism:
When you use words such as to, a, an, his, her, or with their items in a series, you can use the word
with the first item, thus having it apply to all the items, or you can repeat it with each item.
However, if you repeat it, you must do so with all the items, not just some of them.
Example:
Eleanor liked to have a beer, exchange stories with her pals, and to watch the men walk by. (Not parallel)
a. Eleanor liked having a beer, exchanging stories with her pals, and watching the men walk by. (parallel)
b. Eleanor liked to have a beer, to exchange stories with her pals, and to watch the men walk by. (parallel)
When you have more than one verb in a sentence, be sure to make the verbs parallel by not shifting tenses
unnecessarily. Also, don’t shift from an active to a passive verb.
Example
i. Orkaido prepared the speech on the plane and delivered it at the conference.(Parallel: both verbs
are active)
Orkaido prepared the speech on the plane and it was delivered by her at the conference. (faulty
parallelism: active and passive verb). Sometimes sentences use a single verb form with two helping verbs.
Look at the following example.
Dochohas in the past and will in the future continue to support the measure. (incorrect)
To support belongs with will continue, but not with has. If you read the sentence without and will in the
future continue, you will see this immediately:
Docho has in the past to support the measure. Rewrite the sentence to include a participial form for has.
Docho has in the past supported, and will in the future continue to support, the measure. OR
Just as Robert has supported this measure in the past, he will continue to support it in the future.
To avoid faulty parallelism, use the following grammatical forms:

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 1. Use parallel constructions with coordinating conjunctions (and, but, for, etc.).
1. Sailing ships were stately (adj.) and made (verb) little noise. Not Parallel
Sailing ships were stately (adj.) and quiet (adj.). Parallel
2. The man of Literature read widely for understanding (n.), knowledge (n.), and he (pronoun) just liked
books. Not Parallel
The man of Literature read widely for understanding (n.), knowledge (n.), and pleasure (n.). Parallel
2. Repeat an article (the, a, an) a preposition (by, in, on, etc.), the sign of the infinities (to), and
other function words to clarify parallelism.
The artist was a painter and sculptor of marbles. (Unclear)
The artist was a painter and a sculptor of marbles. (Clear)
They passed the evening by eating and observing the crowds. (Unclear)
They passed the evening by eating and by observing the crowds. (Clear)
3. Use parallel constructions with correlatives (not only …. But also, either ….or, etc.)
1. Petroleum is used not only to make (infinitive) fuels but also in (preposition) plastics. Not Parallel
Not only petroleum is (verb)used in fuels but also in (prepo) plastics. Parallel
Petroleum is used not only in (prepo.) fuels but also in (prepo) plastics. Parallel
2. The speeches were either too long (adverb), or they (pronoun) were not long enough. Not Parallel
Either the speeches were too (adverb) long or too (adverb) short. Parallel
4. Use parallel constructions with and who ,and with and which etc
1. The position calls for a person with an open mind and who is cool headed. Not Parallel
The position calls for a person who is open minded and who is cool headed. Parallel
2. A new dam was built to control floods and that would furnish recreation. Not Parallel
A new dam was built to control floods and to furnish recreation. Parallel
A new dam was built that would control floods and that would furnish recreation.
Activity: Revise sentences with faulty parallelism
1. Abraham Deboch was a solder, an adventurer, and he wrote a book.
2. Floppy disks are coated with magnetic material, covered by a protective jacket, and are for use in
microcomputers.
3. Children generally like bubble gum because it is appealingly packed, sweet, and it lasts a long
time.
4. The common cold brings on the following symptoms: a scratchy through, a running nose, and you
are generally fatigued.
4.4.3 Dangling/Misplaced modifiers:

Dangling modifiers are similar to misplaced modifiers except that the modifier isn’t just separated from
the word it modifies; it is missing the word it modifies. The writer has the term being modified in mind—
but not on paper.
Example:
Having eaten dinner, the idea of a cheeseburger was unappealing. (Dangling modifier)
The dangling participle is the most notorious of the dangling modifiers. In this example, the participial
phrase “Having eaten dinner” has nothing to modify; it certainly is not modifying idea or cheeseburger.
One way to correct the problem is simply to add the missing word.
Having eaten dinner, I found the idea of a cheeseburger unappealing.
In the following example, the participial phrase Studying the lecture notes dangles.

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 Studying the lecture notes, the ecosystem became clear. (dangling modifier)
It doesn’t modify ecosystem. Rewrite the sentence.
The ecosystem became clear when I studied the lecture notes.
In the next sentence, the infinitive phrase To win the election is lacking a word to modify; it
cannot modify money.
To win the election, money is essential. (dangling modifier)
Rewrite the sentence to add an appropriate subject.
To win the election, a candidate needs money.
Eliminate a dangling construction by (1) Attaching modifiers clearly to the right word or (2) expanding
phrase into a subordinate clause.

Activity
Cover up the second clearly modified sentence for each activity. Try in your own to correct
dangling/flaccid/loose (opp-not firm) modifiers and then check you answer
1. Speeding down the hill, several slalom poles were knocked down by the skier.
Speeding down the hill, the skier knocked down several slalom poles.
2. After searching around the attic, a Halloween mask was discovered.
______________________________________________________________
3. To enter the house, the lock on the back door was picked.
_______________________________________________________________
4. After completing my house chores, the dog was fed.
_______________________________________________________________
5. While still sleepy and tired, the counselor lectured me on breaking rules.
________________________________________________________________
4.4.4 Misplaced modifiers:

Keep related parts of a sentence together to avoid the common mistake of a misplaced modifier. If it isn’t
clear in a sentence exactly which term a modifier applies to, it is a misplaced modifier.
Any kind of modifier can be misplaced: an adjective, an adverb, a phrase or clause acting as an adjective
or adverb. If you put a modifier in a place it doesn’t belong, you risk confusion, misreading awkwardness,
and even unintentional humor.
He saw a truck in the driveway that was red and black. (misplaced modifier)
If red and black are the colors of the truck rather than the driveway, write the sentence so that this is clear.
He saw a red and black truck in the driveway.
In the following sentence, the placement of the modifier by Friday leaves us with a question: Did we
know by Friday, or would we call for a strike by Friday?
We knew by Friday we would call for a strike. (Unclear modifier)
To avoid any possible confusion, add that.
We knew that by Friday we would call for a strike.
OR We knew by Friday that we would call for a strike. (depending on your meaning)
In these examples, the suggested rewritten versions are not the only possible ways to correct the problem.
Play around with your own sentences when you find confusing modifiers; you may not only correct the
problem but also improve the sentence by making it more concise or changing its emphasis.

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Among the most common misplaced modifiers are participial phrases. Beginning writers often overlook
whether the subject of the participial phrase is clear to the reader.
Advancing across the desolate plains, the hot sun burned the pioneers. (misplaced modifier)
If not the sun but the pioneers are advancing, make this clear.
Advancing across the desolate plains, the pioneers were burned by the hot sun.
OR The hot sun burned the pioneers advancing across the desolate plains. (if you want to avoid
the passive voice)
Activity:
Cover up the second clearly modified sentence for each activity. Try in your own to correct
misplaced modifiers and then check your answer
1. Even on a meager Sheriff’s salary, a family may have some comforts.
Even on a Sheriff’s meager salary, a family may have some comforts.
2. He admitted that he was the anonymous donor in the letter.
He admitted in the letter that he was the anonymous donor.
2.4.5 Faulty/out of order/ parallelism:

In sentences refers to matching grammatical structures. Elements in a sentence that have the same
function or express similar ideas should be grammatically parallel, or grammatically matched. A failure to
create grammatically parallel structures when they are appropriate is referred to as faulty parallelism.
Notice the difference between correct parallel structure and faulty parallelism.
In your writing, nouns should be parallel with nouns, participles with participles, gerunds with gerunds,
infinitives with infinitives, clauses with clauses, and so on. For example:
3. What counts isn’t how you look but your behavior. (NOT PARALLEL)
What counts isn’t how you look but how you behave. PARALLEL
4. The president promises to reform health care preserve social security, and a balanced budget.
(NOT PARA)
The president promises to reform health care, preserve social security, and balance the budget.
PARALLEL
When your sentence includes a series, make sure that you have not used different grammatical structures
for the items.
2. He described skiing in the Alps, swimming in the Adriatic, and the drive across the Sahara Desert.
(Faulty parallel)
He described skiing in the Alps, swimming in the Adriatic, and driving across the Sahara Desert. (Parallel)
In the parallel version, all the elements in the series begin with gerunds: skiing, swimming, and driving. In
the nonparallel version, the final element is a noun but not a gerund. The elements would remain parallel
in the correct version even if the phrases following the gerunds were changed or omitted. The length of
the items in the series does not affect the parallel structure.
He described skiing, swimming in the Adriatic, and driving across the desert. (Parallel)
It doesn’t matter what grammatical structure you choose for your series as long as you remain with it
consistently.
In general apply the following rules to avoid faulty parallelism:
 When you use words such as to, a, an, his, her, or with their items in a series, you can use the
word with the first item, thus having it apply to all the items, or you can repeat it with each item.
However, if you repeat it, you must do so with all the items, not just some of them.

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Example:
Eleanor liked to have a beer, exchange stories with her pals, and to watch the men walk by. (Not parallel)
a. Eleanor liked to have a beer, exchange stories with her pals, and watch the men walk by. (Parallel)
b. Eleanor liked having a beer, exchanging stories with her pals, and watching the men walk by. (parallel)
c. Eleanor liked to have a beer, to exchange stories with her pals, and to watch the men walk by. (parallel)
 When you are comparing things in a sentence, obviously parallelism will be important. Make sure
that the elements you are comparing or contrasting are grammatically parallel:
Example:
i. He spoke more of being ambassador than of being president. NOT
He spoke more of his term as ambassador than being president.
ii. The schools in the suburbs are better than the schools in the inner city .NOT
The schools in the suburbs are better than the inner city.
In the second sentence, schools are being contrasted to the inner city. What the writer wants to contrast
are schools in the suburbs with schools in the inner city. In antithetical constructions, something is true of
one thing but not another. But not and rather than are used to set up these constructions, and, as with
comparisons, both parts of an opposing construction should be parallel.
ii. The administration approved the student’s right to drop the class but not to meet with the
professor. NOT
The administration approved the student’s right to drop the class but not meeting with the
professor.
iii. The committee chose to table the motion rather than to vote on it. NOT
The committee chose to table the motion rather than voting on it.
 When you have more than one verb in a sentence, be sure to make the verbs parallel by not
shifting tenses unnecessarily. Also, don’t shift from an active to a passive verb.
iv. Orkaidoprepared the speech on the plane and delivered it at the conference.(Parallel: both verbs
are active)
Orkaido prepared the speech on the plane, and it was delivered by her at the conference. (faulty
parallelism: active and passive verb). Sometimes sentences use a single verb form with two helping verbs.
Look at the following example.
We can, and I promise we will, ensure that this does not occur. (correct)
This sentence is correct because both can and will are correct with the base verb ensure. But look at this
example.
Dochohas in the past and will in the future continue to support the measure. (incorrect)
To support belongs with will continue, but not with has. If you read the sentence without and will in the
future continue, you will see this immediately:
Docho has in the past to support the measure. Rewrite the sentence to include a participial form for has.
Docho has in the past supported, and will in the future continue to support, the measure. OR
Just as Robert has supported this measure in the past, he will continue to support it in the future.
To avoid faulty parallelism, use the following grammatical forms:

5. Use parallel constructions with coordinating conjunctions (and, but, for, etc.).
3. Sailing ships were stately (adj.) and made (verb) little noise. Not Parallel
Sailing ships were stately (adj.) and quiet (adj.). Parallel

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 4. The man of Literature read widely for understanding (n.), knowledge (n.), and he (pronoun) just liked
books. Not Parallel
The man of Literature read widely for understanding (n.), knowledge (n.), and pleasure (n.). Parallel
6. Repeat an article (the, a, an) a preposition (by, in, on, etc.), the sign of the infinities (to), and
other function words to clarify parallelism.
The artist was a painter and sculptor of marbles. (Unclear)
The artist was a painter and a sculptor of marbles. (Clear)
They passed the evening by eating and observing the crowds. (Unclear)
They passed the evening by eating and by observing the crowds. (Clear)
7. Use parallel constructions with correlatives (not only …. But also, either ….or, etc.)
3. Petroleum is used not only to make (infinitive) fuels but also in (preposition) plastics. Not Parallel
Not only is (verb) petroleum used in fuels but also in (prepo) plastics. Parallel
Petroleum is used not only in (prepo.) fuels but also in (prepo) plastics. Parallel
4. The speeches were either too long (adverb), or they (pronoun) were not long enough. Not Parallel
Either the speeches were too (adverb long) or too (adverb short. Parallel
8. Use parallel constructions with and who ,and with and which etc
3. The position calls for a person with an open mind and who is cool headed. Not Parallel
The position calls for a person who is open minded and who is cool headed. Parallel
4. A new dam was built to control floods and that would furnish recreation. Not Parallel
A new dam was built to control floods and to furnish recreation. Parallel
A new dam was built that would control floods and that would furnish recreation.

Activity: Revise sentences with faulty parallelism

1. Abraham Deboch was a solder, an adventurer, and he wrote a book
2. Floppy disks are coated with magnetic material, covered by a protective jacket, and are for use in
microcomputers.
3. Children generally like bubble gum because it is appealingly packed, sweet, and it lasts a long
time.
4. The performance was long, boring, and made everyone in the audience restless.
5. The common cold brings on the following symptoms: a scratchy through, a running nose, and you
are generally fatigued.
Check for faulty parallelism in your own writing. Nouns should be parallel with nouns, participles with
participles, gerunds with gerunds, infinitives with infinitives, clauses with clauses, and so on.
Self-Test Activities
I. Sentence Fragment
Read the following sentence fragments and identify what they lack. Then, complete them.
1. While they were walking ……
2. After she had finished her work ………
3. When I read my lecture notes ………
4. While we were learning English …….
5. If I were the administrator of the college …..

II. Correct the comma splice error in the following sentences.

1. If you need me you can see me, in my office.

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 2. Having completed her, work she left for home.
3. When the gusts arrived the villagers, received them enthusiastically.
4. Although his friends advised him he insisted, on marring the woman.
5. After the break out of the war the native people, migrated to the neighboring war-free
zones.
III. Correct the following run-on (fused) Sentences.
1. I saw the students around, none of them came to class.
2. They didn’t study hard that many of them failed in their exams.
3. She has applied for the post, she didn’t show up for the interview.
4. It was raining heavily, they continued their journey.
5. She always studies, doesn’t pass her exams.
IV. Correct the dangling modifiers in the following sentences.
1. Driving through the mountains, several bears were seen.
2. Riding my bicycle, a dog chased me.
3. After putting a worm on my hook, the fish began to bite.
4. Before exploring the desert, we replenished our water supply.
5. To write effectively, practice is necessary.
6. When a baby, my grandfather gave a silver cup.
V. Misplaced Modifiers
Rewrite the misplaced modifiers in the following sentences
I. Their marriage nearly was broken.
II. Almaz is my sister whom you saw with me this morning.
III. The car narrowly accident missed him.
IV. That I left in your office have you got the message?
V. The course has enabled us to write papers which we took in the first semester.
VI. Correct the Faulty Parallelism in the following sentences.
1. Abebe likes walking, swimming, and reads.
2. In the shop you could find leather jackets, fur coats, cotton t-shirts and trousers that are
beautiful.
3. In the coming five years, she has planned to marry, construct her own house and she has
decided to complete her education.
4. The dismissed workers were marching along the main street, chanting slogans,condemning
their boss and sang songs.
5. The students attended classes, did their home-work and they were going back home.

Chapter Three
Paragraph Writing

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3.1 Component of Paragraph
A paragraph is a unit of writing which develops one idea with a series of logically connected sentences.
Most paragraphs function as small essays themselves, each with a main topic (stated or implied) and
several related sentences that support it. (Nagari, 253; Alamirew, 158; Alemu, 26,)
How many paragraphs do you need in your paper? That depends on what you have to say. The idea that
an essay should consist of five paragraphs— an introduction, three paragraphs of examples, and a
conclusion—is much too rigid, though students first learning to write are sometimes taught this. You may
well have more than three examples or points to make, and you may have an example or point that
requires several paragraphs of development in it. Don’t limit yourself. Let your particular topic and
supporting points guide you in creating your paragraphs.
Topic, title or the subject, hook, topic sentence, supporting sentence, conclusion, and method of
paragraph development are the component of a paragraph. Among these the basic component are going to
be discussed as follows:
4.1.1 The Hook

What is hook in writing?__________________________________________________

A statement that can control or influence over a reader toward the material. It is statement which draws
the attention of the reader toward your work. It can be stated in form of question, general statement,
research findings, statistical data, and memorable quotation etc.
The electronic source entitled Time4Writing; explain the hook as follows:
Have you ever read a sentence that was so incredibly interesting, or mysterious, or thought-provoking,
that you just had to keep reading? Starting with a hook sentence is one of the best ways to start your
paragraph. It hooks your readers and leaves them wanting to learn more or it makes them wonder what
comes next. Try these suggestions for using hook sentences in your writing.
Start with a question. Asking your readers to think about the topic is a great way to get them ready to hear
more. It can be a simple question like, "Could it be?" Or it can be a more complex question like, "Why is
it that cats always land on their feet?"
Use descriptive words. Creating a picture in the reader’s mind can make him or her feel connected to
yourwriting. Use words that describe the scene you’re trying to create. For example, if you’re writing
about things you like to do in the winter, you can start with, "Jumping in big, slushy, icy puddles is
certainly on my list of favorite things to do in the winter, but nothing tops a snowball fight on a cold,
blustery day."
Leave it a mystery. Give your readers just enough to make them curious. Include a few details and leave
the rest to their imaginations. Try something like, "It was so noisy in our classroom that the walls began
to shake. We couldn’t have known what would happen next."
4.1.2 Topic sentence

What do we mean by topic sentence?______________________________________

The topic sentence of a paragraph carries the main theme (idea) of the paragraph. The most important
sentence in a paragraph is the topic sentence; around which the paragraph is built. In a good paragraph, all
sentences must relate to the topic sentence and support it. (Nagaraj,253)
A paragraph is usually constructed in two ways with the topic sentence first or the topic sentence last

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In topic sentence first, the hook comes first then followed by topic sentence supporting details comes after
the theme. In this case, the paragraph organization is from deductive-general to particular.
In topic sentence last, supporting details followed by topic sentence. In this case it inducts goes from
particular to general: details lead up to the topic sentence.
In general topic sentence can be anywhere in the paragraph, but most paragraphs are organized in form of
the above two forms.
The two paragraphs given below illustrate these two structures:
a) Topic Sentence First
Only certain kinds of birds are well suited to woodland life (2) most belong the large group of perching
birds. (3)A perching bird has three forward –pointing toes and one backward-pointing toe one each foot.
(4) This toe arrangement helps both feet grip twig and branch. (5) Perching birds ate well-designed to
spend their loves among the trees and feed on the food there. (Nagaraj,255)
Comment:
The first sentence (the topic sentence) talks about a type of bird that is suited to live in woodlands.
Sentences (2), (3) and (4) give reasons to support the topic sentence. Sentence (5) concludes the
paragraph. Not the use of so.
b) Topic Sentence Last
At first, the earth’s crust was made up of huge blocks of hard, solid rocks. The outer layers of these rocks
slowly broke up into smaller and smaller pieces. Finally, stones, pebbles and grains of sand were formed.
Many sorts of plants and animals lived and died on the surface of the Earth. Their remains mixed up with
the stones, pebbles and sand of the Earth’s crust to form soil. The outermost layer of the Earth’s crust is
soil. (Nagaraj, 255)
Comment:
Sentences 1-5 tell us how soil was formed. The last sentence, (6) is the topic sentence that explains the
constitution of the Earth’s crust. Note the use of the term Earth’s crust in sentence (1) and in sentence (6)
Note that in some other sources of teaching writing skill, there is the third way of constructing sentence.
That is writing the topic sentence in the middle, But in this beginner level of writing, focus only on the
two approaches presented in the above.
4.1.3 Supporting details

From the comment for the above two paragraphs, you have learned that a paragraph develops one theme.
The theme of the paragraph is commonly stated in the topic sentence. The other sentences in the
paragraph develop the idea stated in the topic sentence. Each sentence could in turn be followed by sub-
details. We call these the supporting details. The number of details and sub-details in paragraph depends
on how the writer wants to explain his idea, the nature of the message the writer wants to convey to the
reader and the kind of audience (reader) he has in mind when he writes.
The supporting sentence can be arranged in different ways:
Chronologically (by time): topic sentence followed by when events happened, from start to finish. In this
case topic sentence and details are organized in transitions of first, then, next, and finally. Narrative type
paragraph follows this pattern. To write a narrative paragraph, you simply tell a story with your topic
sentence as point. Use the five Whs and one H to construct your story. Who, what, when, where, why,
and how can help, you to include the details. Most narratives are organized chronologically by using
transitions such as first, then, and next. For example, you can write about your study plan, daily routines
and teaching routines.

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Consider the five Whs and one H when you are reading chronologically arranged narrative paragraph.
Directional words for sequencing the supporting sentence in chronological paragraph: First, then,
next….Spatially(by physical arrangement): topic sentence followed by where items are placed in relation
to one another. In this case the pattern is: topic sentence followed by details in here, there, next, across,
beyond. This way is common in writing descriptive paragraph.
Description paints a picture in words. It shows a reader something you have seen or heard or done.
From one extreme to another: topic sentence followed by most important or serious or funny sentence
to the least, or vice versa. In this approach topic sentence presented followed by supporting details
organized in most important next most, somewhat, and least.
Process: When we analyse a process, we explain how to do something, how something happened, or how
something works. We describe what comes first, second, or and so forth. State in the topic sentence what
the reader should be able to do or understand by the end of the paragraph. Explain the rest of the process
in reminder of the paragraph.
Classification/ Dividing method: It is a way of grouping items logically. Dividing is sorting into smaller
categories, and classifying is grouping items into a larger category. You can divide one category into
many, and classify many categories into one. The same items can be divided and classified in many
different ways. Classifying things in general and living things and non-living things can be taken as an
example.
Illustration: giving examples to make a point from experience, observation, reading or factual
description. For example if you write a paragraph about what you are doing recently can be an illustrative
paragraph development method.
What is organized in the supporting details further developed through methods presented under 4.1.5.
Read these methods of paragraph development and compare with the organization of supporting details in
given sample paragraphs.
4.1.4 Concluding sentence

It is sign for a reader that the paragraph is to be finished. It may restate what was raised as main idea, a
statement of the writer drawn from the evidences provided in the details or it may be the recommendation
for action to be taken.
4.2 Methods ofParagraph development
Good paragraphs provide enough information to demonstrate the ideas in their topic sentences. To
develop a paragraph, provide specific details, examples, or explanations that support the generalization
given in the topic sentence. Skilled writers move back and forth between generalizations and the specific
details that flesh out those generalizations … Under developed paragraphs are like undernourished
people: they are weak, unable to carry out their assigned tasks. Make sure your paragraph divisions come
with new units if thought and that you have fleshed out an idea appropriately before going to another idea.
To flesh out the main idea being presented in a paragraph, you can follow a number of different
traditional patterns of development. Often the topic sentence of the paragraph will suggests a logical
method of development. Although one pattern might dominate paragraph, most paragraphs use a
combination of patters. For example, a paragraph of comparison and contrast might use definitions, and
an explanation of process might employ narration. Use those patterns that help deliver your ideas most
effectively.( Watkins, 267, 270)
As you observed in the above sub topic of supporting details, Paragraphs can be developed through
narration, description, example, definition, analogy, comparison and contrast, cause and effect,

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classification and division, and process. Among these the following five are the methods selected for you
to practice develop paragraphs effectively.
While we develop a paragraph, the organization of a paragraph can be presented in one of the following
ways:
 Exemplification
Paragraphs in form of exemplification or exemplifying are provides definition or illustration.
Many topic sentences state generalizations that gain force with evidence and illustration. Proof can be
provided by extended example or by several short examples. Well-chosen examples can add interest and
vividness as well as proof, as can be seen in the following paragraph:
e.g. (this is an abbreviation meaning for example):
Linguistics may be defined as the science of language, for example, its structure, sound systems,
acquisition.
There are different ways of exemplifying. Look at the following sample sentences.
 Geology may be defined as the science of earth’s history as shown by its crust, rocks etc.
 Geography may be defined as the science of earth’s surface. It is concerned with the number of
features, particularly physical, climate and production.
From this you may understand that exemplification is commonly used throughout academic writing.
Read the following carefully and identify words that used to exemplify or to give examples of
something.
There are now over two thousand different languages in the world; an examination of them shows that
many of them belong to a group of related languages and some of these groups are very large, constituting
what we can call language families. An example such a family is the Semitic group of languages.
Examples of members of the family are Arabic and Hebrew.
As alternatives to the word examples in the paragraph like this one, we can use cases, instances, and etc.
Other commonly used verb forms and methods of expression in exemplified paragraph are:
Shown
Exemplified By ……
illustrated

Shows
X Exemplifies this
Illustrates
(Jordan, 1990: 41)
Activity
Now write exemplification paragraph by using the above structure and vocabulary aid
 Classification
Classification and dividing are related to comparing and contrasting. Classification stressed similarities or
common denominators; division (or analysis as it is sometime called) stressed differences. To show how
two or more things are related, despite their differences, and then to label that grouping is to classify. To
show how despite being part of the same group or class, two or more things are distinctive is to divide (or
analyze)

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When we divide something into groups, classes, categories, etc. we are classifying those items. The
classification is normally made according to a criterion or several criteria (standards or principles on
which judgments are based.)

Look at the following classifying paragraph about types of schools, birds, animals in general, drinks and
try to do activities guided by the concept of classification

Consists of …. whether or not … there is x …

x Comprises … according to … whether there is x or not …

According to…..
X may be On the basis of …..
classified Depending (up) on...
The classification is based (up) on ….

Note the possible sequence:

…. may be divided …
… may be sub-divided ….
… may be further sub-divided …
(Jordan, 1990: 446-47)

Cause and effect

Generally a paragraph of this kind states a condition or effect and the proceeds by listing and explaining
the causes. However, the first sentence may list a cause or causes and then conclude with the
consequence, the effect. In either method, the paragraph usually begins with a phenomenon that is
generally known and then moves on the unknowns. It requires careful critical thinking in searching for
connection and reasons. To understand the cause, you have to look the past for reasons why something is
the way it is.

In academic writing, events or actions are frequently linked with their cause and effect.
Comparison and Contrast
In the most academic subjects, and in life general, we often need to compare and contrast things.
Similarities and differences are often noted when classifying. The language of comparison and contrast
is frequently needed when studying tables and other statistical information.
Comparisons show similarities; contrasts present differences. The ratio of comparison and contrast can
vary greatly from one paragraph to another. You might write, for example, that two things have five
likenesses but only one or two differences. Or the reverse could be true.
Structures and vocabularies used in compare and contrast paragraph
Considerably
a great deal
(very) much smaller
(quite) a lot bigger
It is rather cheaper than ….
somewhat etc.
A little slightly

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 scarcely
hardly
only just

exactly
X is not entirely the same as….
quite

different in every way.

dissimilar respect.

X and Y are totally different.

 Definition
Definition is the process of explain a word, object, or idea in such a way that the reader knows as
precisely as possible what you mean. Whenever you are using a new word or a new meaning for an old
one, a definition explains a concept. It avoids the problem that arises when two people explains the same
term for different things. Effective definitions use specifics or demonstrate to demonstrate abstractions.
When we describe things we sometimes need to define them as well, especially in academic writing, so
that it is perfectly clear what we mean. We may also need to give examples of what we define, and to
classify. These will be covered in the following sections.
 Simple Definitions
If we look in dictionary for the word ‘school’ we may find: school is an institution where children are
educated.
More formally in writing we would put:
 A school is an institution where children are educated.
Look at these other examples:
 A doctor is a person who gives medical treatment to patients.
 Aluminum is a metal which is produced from bauxite.
Activity A
1. Complete the following sentences in the same way as the example above.
a. A college________________students receive higher or professional education.
b. Adentist________________________________treats people’s teeth.
c. Steel ___________________________________is produced from iron and carbon..
So far, in the definitions we have looked at, the language construction has been:

Thing to be defined + verb+ general class word+ ‘wh- ‘word + particular characteristics.
E.g. A botanist is a person who studies plants.
Three types of mistakes may occur when a short definition is being written.
1. An example may be given rather than a definition. An example may, of course, follow a
definition but it should not take its place.
2. The general class, or the particular characteristics, may be omitted from the definition. It will then
be incomplete.

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 3. The word to be defined, or another form of it, may be used in the definition itself. Clearly, if the
reader does not already understand the word, s/he will not understand the repeated use of the
word.
 Structure and vocabulary in defining paragraph
Frequently used verb tense for definitions:
Present Simple (Active and Passive)
Relative clauses are often used to quality or give extra information.
Useful verbs:

is concerned with
deals with
x relates to y
involves

4.3 Qualities of a good paragraph

A good paragraph has purpose target audience, unity, completeness, coherence, and variety.

4.3.1. Unity

A unified paragraph is one that focuses on one idea and one idea only. Look at the following example of
a paragraph that lacks unity.
Identification of particular genes can lead to better medicine. For example, recently scientists identified a
defective gene that appears to cause hemochromatosis, or iron overload. Iron overload is fairly easily
cured if it is recognized and treated early, but currently it is often misdiagnosed because it mimics more
familiar conditions. The problem is that when not treated in time, iron overload leads to a variety of
diseases, from diabetes to liver cancer. The identification of the faulty gene can prevent misdiagnosis by
allowing physicians, through a screening test, to identify patients who carry it and treat them before the
condition becomes too advanced. It is interesting that most people don’t realize the exact role of iron in
the body. They know that it is important for their health, but few are aware that only about ten percent of
the iron in food is normally absorbed by the small intestine. Most of the rest is tied up in hemoglobin,
which carries oxygen from the lungs.
The first sentence of the paragraph presents the main idea that identification of genes leads to improved
medical care. This idea is developed by the example of how the identification of a gene causing iron
overload can lead to better diagnosis and early treatment. In the italicized sentence the paragraph begins
to wander. It is a topic sentence for a different paragraph, one about the role of iron in the body and not
about a benefit of genetic research.
4.3.2 Coherence

Along with developing a single idea, a paragraph should be well organized. You can use many of the
same principles—chronology, inductive and deductive patterns, and so on—that you use to organize
complete paragraph or essays. Once you’ve decided on the order of your details, make sure the
connections between sentences in the paragraph are clear. For this purpose use transitional words and
phrases. These are the bridges or links between thoughts that show how one idea is related to another.
Transitions keep your paragraph from being choppy. The smooth, logical flow of a paragraph is called
paragraph coherence. Write each sentence with the previous one in mind.

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Some of methods transitions to have coherence are:
(a)repeating key words. This technique ties sentences together and helps guide readers through your
ideas. But too much repetition becomes boring, sometimes I think of a kaleidoscope, and other times I
think of a color wheeled that spins in slow motion can be an example for effective use of repetition.
(b)Pronouns. Replace nouns with pronouns to link your ideas, and keep your writing mobbing. For
example, I watch diggerent kinds of boats on the river. For instance, I see rowboats, sailboats, motor
boats, and freightliners. They look like toys because I am up so high.
Based on their function the cohesive devices classified as follows:
A) Showing addition
B) Showing result
C) Showing opposition
4.3.3 Variety

Varity in length and structure of sentences helps you avoid monotony and gain emphasis. Therefore,
avoid overuse of short simple sentences and overuse of long compound sentences. This can be achieved
by using various sentence structures.
As the Essentials of Grammar and composition (280) presented, the main ways of varying sentences in
word order can be observed in the use of the following sentence in different forms.
e.g.; Deer grazed peacefully in the valley, and were unaware of the advancing hunter.
Beginning with a prepositional phrase
In the valley the deer grazed peacefully and were unaware of the advancing hunter.
Beginning with a verbal phrase
Grazing peacefully, the Dear in the valley were unaware of the advancing hunter.
Beginning with Expletive
There were deer grazing peacefully in the valley, unaware of the advancing hunter.
Beginning with a subordinate clause
As they grazed peacefully in the valley, the deer were unaware of the advancing hunter.
Beginning with the coordinating conjunction
And the deer, grazing peacefully in the valley, were unaware of the advancing hunter.
But the deer, grazing peacefully in the valley, were unaware of the advancing hunter.
1.3.4 Adequate development (Completeness)

Not only the structure and vocabulary of the sentence in a paragraph but also the idea should be complete.
The thought or message of the paragraph should include the necessary information in relation to the
raised issue. According to Alamirew (166), this can be achieved by providing ample details, presenting
specific details ,(examples, and illustrations), complete the points of the theme( doesn’t make the reader
have unanswered questions in mind) winds up its points by supplying a concluding statement.
4.4 Writing a paragraph
4.4.1 Brainstorming
At the very beginning of the writing process, you choose a topic and decided on your purpose for writing
and who your audience was. Then you have to explore your topic by using one or more prewriting
techniques, such as free writing or brainstorming. Write the topic sentence and list what comes to your
mind as you ask yourself for example in terms of the wh- questions or in terms of features of each
paragraph type.

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4.4.2 Planning and outlining

First consider the feature of your paragraph type (out of the four major types). Then according to the
components of paragraph, you can outline. For example:
1. The hook
2. Topic sentence
3. Supporting details:
(1) _________________________________________
(2)__________________________________________
(3)____________________________________________
4. Conclusion
4.4.2 Making notes

Now you can write your short note under the above outline
4.4.3 Making a first draft

Now you can change the above outline into paragraph form. Note that it is possible to have further sub-
details.
4.4.4 Revising, re-drafting

After writing your fist draft, revise it based on the following editing guidelines.
4.4.5 Editing

When you are satisfied with your revision, apply the editing checklist. The following are the
guidelines:
1. The hook if possible 6. Unity: talking about one idea
2. Topic sentence your controlling idea7. Coherence
3. Supporting details 8. Punctuation
4. Method of development at least one type 9. Mechanics
5. Conclusion 10. Word choice and spelling
4.4.6 Writing a final version

Reread your paragraph and carefully rewrite it in standard paper and pen.
4.5 Free Paragraph writing Activity
Based on the above guidelines in writing paragraph, Practice Writing paragraphs. Your practice classified
under four major types of paragraph with some of its sub parts. Here we have some of the sample student
paragraphs. Consider them before you practice your own. Since most of the sample paragraphs are taken
from the high school and college students work, don’t accept them as perfect work. Therefore, critically
consider them in terms of theoretical aspects you have studied in this course.
4.5.1 Descriptive Paragraph

Descriptive paragraph can be process or procedure and physical description which informs about
something in the form of illustration.
1) Process and procedure

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A process paragraph is a series of steps that explain how something happens or how to make something.
It can explain anything from the way to enrich vocabulary to overcoming insomnia to the procedure of
operating a machine. It may also give tips for improving pronunciation or for answering a telephone call.
Because such explanations must be clear, the process paragraph must be written in chronological order,
and it must include a topic sentence that clearly states the paragraph’s purpose. It must also include
transition words and phrases such as “first,” “next,” “finally,” that connect each of the steps.
There are two kinds of process paragraphs: directional and informational. A directional process
paragraph explains the directions to perform a task. It provides the reader a set of instructions or a step-
by-step guidance. The following is an example of a directional process paragraph:
Activity
Write similar process type of descriptive paragraph. Note the verb forms used inand transitions
commonly used in process analysis. The possible topics can be how Ethiopian traditional coffee is
made, how bread or injera, tela, tej or any topic which you like most is made.
How-to clean and organize your room.
Here is the perfect system for cleaning your room. First, move all of the items that do not have a proper
place to the center of the room. Get rid of at least five things that you have not used within the last year.
Take out all of the trash, and place all of the dirty dishes in the kitchen sink. Now find a location for each
of the items you had placed in the center of the room. For any remaining items, see if you can squeeze
them in under your bed or stuff them into the back of your closet. See, that was easy!
2) Physical description
Activity A; in the following paragraph, observe how the writer moves clearly from a description of the
head of the clown(in sentences two, three, and four), to the body (sentences five, six, seven, and eight), to
the unicycle underneath (sentence nine). Notice also how the concluding sentence helps to tie the
paragraph together by emphasizing the personal value of this gift.
a/ A Friendly Clown
On one corner of my dresser sits a smiling toy clown on a tiny unicycle--a gift I received last Christmas
from a close friend. The clown's short yellow hair, made of yarn, covers its ears but is parted above the
eyes. The blue eyes are outlined in black with thin, dark lashes flowing from the brows. It has cherry-red
cheeks, nose, and lips, and its broad grin disappears into the wide, white ruffle around its neck. The clown
wears a fluffy, two-tone nylon costume. The left side of the outfit is light blue, and the right side is red.
The two colors merge in a dark line that runs down the center of the small outfit.
Surrounding its ankles and disguising its long black shoes are big pink bows. The white spokes on the
wheels of the unicycle gather in the center and expand to the black tire so that the wheel somewhat
resembles the inner half of a grapefruit. The clown and unicycle together stand about a foot high. As a
cherished gift from my good friend Tran, this colorful figure greets me with a smile every time I enter my
room.
4.5.2 Narrative

In narrative writing, an author has a chance to make his or her mark on the world by relating a story that
only he or she can tell. Whether it comes from a personal experience or is one that the writer has
imagined, the point of a narrative is to bring one's subject to life. By using sensory details, the five Ws and
H (who, what, where, when, why, and how), and basic story structure, any subject can be made exciting."

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"The barber was cutting our hair, and our eyes were closed--as they are so likely to be. . . . Deep in a
world of our own, he heard, from far away, a voice saying goodbye. It was a customer of the shop,
leaving. 'Goodbye,' he said to the barbers. 'Goodbye,' echoed the barbers. And without ever returning to
consciousness, or opening our eyes, or thinking, we joined in. 'Goodbye,' we said, before we could catch
ourselves. Then, all at once, the sadness of the occasion struck us, the awful dolor of bidding farewell to
someone we had never seen. We have since wondered what he looked like, and whether it was really
goodbye."
Read the following two paragraphs and consider the difference between informing as description
and narrative paragraph. Notice the structure, time sequence, date form, and verb forms used
A) Apollo 11 space mission
On July 16, 1969, the Apollo 11 spacecraft launched from the Kennedy Space Center in Florida. Its
mission was to go where no human being had gone before—the moon! The crew consisted of Neil
Armstrong, Michael Collins, and Buzz Aldrin. The spacecraft landed on the moon in the Sea of
Tranquility, a basaltic flood plain, on July 20, 1969. The moonwalk took place the following day. On July
21, 1969, at precisely 10:56 EDT, Commander Neil Armstrong emerged from the Lunar Module and took
his famous first step onto the moon’s surface. He declared, “That’s one small step for man, one giant leap
for mankind.” It was a monumental moment in human history!
4.5.3 Expository

An expository paragraph informs the reader on a subject. It provides information. Expository paragraphs
are found in the books that you read for school or the instructions that you read when trying to repair
something on your house.
There are many different kinds of paragraphs that provide information. The three main types of
expository paragraphs that we will explore here are...
 informative
 cause and effect
 comparison / contrast
No matter what form an expository paragraph takes, the writer focuses on presenting factual information
and being objective. This type of paragraph is usually written from a third-person point of view; however,
if you want to use a first-person perspective, that might be okay; but check with your teacher first, or
consider the reason why you are writing the paragraph. The use of the first-person can be a bit distracting
from the subject at hand, and it might reveal a bias.
The first example will be of a paragraph that is informative. This type of a paragraph might explain a
process, describe a category, or provide a long definition of something that is complicated. The sample
paragraph below explains that Canada is a bilingual country.
English is the language spoken throughout most of Canada, but in Quebec, the most populated province,
and in areas near Quebec, French is the first language. Because of this, Canadians recognize French and
English as official languages that are used in business and government. Many people are bilingual and
easily go from French to English and vice versa when speaking with tourists. The farther west you go, the
more English you'll hear, but it is common to meet people throughout the country who are familiar with
both languages.
This paragraph focuses on facts and avoids sounding judgmental.
1. Definition
Activity A

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Read the following definition and compare it with the structure and language construction used with the
theoretical aspects of definition under method of paragraph development
An ammeter is used to measure electric current.
What it missed from the structure? How about the next definition of the same term?
An ammeter is an instrument which is used to measure electric current.
2. Cause and Effect
A cause and effect paragraph explains why the action of one thing (the cause) produces a result (the
effect). In this example, the first-person is used.
Cause/effect paragraphs generally follow basic paragraph format. That is, they begin with a topic
sentence and this sentence is followed by specific supporting details. For example, if the topic sentence
introduces an effect, the supporting sentences all describe causes.
3. Comparison and Contrast

A comparison-contrast paragraph compares two things. The differences can be large or small, depending
on the goals of the writer.
Comparison Paragraphs Organized by Subtopic
Another way of organizing a comparison is not according to supporting details that are similar, but
according to subtopic. (A subtopic is a main example, or main supporting idea, that illustrates the topic
sentence of a paragraph. For more about supporting details, That is, we can organize the paragraph by
first discussing all the relevant points associated to one subtopic, then discussing those of the second
subtopic
Contrast Paragraphs
As mentioned above, a contrast paragraph discusses the differences between (at least) two things. You
can organize contrast paragraphs in much the same way that you can organize comparison paragraphs.
That is, you can organize them either according to points of similarity or according to subtopic.
4. Problem solving
Problem / solution paragraph presents a problem and describes two or more possible solutions to that
problem.
While writing a problem-solution paragraph, there are several steps to follow:
1. State and define the problem: Briefly, clearly, and simply explain what the problematic issue is and
why it should be treated as a problem.
2. Suggest the possible solutions: Present the reader with at least two possible solutions to the problem.
The solutions should be acceptable, realistic, reliable and mutually exclusive. Otherwise, there is no point
in suggesting them as solutions.
3. Evaluate the solutions: Discuss the advantages (strengths) and the disadvantages (weaknesses) of the
solutions. Your aim is to make your reader understand why one solution is better than the other(s).
However, keep in mind that your solutions should be effective; otherwise, you wouldn't have suggested
them in the first place.
4. Make a recommendation: If you think that one of the solutions is better than the other(s), state
directly which of the solutions in your opinion is better (the best) and why. You may also suggest that
solutions be implemented together to overcome or prevent a problem.
4.5.4 Argumentative

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The purpose of arguing is to persuade your readers to make some action or to think or feel a certain way.
For this purpose you have to choose a topic that has more than one side to it, and state your position in the
topic sentence. Your topic must be a debatable issue, one that has no clear-cut answer. Then, in your topic
sentence, state your point of view and prepare your reader fit the evidence you will offer.

Argumentative and persuasive paragraphs are similar but in your advanced courses in writing skill you
may realize the difference. Read the following two paragraphs in form of persuasion and argument
respectively.
Persuade: to buy tickets to the school fair.
The school fair is right around the corner, and tickets have just gone on sale. We are selling a limited
number of tickets at a discount, so move fast and get yours while they are still available. This is going to
be an event you will not want to miss! First off, the school fair is a great value when compared with other
forms of entertainment. Also, your ticket purchase will help our school, and when you help the school, it
helps the entire community. But that’s not all! Every ticket you purchase enters you in a drawing to win
fabulous prizes. And don’t forget, you will have mountains of fun because there are acres and acres of
great rides, fun games, and entertaining attractions! Spend time with your family and friends at our school
fair. Buy your tickets now!
Argue: why my neighbor should attend the school fair.
The school fair is right around the corner, and tickets have just gone on sale. Even though you may be
busy, you will still want to reserve just one day out of an entire year to relax and have fun with us. Even if
you don’t have much money, you don’t have to worry. The school fair is a community event, and
therefore prices are kept low. Perhaps, you are still not convinced. Maybe you feel you are too old for
fairs, or you just don’t like them. Well, that’s what my grandfather thought, but he came to last year’s
school fair and had this to say about it: “I had the best time of my life!” While it’s true you may be able to
think of a reason not to come, I’m also sure you can think of several reasons why you must come. We
look forward to seeing you at the school fair!
Activity B
Take one of the following topics or any other debatable topic you like and Write similar
argumentative paragraph. You can write both in for or against the topic. Notice the component
parts of the paragraph.
1. Chewing chat should be banned
2. Abortion should be legal
3. Technology is harmful to man
Unit Summary
Under this unit you have seen the basic aspects in paragraph writing. These are component parts of a
paragraph, methods of paragraph development, and qualities of a good paragraph. Finally based on these
theoretical aspects, you have examined sample paragraphs and practiced writing your own paragraphs.
We hope that by now you have gained fundamental information and developed basic skills in paragraph
writing based on these theoretical aspects. Now check yourself through the following aspects in paragraph
writing.
Read the following narrative paragraph and Evaluate in terms of the five components of a
paragraph
My Most Embarrassing Moment
The most embarrassing moment of my sophomore year was how I earned my nick name, Crash. It all
started right after school when I turned on to the busiest street by the school. First I pulled up right behind

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this truck at a stop sign. After a second, a fellow older student told me that I was really close and that I
was going to hit the truck in front of me. At the moment I was trying to tell the kid that I was giving a ride
to get back in the car because he was hanging out the window. Since I was distracted, I thought the long
line of traffic had started to move, but it hadn’t. In the blink of an eye I hit the back of the truck in front of
me. The devastation sunk in. I was so worried that I damaged the truck, but all that I did was scratch his
bumper. Lucky for him! Then it came time to look at my car. My car was ruined. The hood was buckled,
the front end was pushed back, and my headlights were broken. Humiliated and scared, I still had to drive
my totaled car home. During School that year, I never did hear the end of what had happened that day.
(~© Tiffany Haggerty~)
1. The hook
2. Topic sentence
3. Supporting details
4. Conclusion
5. Method of paragraph development
Read the following expository paragraph and write some of the features/components of exposition
employed in the text.
My Best friend
Almaz is my best friend for many reasons.(1) First, she is always helpful.(2) After I had a baby,
I was really tired, so she came over to hold Cameron while I took a nap. (3) Also, she is a good
listener (2). Whenever I have a problem she hears my worries and helps me decide what to do.
(3) Finally, she is funny (2)! Almaz always tells the most hilarious jokes that make me laugh.
All in all,(3)I couldn’t ask for a better friend than Almaz. (4)

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